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well known, but the presence of fisheries also has an array of impacts on marine predators that not only rely on the species harvested but also on the "bycatch" species. Fisheries harvesting species such as the sandeel, one of the main food source for kittiwakes in Europe, are known to have a huge impact of the reproductive success of local populations kittiwakes and other seabirds. Long-term research on the effect of food availability on kittiwakes in the Gulf of Alaska showed a direct correlation between food availability and reproductive success, using a supplemental-feeding experiment. Seabirds can also be a direct victim of fisheries. Their tendency to hang around them in hope of a good meal can lead to entanglements in fishing gear, often resulting in death by drowning.
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reddish legs, inviting confusion with red-legged kittiwake. The inside of their mouth is also a characteristic feature of the species due to its rich red colour. Such red pigmentation is due to carotenoids pigments and vitamin A which have to be acquired through their diet. Studies show that integument coloration is associated with male's reproductive success. Such hypothesis would explain the behavior of couples greeting each other by opening their mouth and flashing their bright mouth it to their partner while vocalizing. As their Latin name suggests, they only possess three toes since their hind toe is either extremely reduced or completely absent. The two subspecies being almost identical,
545:, the juveniles differ from the adults in having a black 'W' band across the length of the wings and whiter secondary and primary feathers behind the black 'W', a black hind-neck collar and a black terminal band on the tail. They can also be identified due to their solid black bill. This plumage is a hatch-year plumage and will only remain for their first year. Kittiwakes obtain their mature plumage at 4 years old, but will gradually change their juvenile plumage over time until maturity is reached. A second-year juvenile resembles a hatch-year regarding the plumage, though the bill is no longer solid black but instead has a greenish color. The black marking on the
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keep the eggs from rolling out of the nest. Finally, the nest is lined with soft and dry material such as moss, grass or seaweed. The nest is solidified by a continuous trampling of the materials by the pair. Throughout this period, the male will do courtship feeding by feeding the female at their nest site. The reasons for such behavior are not quite understood but many hypotheses have been brought up to explain the phenomenon. Hypothesis such as the "nutrition hypothesis" and the "copulation enhancement hypothesis" have shown evidence that this behavior evolved either through natural or sexual selection.
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14,600,000-15,700,000 individuals and is in constant decline. The individual distribution of kittiwakes across the world varies quite a bit, with Europe representing more than 50% of the world's kittiwake and North
America representing only 20%. In their recent species assessment, the IUCN Red List pointed out that all but one populations of kittiwakes were in decline, with the exception of the small Canadian arctic population that seems to be increasing at a rate of 1% per year. The last IUCN Red List report in 2017, the species was moved from "least concern" to a "vulnerable" status on a global scale.
879:, along with other cities in the far north of Norway, has experienced a remarkable increase in the number of kittiwakes choosing to utilize city structures as nesting sites. This rise in urban nesting populations has seen the number of pairs skyrocket from a mere 13 to over 380 between 2017 and 2022. Researchers attribute this climate change related breeding failures, along with the absence of natural predators in the city, providing a safer environment for the gulls to breed and raise their young. The increasing nesting population has created challenges, as the gulls produce vast amounts of
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42:
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111:
932:. With the rising the sea surface temperature, many fishes, such as sandeels, are negatively affected by a rise in ocean temperature. Studies show that sandeels and many copepods populations are being negatively impacted due to increasing sea surface temperature. Such effect on marine species can have tremendous impact on breeding kittiwakes which rely almost exclusively on pelagic fishes, making food more scarce in a time of high energetic needs.
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237:
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1023:
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853:(guillemot) and tern population, completely failed to reproduce successfully due to a collapse in sandeel stock. Like most gulls, kittiwake forage at the surface of the water where they tend to catch their prey while in flight or sitting on the water. Throughout winter, kittiwakes spend all of their time at sea where they forage. Unlike some gull species, they do not scavenge at landfills.
652:
copulation, the female will often vocalize by making a series of short high pitched "squeak". This call is also used by the female to beg for food from the male (courtship feeding). When predators are around, the kittiwake alarm call, an "oh oh oh oh" will be heard all across the colony. Kittiwake will vocalize all day for various reasons and will only stop when the sun is down.
2016:
726:. Kittiwakes are colonial nesters that form monogamous pairs and exhibit biparental care, meaning that both take part in nest building, incubation and chick rearing. They tend to nest in large numbers on cliffs by the sea side. It breeds in large colonies on cliffs and is very noisy on the breeding ground. Cliff nesting for gulls occurs only in the
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alternate days. The eggs' color varies quite a bit, ranging from white, brownish to turquoise with dark brown speckles. Once the eggs are laid, the parents will take turns and incubate their clutch for an average period of 27 days. In case of egg loss, the female might relay another egg within 15 days after the loss.
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is becoming a serious concern, affecting not only the marine flora and fauna but also the species exploiting the marine environment. Kittiwake are extremely sensitive to variation in food stocks. Such variations can be due to over exploitation, as mentioned above, but can also be due to variations in
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Building the nest in order to welcome their fragile eggs is a tedious task and requires time and energy. The parents begin with a layer of mud and grass in order to form a platform that will cushion and help to isolate the eggs from the cold ground. A cup is then built around the platform in order to
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and can be differentiated from its counterpart by its red legs, as the name suggests. The head of the red-legged kittiwake is slightly smaller and bears a shorter bill. The chicks of the
Pacific black-legged kittiwake and red-legged kittiwake cannot be distinguished during their youngest downy phase.
