910:
2662:
2339:: each legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each century of the ten cohorts. They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day-to-day life of the soldiers and issued commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the emperor or other higher-ranking officials. The cohorts were ranked from the first to the tenth and the century within each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only five centuries in the first cohort (for a total of 59 centurions and the
1801:
1646:
2182:
1654:
2875:– according to 17th century belief (possibly folk etymology), the Romans practiced this punishment in which a sentence was carried out against an entire unit that had mutinied, deserted, or shown dereliction of duty. One out of every ten men, chosen by lots, would be beaten to death, usually by the other nine with their bare hands, who would be forced to live outside the camp and in some instances obliged to renew the military oath, the
150:
2126:: named for the broad striped tunic worn by men of senatorial rank, this tribune was appointed by the emperor or the Senate. Though generally young, he was more experienced than the tribuni angusticlavii, he served as second in command of the legion, behind the legate. Because of his age and inexperience he was not the actual second in command in battle, but if the legate died he would take command of the legion.
33:
1480:
2972:), particularly armor, was of better quality and far more ubiquitous, especially in the late Republican and Early Imperial era, than that of most of their opponents. Soldiers equipped with shields, helmets and highly effective body armor had a major advantage over warriors protected, in many cases, with nothing other than their shields, particularly in a prolonged engagement.
1261:– javelin-throwers, who would engage the enemy early in order either to harass them or to cover the movement of troops behind them. After throwing their javelins, they would retreat through the gaps between the maniples, screened from the attack of the enemy by the heavy infantry lines. With the shortage of cavalry in the army of the early to mid Republican army, the
3003:
590:
1314:): these consisted of raw or inexperienced soldiers, considered to be less reliable than legionaries of several years' service. The Hastati were placed at the front for several reasons. One reason is the city of Rome could ill-afford to lose experienced soldiers, so they put the greenest soldiers at the front. If they survived, the
716:. It expanded to 5,280 men plus 120 auxiliaries in the Imperial period (split into 10 cohorts, nine of 480 men each, with the first cohort being almost double-strength at 800 men). These are typical field strengths while "paper strength" was slightly higher (e.g. 600 and 1,200 respectively for Imperial cohorts).
2579:
a year. However, the soldiers did not receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as plunder from enemy settlements. Slaves could also
1189:
In the
Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular armies (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide approximately ten cohorts (auxilia were not organised into legions) to support each Roman
1112:
of roughly one hundred men. These centuries were grouped together as required and answered to the leader who had hired or raised them. Such independent organisation persisted until the 2nd century BC amongst light infantry and cavalry, but was discarded completely in later periods with the supporting
1185:
Also, some warfare was still conducted by Roman forces outside the legionary structure, the most famous example being the campaign in 479 BC by the clan army of gens Fabia against the
Etruscan city of Veii (in which the clan was annihilated). Legions became more formally organised in the 4th century
1037:
By the fourth century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. This had come about as the large formation legion and auxiliary unit, 10,000 men, was broken down into smaller units – originally temporary detachments – to cover more territory.
894:
The legions of the
Republic were only conscripted in times of conflict and usually limited to four legions, two to be commanded by each consul, though more could be levied if needed. Legionaries lacked the opportunity of a military career; they were not paid well, their primary form of income being
1240:
enemy infantry formations and to fight off enemy cavalry. In the latter type of engagement, they would often (though not always) dismount some or all of the horsemen to fight a stationary battle on foot, an unusual tactic for the time, but one that offered significant advantages in stability and
1206:
was originally the most prestigious unit, where wealthy young Roman men displayed their skill and prowess, laying the foundation for an eventual political career. Cavalry equipment was purchased by each of the cavalrymen and consisted of a round shield, helmet, body armour, sword and one or more
2166:: each legion had five lower ranking tribunes, who were normally from the equestrian class and had at least some years of prior military experience. They often served the role of administrative officers. This tribunate was often a first, but optional, step in a young man's political career (see
1581:
A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 11,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries. During the Later Roman Empire, the legion was reduced in size to 1,000 to allow for easier
2252:
The centuries took their titles from the old use of the legion drawn up in three lines of battle using three classes of soldier (each century would then hold a cross-section of this theoretical line, although these century titles were now essentially nominal). Each of the three lines is then
1715:
Augustus' military policies proved sound and cost effective, and were generally followed by his successors. These emperors would carefully add new legions, as circumstances required or permitted, until the strength of the standing army stood at around 30 legions (hence the wry remark of the
2676:(Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC that illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of the
1033:
as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century AD, ten cohorts made up a Roman legion. This was later changed to nine cohorts of standard size (with six centuries at 80 men each) with the first cohort being of double strength (five double-strength centuries with 160 men each).