517:
The adult is 37–41 cm (15–16 in) in length with a wingspan of 91–105 cm (36–41 in) and a body mass of 305–525 g (10.8–18.5 oz). It has a white head and body, grey back, grey wings tipped solid black, black legs and a yellow bill. Occasional individuals have pinky-grey to
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ones. Kittiwakes are almost exclusively found at sea with the exception of the breeding period, from May to
September, where they can be found nesting on the sheerest sea cliffs. They are rarely found inland, though they have been reported on few instances as far as 20 km inland. For the rest of
701:
Kittiwake are known for their graceful flight. Unlike larger gulls, their flight is light with the wings beating in fast strokes. When looking at them flying around the colony, kittiwakes often look as if they are playing in the wind with their agile flips and loops. Kittiwakes are highly gregarious
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The foraging style of the kittiwakes is often compared to the terns' foraging strategy due to their frequent hovering and their head diving quickly at the surface of the water. Instances of kittiwakes following whales are also common since they benefit from the fish fragments expelled by these huge
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and the tail is still visible. The black marking will only molt during their third year, where the black is no longer present on the coverts, but the grey smudge on the head remains. A third-year bird will also exhibit a small zone of bright yellow/orange at the base of its mostly greenish bill. It
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Since the kittiwakes are fish specialist and tend to rely on prey species, their reproductive success highly depends on fish availability. Commercial fisheries have been known to have many direct and indirect impacts on their surrounding ecosystem. Direct impacts on the fish species themselves are
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and squids in their diet, especially when fish is harder to find. Due to their wide range, kittiwake diet is quite variable. In the Gulf of Alaska, their diet is usually composed of
Pacific capelin, Pacific herring, Pacific sand land and much more. Kittiwakes of the coast of the United Kingdom, in
820:
The downy plumage of chicks start to be replaced by the juvenile plumage only five days after hatching and will continue to do so for about 30 days, until the juvenile plumage is complete. It is not long after the completion of their juvenile plumage that the chicks will have their first flight at
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gulls for obvious safety reasons. Regardless of predation, the chicks are most vulnerable within their first week due to their incapacity to properly thermoregulate during that period. Kittiwake chicks also exhibit siblicide, meaning that the first-born chick may kill its sibling in order to avoid
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Kittiwakes are a frequent encounter of fisheries in northern regions. Their diet consisting almost exclusively of fish, fishermen tend to seek large aggregation of seabirds since they are often a sign of fish abundance. On the other hand, kittiwake and other seabirds hang around fishing boats or
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To address these challenges, innovative measures have been implemented in Tromsø. One such initiative involves the establishment of "Kittiwake hotels," which are artificial bird cliff-structures built to encourage nesting away from urban facades. The hotels have, along with mitigation measures
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Kittiwakes are single-brooded, meaning that the pair will only reproduce once per year. Egg formation within the female usually takes around 15 days and normal egg clutch size ranges from one to two sub-elliptical eggs, though three eggs clutches are not impossible. The female will lay eggs on
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The kittiwake is named after its call that resembles a long "kit-ti-wake". Apart from their typical call, kittiwakes have a wide array of vocalization. Their greeting call is used by the two members of a pair when meeting at the nest after an absence of one or both members. Before and during
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side from Alaska to the coast of
Siberia. Black-legged kittiwakes' wintering range extends further south from the St-Lawrence to the southern coast of New Jersey as well as in China, the Sargasso sea and off the coast of west Africa. There are two subspecies of black-legged kittiwake.
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Black-legged kittiwake gulls traditionally prefer nesting on natural cliffs and ledges, and there are historically few instances of kittiwakes nesting on man-made structures. In recent years, a shift in nesting behavior has been noted, particularly in the coastal areas of
Northern
900:
Since the 1970s, it has been believed that the global population of black-legged kittiwake has declined of about 40% in only three generations (one generation is in average 12.9 years), putting the species in a dangerous place for the future. The global population is estimated at
940:
There are still no global conservation plans for the black-legged kittiwake though the species is closely monitored for population trends shifts. There are currently no international legislations regarding this species. However, the black-legged kittiwake is protected under the
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marine mammals. Fishers and commercial fishing boats are also the frequent witnesses of big groups of kittiwakes, often mixed with other gull species and terns, hovering around their ship in order to benefit from the scraps rejected in their sewage water or thrown overboard.
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that has been ratified by the US, Canada, Mexico, Russia and Japan. As for many gull species, the kittiwake is not a species of special interest for the public, therefore there are no education plans put in place in order to inform and educate people regarding this species.
2065:
1397:
Leclaire, Sarah; White, Joël; Arnoux, Emilie; Faivre, Bruno; Vetter, Nathanaël; Hatch, Scott A.; Danchin, Étienne (2011-9). "Integument coloration signals reproductive success, heterozygosity, and antioxidant levels in chick-rearing black-legged kittiwakes".
57:
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34–58 days old. Chicks will come back to the nest for several weeks after hatching and will eventually follow the adults at sea where they spend the winter. Kittiwakes reach sexual maturity at around 4–5 years old.
1965:
Sandvik, H; Reiertsen, Tk; Erikstad, Ke; Anker-Nilssen, T; Barrett, Rt; Lorentsen, Sh; Systad, Gh; Myksvoll, Ms (2014-06-17). "The decline of
Norwegian kittiwake populations: modelling the role of ocean warming".
1840:
Frederiksen, Morten; Wanless, Sarah; Harris, Michael P.; Rothery, Peter; Wilson, Linda J. (2004). "The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes".
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platforms to collect scraps or any fish that might have been left out. Due to the kittiwake pelagic lifestyle, they rarely interact with humans on the land, other than occasional sight near the ocean's coast.
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There are few studies focussing on their water needs, though they seem to prefer salt water to fresh water. Captive kittiwakes are known to refuse fresh water but will willingly drink salt water.
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327:. The English name is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'. In North America, this species is known as the black-legged kittiwake to differentiate it from the
1931:
Frederiksen, M; Edwards, M; Mavor, Ra; Wanless, S (2007-11-22). "Regional and annual variation in black-legged kittiwake breeding productivity is related to sea surface temperature".
1706:
Helfenstein, Fabrice; Wagner, Richard H.; Danchin, Etienne; Rossi, Jean-Marc (2003-05-01). "Functions of courtship feeding in black-legged kittiwakes: natural and sexual selection".
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competition for food from their parents. If siblicide is to occur, it will most likely occur within the first 10 days of life of the smaller chick, in most cases the last born.
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Kittiwake pairs both participate in building the nest in which the female will lay their eggs. The breeding season begins in mid-June and usually end in August.
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1873:
Gill, Verena A.; Hatch, Scott A. (2002). "Components of productivity in black-legged kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla: response to supplemental feeding".
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The black-legged kittiwake is a coastal bird of the arctic to subarctic regions of the world. It can be found all across the northern coasts of the
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In New
England, the black-legged kittiwake is often called the "winter gull" since its arrival often signals to people that winter is coming.
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1535:
1245:
1237:
1233:
806:. The egg tooth usually disappear after seven days post-hatching. The alpha and beta chicks tend to hatch 1.3 days apart. Kittiwake are born
526:. In winter, this species acquires a dark grey smudge behind the eye and a grey hind-neck collar. The bill also turns a dusky-olive color.
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2913:
2838:
810:. The downy young of kittiwakes are white, since they have no need of camouflage from predators, and do not wander from the nest like
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Systema
Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis
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species, and the kittiwake is capable of utilizing the very sheerest of vertical cliffs, as is evident in their nesting sites on
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preventing nesting on the city's structures, had success in attracting kittiwakes without having a negative impact on breeding.
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2155:
356:
317:
226:
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883:-smelling feces, discoloring buildings and streets, as well as the noise pollution generated by their constant vocalizations.
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as northern Europe but this has been restricted to Great
Britain. The black-legged kittiwake is now placed together with the
3193:
2957:
1682:
Neuman, J.; Chardine, J. W.; Porter, J. M. (1998). "Courtship Feeding and Reproductive Success in Black-Legged Kittiwakes".
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meaning "three-toed". The English name "kittiwake" is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'.
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is only at four years old that the bill will reach an overall colour of bright yellow and complete its mature plumage.
3100:
2760:
2020:
1073:
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Pennington, M.G.; Bainbridge, I.P.; Fearon, P. (1994-04). "Biometrics and primary moult of non-breeding Kittiwakes
1381:
1194:
3009:
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1577:), version 2.0. In The Birds of North America (A. F. Poole, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.
994:
529:
Since kittiwakes winter at sea and rarely touch ground during this period, very little is known about their exact
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110:
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929:
655:
379:
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Hatch, Scott A.; Hatch, Martha A. (1990-08-01). "Breeding seasons of oceanic birds in a subarctic colony".
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It is a coastal breeding bird around the north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans, found most commonly in
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birds. Their main food source consists of fish, though it is not unlikely to find invertebrates such as
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434:
383:
328:
1763:
Threlfall, William (1972-10). "The breeding biology of the Black-Legged Kittiwake in Newfoundland".
1037:
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681:
451:
437:; Canadian high Arctic (northeast Canada), Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland (southeast Canada)
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75:
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429:, 1758) – high Arctic to temperate north coasts, from Greenland, Iceland, west, northwest Europe,
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1160:(in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 136.
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The old fisherman's name of "tarrock" for juvenile kittiwakes is still occasionally used.
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446:, 1884 – high Arctic to temperate north coasts, from northeast New Siberian Islands to
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the year, kittiwake spend most of their time on the wing out of sight from the coast.
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17:
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Hatch, S. A., G. J. Robertson, and P. H. Baird (2009). Black-legged Kittiwake (
1180:. Vol. 2. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 325.
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849:. In 2004, the kittiwake population in the Shetland islands, along with the
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are recognised. These are listed below together with their breeding ranges.
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876:
2133:
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2015:
1615:
Benjaminsen, Sigurd; Reiertsen, Tone Kristin; Jacobsen, Karl-Otto (2022).
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Chicks usually hatched through the larger end of the egg using their
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and therefore are rarely seen flying alone far away from the colony.