2891:
3143:
Data in: Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). Complete Roman Army. pp. 95–95; Holder, Paul (1980). Studies in the
Auxilia of the Roman Army. pp. 86–96; Elton, Hugh (1996). Frontiers of the Roman empire. pp 123. See table in article "Auxiliaries (Roman military)" for compilation of this
2658:, and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and often led to the disbanding of the legion itself. Normally, this was because any legion incapable of regaining its eagle in battle was so severely mauled that it was no longer effective in combat.
2352:
The Roman army maintained a complex position and grading system for its soldiers that reflected the many and varied duties of the Roman army. There were three pay grades within the rank of legionary: standard, one and a half, and twice the basic pay rate.
1144:– accounting of the people) was introduced. With this all Roman able-bodied, property-owning male citizens were divided into five classes for military service based on their wealth and then organised into centuries as sub-units of the greater Roman army or
1547:(specialist units), engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and craftsmen, service and support personnel and irregular units made up of non-citizens, mercenaries and local militia. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry,
1148:(multitude). Joining the army was both a duty and a distinguishing mark of Roman citizenship; the wealthiest land owners performed the most years of military service. These individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have fallen.
2268:
was the commanding centurion of the first century, first cohort and the senior-most centurion of the entire legion. (Unlike other cohorts, the first cohort had only one javelin century, instead of a "front spear" and a "back spear" century.) The
2379:
and were graded pay one and a half times the basic wage. Keeper of the watchword, administrative assistant to HQ Staff, third in command of a century. These men fought as normal soldiers when the century they were attached to was not in the
1776:– five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Senate (originally this tribune commanded the legion). There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the engineers, record-keepers, the
735:, a legion was divided into three lines, each of ten maniples. In the late Republic and much of the imperial period (from about 100 BC), a legion was divided into ten cohorts, each of six (or five) centuries. Legions also included a small
2738:
Civilians could also be rewarded for their assistance to the Roman legions. In return for outstanding service, a citizen was given an arrow without a head. This was considered a great honour and would bring the recipient much prestige.
2343:). The century that each centurion commanded was a direct reflection of his rank: command of the 1st century of the first cohort was the highest, and the 6th century of the 10th cohort was the lowest. Paid ten times the basic wage.
1174:. In the first years of the Republic, when warfare was mostly concentrated on raiding, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the legions was summoned at any one time. In 494 BC, when three foreign threats emerged, the dictator
1732:, 193–211, the auxiliaries may have composed 55 to 60% of the army, 250,000 of 447,000. Some legions may have even been reinforced at times with units making the associated force near 15,000–16,000 or about the size of a modern
2717:, with the legion name and emblem depicted on it, unique to the legion. It was common for a legion to detach some sub-units from the main camp to strengthen other corps. In these cases, the detached subunits carried only the
2449:
was considered the greatest dishonor a legion could endure. This post therefore had to be filled with steady veteran soldiers, with an excellent understanding of the tactics of the legion. He was graded pay twice the basic
1692:
Beside streamlining the army, Augustus also regulated the soldiers' pay. At the same time, he greatly increased the number of auxiliaries to the point where they were equal in number to the legionaries. He also created the
1681:, Augustus was left with around fifty legions, with several double counts (multiple Legio Xs for instance). For political and economic reasons, Augustus reduced the number of legions to 28 (which diminished to 25 after the
1452:
was 30 men. These 3,000 men (twenty maniples of 120 men, and ten maniples of 60 men), together with about 1,200 velites and 300 cavalry gave the mid
Republican ("manipular") legion a nominal strength of about 4,500 men.
2680:
threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against the enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships.
2908:
wrote that "the main reason for the Romans becoming masters of the world was that, having fought successively against all peoples, they always gave up their own practices as soon as they found better ones".
2897:
2895:
2892:
731:, but sources on this period are few and unreliable. The subsequent organisation of legions varied greatly over time but legions were typically composed of around five thousand soldiers. During much of the
2896:
2862:
would make an alteration in order to spare the majority of the accused. The tribune would first select a handful of the guilty men, and those selected would be condemned to the original penalty under the
1318:
would gain invaluable experience. Another reason is if the newest soldiers succumbed to battle nerves and broke and tried to run, then there were experienced soldiers behind them to stiffen their resolve.
2305:, and the most senior of all the centurions within the legion. These positions were usually held by experienced veteran soldiers who had been moved up within the ranks. This rank is subordinate to the
2975:
Roman engineering skills were second to none in ancient Europe, and their mastery of both offensive and defensive siege warfare, specifically the construction and investiture of fortifications (cf.
2293:: the "front file" centurions were the commanders of the 10 1st centuries within the legion, making them senior centurions of their respective cohorts. While the legion was in battle formation, the
1728:
probably ranged from 11,000 downwards, with the more prestigious legions and those stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces tending to have more auxiliaries. By the time of the emperor
701:(drawn from the wealthier classes – in early Rome all troops provided their own equipment) in the Republic, to 5,500 in the Imperial period, when most legions were led by a Roman Imperial Legate.