132:
67:
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1979:
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1617:"Urban kittiwakes in Tromsø. Effects of facilitation and mitigation"
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juveniles although the kittiwakes' plumage has more black on the
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152:
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1100:
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The juvenile black-legged kittiwake can be confused with the
639:
1807:
Heubeck, Martin (17 April 2019). "Black-legged Kittiwake (
1334:
1621:
NINA Report 2235. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
2316:
Vega gull (or East Siberian gull / Mongolian gull)
400:
word "rita" for a black-legged kittiwake. The specific
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that was introduced in 1826 by the English naturalist
331:, but in Europe, where it is the only member of the
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family Laridae. This species was first described by
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Native birds of the West Coast of the United States
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2548:
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2512:
2431:
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522:is in general slightly larger than its counterpart
1662:. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 159.
1660:Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds
1519:
1261:
1130:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694497A155617539.en
688:and a different pattern going across the coverts.
1658:Baichich, Paul J.; Harrison, Colin J. O. (2005).
1610:
1608:
1504:. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada. p. 186.
1329:BirdLife International (2019) Species factsheet:
1828:. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 19.
1794:Kaufman, Kenn (2017). "Black-legged Kittiwake".
1600:Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns
1446:Life histories of North American Gulls and Terns
2190:(† indicates a species confirmed to be extinct)
1917:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2089:- USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
1363:. New York: Garden City Publishing. pp. 39–40.
1203:"Noddies, gulls, terns, skimmers, skuas, auks"
49:Adult black-legged kittiwake in Vardø, Norway
2149:
1299:del Hoyo, J; Elliott, A; Sargatal, J (1996).
479:, from Canada to Greenland as well as on the
8:
1602:. London: Dover Publications Inc. pp. 49–51.
1230:The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names
1448:. London: Dover Publication Inc. pp. 36–48.
488:can be found on the Atlantic coast whereas
466:islands and west, southwest Alaska mainland
2648:
2368:Great black-headed gull (or Pallas's gull)
2156:
2142:
2134:
2126:
2093:Audio recordings of Black-legged kittiwake
2044:
235:
84:
54:
40:
31:
3260:Native birds of the Eastern United States
1915:U.S. Department of Commerce. "Seabirds".
1303:. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 622–623.
1301:Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol. 3
1128:
654:
555:
365:. He placed with the gulls in the genus
2919:black-legged-kittiwake-rissa-tridactyla
1090:
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672:is the only other species in the genus
2469:Grey-headed gull (or grey-hooded gull)
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1232:. London: Christopher Helm. pp.
1209:. International Ornithologists' Union
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7:
3207:3BBE68BD-6169-4893-BE8F-358B52AD4B7F
2883:65a1057f-9af9-4145-9028-42431ad85fa7
2066:Black-legged kittiwake photo gallery
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1282:participating institution membership
599:295–322 mm (11.6–12.7 in)
1813:Joint Nature Conservation Committee
1116:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
923:With global warming, the rising of
1079:Capture of individuals for tagging
609:124–136 mm (4.9–5.4 in)
351:in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist
25:
1887:10.1034/j.1600-048X.2002.330201.x
943:Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918
3230:IUCN Red List vulnerable species
2014:
1855:10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00966.x
1207:IOC World Bird List Version 14.1
1177:Check-List of Birds of the World
1105:BirdLife International (2019) .
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956:
659:Black-legged kittiwake in flight
629:32–36 mm (1.3–1.4 in)
619:33–39 mm (1.3–1.5 in)
569:410–460 mm (16–18 in)
109:
2110:Field Guide: Birds of the World
2027:BirdLife species factsheet for
492:is found on the Pacific coast.
347:The black-legged kittiwake was
2053:"Black-legged kittiwake media"
1933:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1826:Birder's Conservation Handbook
499:, the kittiwakes are the most
1:
1999:U.S Fish and Wildlife Service
1997:"Migratory Bird Treaty Act".
1482:10.1080/03078698.1994.9674069
1028:At the Norwegian bird-island
396:. The genus name is from the
2068:at VIREO (Drexel University)
1919:. Retrieved October 9, 2019.
1815:. Retrieved October 8, 2019.
1468:in Liverpool Bay, England".
1359:Pearson, T. Gilbert (1936).
335:, it is often known just as
3275:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
1824:Well's, Jeffrey V. (2007).
1798:. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
1725:Canadian Journal of Zoology
1526:. New York: Knopf. p.
490:Rissa tridactyla pollicaris
486:Rissa tridactyla tridactyla
3296:
1843:Journal of Applied Ecology
1382:Cornell Lab of Ornithology
1228:Jobling, James A. (2010).
2627:
2084:Black-legged kittiwake -
2072:Interactive range map of
1522:The Sibley Guide to Birds
1500:Godfrey, W. Earl (1966).
1412:10.1007/s00114-011-0827-7
1269:Oxford English Dictionary
1123:: e.T22694497A155617539.
829:Kittiwakes are primarily
714:Adult in breeding plumage
589:910 mm (36 in)
558:
378:. Linnaeus specified the
270:
263:
243:
234:
211:
204:
106:Scientific classification
104:
82:
73:
65:
53:
48:
39:
34:
2331:Lesser black-backed gull
2259:Kelp gull (or Cape gull)
2058:Internet Bird Collection
1875:Journal of Avian Biology
1374:"Black-legged kittiwake"
1201:, eds. (December 2023).
864:Relationship with humans
579:400 g (14 oz)
524:R. tridactyle tridactyla
520:R. tridactyla pollicaris
471:Distribution and habitat
3270:Birds described in 1758
2254:Great black-backed gull
1470:Ringing & Migration
1335:http://www.birdlife.org
1274:Oxford University Press
930:sea surface temperature
845:Europe, rely mostly on
35:Black-legged kittiwake
2906:black-legged-kittiwake
2637:Hybridisation in gulls
2560:Black-legged kittiwake
2120:Black-legged kittiwake
799:
782:
762:
715:
660:
648:
559:Standard measurements
296:black-legged kittiwake
3070:Paleobiology Database
2301:American herring gull
2296:European herring gull
797:
777:
760:
713:
692:Behaviour and ecology
658:
646:
316:in his landmark 1758
258: Wintering range
3250:Birds of Scandinavia
2878:Fauna Europaea (new)
2565:Red-legged kittiwake
2264:Glaucous-winged gull
2023:at Wikimedia Commons
1598:Bent, A. C. (1963).
1444:Bent, A. C. (1963).
670:red-legged kittiwake
435:New Siberian Islands
384:red-legged kittiwake
329:red-legged kittiwake
3240:Birds of the Arctic
2619:Swallow-tailed gull
2494:Slender-billed gull
1796:Audubon Field Guide
1684:Colonial Waterbirds
1516:Sibley, David Allen
1502:The Birds of Canada
1400:Naturwissenschaften
1272:(Online ed.).
770:Eggs and incubation
452:Kamchatka Peninsula
285:Linnaeus, 1766
277:Linnaeus, 1758
76:Conservation status
66:Calls, recorded on
2378:Mediterranean gull
2306:Yellow-legged gull
2274:Yellow-footed gull
2079:IUCN Red List maps
2036:"Rissa tridactyla"
1333:. Downloaded from
1197:; Donsker, David;
1000:Colony at Svalbard
800:
783:
763:
761:On nest with chick
716:
661:
649:
647:Sound of kittiwake
349:formally described
252: Summer range
197:R. tridactyla
3217:
3216:
3139:Larus tridactylus
3057:Open Tree of Life
2654:Taxon identifiers
2645:
2644:
2632:Gull eggs as food
2489:Black-headed gull
2484:Brown-headed gull
2479:Black-billed gull
2464:Brown-hooded gull
2326:Slaty-backed gull
2239:Short-billed gull
2224:Black-tailed gull
2019:Media related to
1945:10.3354/meps07126
1537:978-0-679-45122-8
1280:(Subscription or
1247:978-1-4081-2501-4
1199:Rasmussen, Pamela
1172:Peters, James Lee
979:In Seward, Alaska
936:Conservation plan
925:ocean temperature
896:Population trends
778:Eggs, Collection
644:
633:
632:
456:Commander Islands
376:Larus tridactylus
325:Larus tridactylus
292:
291:
274:Larus tridactylus
99:
59:
16:(Redirected from
3287:
3255:Birds of Iceland
3210:
3209:
3197:
3196:
3184:
3183:
3171:
3170:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3130:
3129:
3127:Rissa-tridactyla
3117:
3116:
3104:
3103:
3091:
3090:
3078:
3077:
3065:
3064:
3052:
3051:
3039:
3038:
3026:
3025:
3013:
3012:
3000:
2999:
2997:NBNSYS0000000039
2987:
2986:
2974:
2973:
2961:
2960:
2948:
2947:
2935:
2934:
2922:
2921:
2909:
2908:
2899:
2898:
2886:
2885:
2873:
2872:
2860:
2859:
2847:
2846:
2834:
2833:
2821:
2820:
2808:
2807:
2795:
2794:
2782:
2781:
2769:
2768:
2756:
2755:
2743:
2742:
2733:
2732:
2730:FB4D08F0837D4683
2720:
2719:
2717:Rissa_tridactyla
2707:
2706:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2692:Rissa tridactyla
2681:
2680:
2679:
2662:Rissa tridactyla
2649:
2499:Bonaparte's gull
2244:Ring-billed gull
2158:
2151:
2144:
2135:
2130:
2104:Rissa tridactyla
2086:Rissa tridactyla
2074:Rissa tridactyla
2062:
2048:
2043:
2029:Rissa tridactyla
2021:Rissa tridactyla
2018:
2002:
1995:
1989:
1968:Climate Research
1963:
1954:
1929:
1920:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1870:
1864:
1849:(6): 1129–1139.
1838:
1829:
1822:
1816:
1809:Rissa tridactyla
1805:
1799:
1792:
1779:
1761:
1746:
1731:(8): 1664–1679.
1721:
1715:
1708:Animal Behaviour
1704:
1698:
1680:
1671:
1656:
1643:
1642:
1612:
1603:
1596:
1585:
1575:Rissa tridactyla
1571:
1542:
1541:
1525:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1497:
1491:
1466:Rissa tridactyla
1462:
1449:
1442:
1421:
1395:
1386:
1385:
1370:
1364:
1361:Birds of America
1357:
1338:
1331:Rissa tridactyla
1327:
1312:
1297:
1286:
1285:
1277:
1265:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1191:
1182:
1181:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1132:
1109:Rissa tridactyla
1102:
1076:
1064:
1052:
1040:
1025:
1014:parasitic jaeger
1009:
997:
988:
976:
960:
825:Food and feeding
798:Adult and chicks
780:Museum Wiesbaden
682:Bonaparte's gull
645:
556:
537:Juvenile plumage
460:Aleutian Islands
441:R. t. pollicaris
423:R. t. tridactyla
371:and coined the
318:10th edition of
301:Rissa tridactyla
286:
278:
257:
251:
239:
217:
215:Rissa tridactyla
114:
113:
93:
88:
87:
61:
60:
44:
32:
21:
18:Rissa tridactyla
3295:
3294:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3280:Holarctic birds
3245:Birds of Europe
3220:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3205:
3200:
3192:
3187:
3179:
3174:
3166:
3161:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3133:
3125:
3120:
3112:
3107:
3099:
3094:
3086:
3081:
3073:
3068:
3060:
3055:
3047:
3042:
3034:
3031:Observation.org
3029:
3021:
3016:
3008:
3003:
2995:
2990:
2982:
2977:
2969:
2964:
2956:
2951:
2943:
2938:
2930:
2925:
2917:
2912:
2904:
2902:
2894:
2889:
2881:
2876:
2868:
2863:
2855:
2850:
2842:
2837:
2829:
2824:
2816:
2811:
2803:
2798:
2790:
2785:
2777:
2772:
2764:
2759:
2751:
2746:
2738:
2736:
2728:
2723:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2699:
2690:
2689:
2684:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2656:
2646:
2641:
2623:
2605:
2587:
2569:
2544:
2526:
2508:
2504:Saunders's gull
2459:Hartlaub's gull
2448:Red-billed gull
2434:Chroicocephalus
2427:
2413:Franklin's gull
2387:
2358:White-eyed gull
2342:
2249:California gull
2229:Heermann's gull
2193:
2172:
2162:
2051:
2034:
2011:
2006:
2005:
1996:
1992:
1980:10.3354/cr01227
1964:
1957:
1930:
1923:
1914:
1910:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1839:
1832:
1823:
1819:
1806:
1802:
1793:
1782:
1777:10.2307/4084109
1762:
1749:
1737:10.1139/z90-247
1722:
1718:
1714:(5): 1027–1033.
1705:
1701:
1696:10.2307/1521734
1681:
1674:
1657:
1646:
1639:
1614:
1613:
1606:
1597:
1588:
1572:
1545:
1538:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1499:
1498:
1494:
1463:
1452:
1443:
1424:
1396:
1389:
1378:All About Birds
1372:
1371:
1367:
1358:
1341:
1328:
1315:
1298:
1289:
1279:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1212:
1210:
1193:
1192:
1185:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1150:
1149:
1145:
1135:
1133:
1104:
1103:
1092:
1087:
1080:
1077:
1068:
1065:
1056:
1055:Youth (Iceland)
1053:
1044:
1041:
1032:
1026:
1017:
1010:
1001:
998:
989:
980:
977:
968:
961:
952:
938:
921:
912:
907:
898:
893:
866:
827:
792:
772:
752:
708:
699:
694:
666:
664:Similar species
640:
638:
539:
515:
510:
495:Out of all the
473:
458:(east Russia);
362:Systema Naturae
345:
320:Systema Naturae
308:species in the
284:
276:
259:
255:
253:
249:
230:
219:
213:
200:
163:Charadriiformes
108:
100:
89:
85:
78:
55:
28:
27:Species of bird
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3293:
3291:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3222:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3198:
3185:
3172:
3159:
3143:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3118:
3105:
3092:
3079:
3066:
3053:
3040:
3027:
3014:
3001:
2988:
2975:
2962:
2949:
2936:
2923:
2910:
2900:
2887:
2874:
2865:Fauna Europaea
2861:
2848:
2835:
2822:
2809:
2796:
2783:
2770:
2757:
2744:
2734:
2721:
2708:
2697:
2682:
2666:
2664:
2658:
2657:
2652:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2597:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2585:
2579:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2536:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2518:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2450:
2445:
2439:
2437:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2399:
2397:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2373:Audouin's gull
2370:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2352:
2344:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2338:
2336:Heuglin's gull
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2292:
2291:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2214:Belcher's gull
2211:
2205:
2203:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2182:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2153:
2146:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2117:
2100:
2090:
2081:
2069:
2063:
2049:
2032:
2024:
2010:
2009:External links
2007:
2004:
2003:
1990:
1955:
1921:
1908:
1881:(2): 113–126.
1865:
1830:
1817:
1800:
1780:
1771:(4): 789–816.
1747:
1716:
1699:
1672:
1644:
1637:
1604:
1586:
1583:10.2173/bna.92
1543:
1536:
1507:
1492:
1450:
1422:
1406:(9): 773–782.
1387:
1365:
1339:
1337:on 08/10/2019.
1313:
1287:
1253:
1246:
1220:
1183:
1174:, ed. (1934).
1163:
1152:Linnaeus, Carl
1143:
1089:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1035:
1033:
1027:
1020:
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1011:
1004:
1002:
999:
992:
990:
983:
981:
978:
971:
969:
962:
955:
951:
948:
937:
934:
920:
919:Global warming
917:
911:
908:
906:
903:
897:
894:
892:
889:
865:
862:
826:
823:
808:semi-precocial
791:
788:
771:
768:
751:
748:
707:
704:
698:
695:
693:
690:
665:
662:
637:
634:
631:
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567:
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560:
538:
535:
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511:
509:
506:
472:
469:
468:
467:
438:
433:and northwest
394:James Stephens
344:
341:
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279:
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101:
83:
80:
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74:
71:
70:
63:
62:
51:
50:
46:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3292:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
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3231:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3208:
3203:
3199:
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3177:
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3155:
3149:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3128:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2735:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2672:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2650:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2601:Sabine's gull
2599:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2547:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2523:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2408:Laughing gull
2406:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2396:
2395:
2390:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2321:Armenian gull
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2290:
2289:Thayer's gull
2287:
2286:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2279:Glaucous gull
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2154:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2140:
2139:
2136:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2075:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2059:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2008:
2000:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1974:(2): 91–102.
1973:
1969:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1668:0-691-12295-4
1665:
1661:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1638:9788242650313
1634:
1630:
1629:11250/3044642
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1508:
1503:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1486:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1309:84-87334-20-2
1306:
1302:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1264:
1257:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1221:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1167:
1164:
1159:
1158:
1153:
1147:
1144:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1110:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1084:
1075:
1070:
1063:
1058:
1051:
1046:
1039:
1034:
1031:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1008:
1003:
996:
991:
987:
982:
975:
970:
966:
959:
954:
949:
947:
944:
935:
933:
931:
926:
918:
916:
909:
904:
902:
895:
890:
888:
884:
882:
878:
873:
870:
863:
861:
858:
854:
852:
848:
843:
839:
835:
832:
824:
822:
818:
815:
814:
809:
805:
796:
790:Chick-rearing
789:
787:
781:
776:
769:
767:
759:
755:
749:
747:
745:
739:
737:
736:Farne Islands
734:in the outer
733:
732:Staple Island
729:
725:
721:
720:North America
712:
705:
703:
696:
691:
689:
687:
683:
678:
675:
671:
663:
657:
653:
635:
628:
626:
623:
622:
618:
616:
613:
612:
608:
606:
603:
602:
598:
596:
593:
592:
588:
586:
583:
582:
578:
576:
573:
572:
568:
566:
563:
562:
557:
554:
551:
548:
544:
536:
534:
532:
527:
525:
521:
513:Adult plumage
512:
507:
505:
502:
498:
493:
491:
487:
482:
478:
470:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
442:
439:
436:
432:
428:
424:
421:
420:
419:
417:
412:
410:
407:
406:Ancient Greek
403:
399:
395:
391:
390:
386:in the genus
385:
381:
380:type location
377:
374:
373:binomial name
370:
369:
364:
363:
358:
357:tenth edition
354:
353:Carl Linnaeus
350:
342:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
321:
315:
314:Carl Linnaeus
311:
307:
303:
302:
297:
283:
280:
275:
272:
271:
269:
266:
262:
247:
246:R. tridactyla
242:
238:
233:
228:
224:
218:
216:
210:
207:
206:Binomial name
203:
199:
198:
193:
190:
189:
186:
185:
181:
178:
177:
174:
171:
168:
167:
164:
161:
158:
157:
154:
151:
148:
147:
144:
141:
138:
137:
134:
131:
128:
127:
124:
121:
118:
117:
112:
107:
103:
97:
92:
81:
77:
72:
69:
64:
52:
47:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
3138:
2661:
2610:
2592:
2574:
2559:
2549:
2532:Rhodostethia
2531:
2514:Hydrocoloeus
2513:
2453:Huahine gull
2432:
2403:Dolphin gull
2392:
2347:
2311:Caspian gull
2284:Iceland gull
2269:Western gull
2219:Olrog's gull
2209:Pacific gull
2198:
2185:
2108:
2103:
2085:
2073:
2056:
2039:
2028:
1998:
1993:
1971:
1967:
1936:
1932:
1916:
1911:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1846:
1842:
1825:
1820:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1795:
1768:
1764:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1687:
1683:
1659:
1620:
1599:
1574:
1521:
1510:
1501:
1495:
1476:(1): 33–39.
1473:
1469:
1465:
1445:
1403:
1399:
1377:
1368:
1360:
1330:
1300:
1267:
1256:
1229:
1223:
1211:. Retrieved
1206:
1176:
1166:
1156:
1146:
1134:. Retrieved
1120:
1114:
1108:
1067:ID composite
1012:Chased by a
939:
922:
913:
899:
891:Conservation
885:
875:The city of
874:
871:
867:
859:
855:
828:
819:
811:
801:
784:
764:
753:
740:
727:
717:
700:
679:
673:
667:
650:
636:Vocalization
552:
540:
528:
523:
519:
516:
494:
489:
485:
474:
454:, Kuril and
440:
422:
413:
408:
401:
387:
375:
366:
360:
346:
336:
324:
319:
300:
299:
295:
293:
281:
273:
245:
214:
212:
196:
195:
183:
29:
3083:SeaLifeBase
3018:Neotropical
2979:NatureServe
2927:iNaturalist
2686:Wikispecies
2540:Ross's gull
2522:Little gull
2474:Andean gull
2443:Silver gull
2394:Leucophaeus
2383:Relict gull
2349:Ichthyaetus
2234:Common gull
2122:media from
1939:: 137–143.
1263:"Kittiwake"
1195:Gill, Frank
1136:18 November
1016:at Svalbard
963:In flight,
834:piscivorous
508:Description
409:tridaktulos
282:Larus rissa
3235:Kittiwakes
3224:Categories
3122:Xeno-canto
2583:Ivory gull
2363:Sooty gull
2171:: Laridae)
2097:Xeno-canto
1284:required.)
1085:References
965:Heligoland
464:Bering Sea
416:subspecies
402:tridactyla
91:Vulnerable
3154:Q11844815
2575:Pagophila
2423:Grey gull
2418:Lava gull
1987:0936-577X
1952:0171-8630
1895:1600-048X
1862:1365-2664
1744:0008-4301
1690:(1): 73.
1489:0307-8698
1419:0028-1042
967:, Germany
910:Fisheries
842:polychete
804:egg tooth
686:primaries
533:pattern.
398:Icelandic
337:kittiwake
244:Range of
191:Species:
129:Kingdom:
123:Eukaryota
3148:Wikidata
2984:2.104258
2971:22694497
2945:11245700
2831:45509266
2753:22694497
2748:BirdLife
2737:BioLib:
2671:Wikidata
2611:Creagrus
1903:54602867
1518:(2000).
1154:(1758).
1043:At Runde
847:sandeels
838:copepods
706:Breeding
585:wingspan
543:fledging
477:Atlantic
448:Sakhalin
431:Svalbard
427:Linnaeus
404:is from
343:Taxonomy
265:Synonyms
223:Linnaeus
169:Family:
143:Chordata
139:Phylum:
133:Animalia
119:Domain:
96:IUCN 3.1
3202:ZooBank
3181:6065742
2896:2481205
2792:bob6020
2725:Avibase
2187:Species
2040:Avibase
1765:The Auk
1213:19 July
950:Gallery
905:Threats
881:ammonia
831:pelagic
750:Nesting
547:coverts
531:molting
501:pelagic
497:laridae
481:Pacific
444:Ridgway
359:of his
355:in the
306:seabird
304:) is a
179:Genus:
173:Laridae
159:Order:
149:Class:
94: (
3194:824183
3114:137156
3075:335307
3062:585161
3049:137156
3023:bklkit
2958:176875
2903:GNAB:
2852:EURING
2818:bklkit
2779:bklkit
2705:blleki
2677:Q26612
2169:family
2124:ARKive
2115:Flickr
1985:
1950:
1901:
1893:
1860:
1742:
1666:
1635:
1534:
1487:
1417:
1307:
1244:
877:Tromsø
744:Norway
724:Europe
697:Flight
625:tarsus
615:culmen
575:weight
565:length
256:
250:
68:Skomer
3168:3SBRB
3109:WoRMS
3101:15857
3088:74521
3010:75485
2940:IRMNG
2870:96946
2839:EUNIS
2813:eBird
2805:4T594
2766:10208
2551:Rissa
2200:Larus
2178:Genus
2165:Gulls
1899:S2CID
1278:
1030:Runde
851:murre
813:Larus
728:Rissa
674:Rissa
389:Rissa
368:Larus
333:genus
184:Rissa
3189:ITIS
3176:GBIF
3044:OBIS
3005:NCBI
2966:IUCN
2953:ITIS
2932:4494
2891:GBIF
2857:6020
2844:1261
2761:BOLD
2740:8704
2593:Xema
1983:ISSN
1948:ISSN
1891:ISSN
1858:ISSN
1811:)".
1740:ISSN
1664:ISBN
1633:ISBN
1532:ISBN
1485:ISSN
1415:ISSN
1305:ISBN
1242:ISBN
1215:2024
1138:2021
1121:2019
722:and
668:The
605:tail
595:wing
462:and
414:Two
310:gull
294:The
227:1758
153:Aves
3163:CoL
3096:TSA
3036:241
2992:NBN
2914:IBC
2826:EoL
2800:CoL
2787:BTO
2774:BOW
2712:ADW
2701:ABA
2113:on
2107:in
2095:on
2077:at
1976:doi
1941:doi
1937:350
1883:doi
1851:doi
1773:doi
1733:doi
1692:doi
1625:hdl
1579:doi
1528:229
1478:doi
1408:doi
1238:390
1234:336
1125:doi
541:At
323:as
3226::
3204::
3191::
3178::
3165::
3150::
3124::
3111::
3098::
3085::
3072::
3059::
3046::
3033::
3020::
3007::
2994::
2981::
2968::
2955::
2942::
2929::
2916::
2893::
2880::
2867::
2854::
2841::
2828::
2815::
2802::
2789::
2776::
2763::
2750::
2727::
2714::
2703::
2688::
2673::
2055:.
2038:.
1972:60
1970:.
1958:^
1935:.
1924:^
1897:.
1889:.
1879:33
1877:.
1847:41
1845:.
1833:^
1783:^
1769:89
1767:.
1750:^
1729:68
1727:.
1712:65
1710:.
1688:21
1686:.
1675:^
1647:^
1631:.
1623:.
1619:.
1607:^
1589:^
1546:^
1530:.
1474:15
1472:.
1453:^
1425:^
1404:98
1402:.
1390:^
1380:.
1376:.
1342:^
1316:^
1290:^
1266:.
1240:.
1236:,
1205:.
1186:^
1119:.
1113:.
1093:^
840:,
746:.
738:.
450:,
339:.
225:,
2455:†
2167:(
2157:e
2150:t
2143:v
2099:.
2061:.
2042:.
2001:.
1978::
1943::
1905:.
1885::
1853::
1775::
1735::
1694::
1670:.
1641:.
1627::
1581::
1540:.
1480::
1410::
1384:.
1311:.
1276:.
1250:.
1217:.
1140:.
1127::
1111:"
1107:"
425:(
298:(
229:)
221:(
98:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