3975:
1339:, and having more experience on the battlefield, they would take up the second line in the battle in the event the Hastati failed or fled. They were the second wave in an early Republican Legion.
3970:
2009:. Despite this, the Eastern Roman armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar levels of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization.
3914:
2215:
and was in command of his entire cohort when in battle. The seniority of the pilus prior centurions was followed by the five other century commanders of the first cohort, who were known as
2850:– a sentence for desertion or dereliction of duty, stealing, false witness, sexual misconduct and repeating three times a same offense. The legionary would be stoned or beaten to death by
2952:
The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with
Carthage and the Parthians and most notably, the campaigns against
2867:. The remainder of the accused would then be driven out of the camp and forced to live in an undefended location for a chosen period of time; they were also limited to eating only barley.
1273:: this was the principal unit of the legion. The heavy infantry was composed of citizen legionaries that could afford the equipment composed of a bronze helmet, shield, sword, armour and
2894:
1724:). With each legion having 5,120 legionaries usually supported by an equal number of auxiliary troops (according to Tacitus), the total force available to a legion commander during the
618:
2949:), organization and systematization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. These elements appear throughout the legion in training, logistics, field fortification etc.
1982:(artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to help defend Roman forts and fortified camps (
2942:
Roman organisation was more flexible than those of many opponents. Over time, the legions effectively handled challenges ranging from cavalry, to guerrillas, and to siege warfare.
2522:
were legionary soldiers who possessed specialised skills, qualifying them for better pay and excusing them from labour and guard work. Engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks,
1923:
suggest that the process of creating new legions continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The names also suggest that many new legions were formed from
2222:
There is a story of one centurion, Petronius
Fortunatus, making rank in four years, then spending the next forty-two years in twelve different legions never once serving in the
1500:
Full Roman citizenship was open to all the regions of Italy. At the same time, the three different types of heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type based on the
679:
in 107 BC the legions were formed of 5,200 men and were restructured around 10 cohorts, the first cohort being double strength. This structure persisted throughout the
3769:
1705:, or freed slaves. The legions also became permanent at this time, and not recruited for particular campaigns. They were also allocated to static bases with permanent
2367:: one for each centurion (59–60), they were appointed by the centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command and were graded pay twice the basic wage.
2962:
The influence of Roman military and civic culture, as embodied particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military consistent motivation and cohesion.
2858:
who escaped were not pursued but lived under sentence of banishment from Rome. In the event that a group of legionaries are to be subjected to this punishment, the
2607:(good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious provinces. Later, under
2474:, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and topped with an open hand to signify loyalty, which was a rallying point for the soldiers. In addition to carrying the
741:, or cavalry unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. In the fourth century AD,
3980:
1661:
Generals, during the recent
Republican civil wars, had formed their own legions and numbered them as they wished. During this time, there was a high incidence of
3932:
2043:
a year), the following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the late republic (100s BC) until the military reforms of
754:) may have become even smaller. In terms of organization and function, the republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian
895:
what they could loot from the battlefield, and were simply called upon when needed and returned to their civilian lives when they were no longer required.
2510:
onwards. Carried the standard bearing the image of the
Emperor as a constant reminder of the troops' loyalty to him. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
2482:
also assumed responsibility for the financial administration of the unit and functioned as the legionaries' banker. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
611:
396:
292:
2893:
2748:
1592:
Throughout the history of Rome's Late
Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st century BC, the threat of the legions under a
208:
3469:
3081:
2211:
and commanded the whole first cohort when in battle. Within the second to tenth cohorts, the commander of each cohort's first century was known as a
2148:
and finished his 25 years with the legions. He was used as a senior officer in charge of training a legion, though he could also command a cohort of
1297:) were also an effective weapon against a fallen enemy. Heavy infantry was subdivided, according to experience, into three separate lines of troops:
3321:
3046:
1820:, although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with the elite
1071:
856:
184:
3911:
3021:
3016:
2108:. In such circumstances, the Legatus was dual-hatted as both Legion Legate and Imperial Legate. The Legion Legate also served as commander of the
1589:
Tactics were not very different from the past, but their effectiveness was largely improved because of the professional training of the soldiers.
1228:. In addition to heavy cavalry, there would be the light cavalry levied from poor citizens and wealthy young citizens not old enough to be in the
350:
2530:
were all immune soldiers. These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and were called upon to serve in the battle lines when needed.
1762:
In the Empire, the legion was standardised, with symbols and an individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion was commanded by a
2965:
Strict, and more importantly, uniform discipline made commanding, maintaining, and replacing Roman legionaries a much more consistent exercise.
2684:
With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer, called
1813:
1356:): these were the veteran soldiers, to be used in battle only in extreme situations; they rested one knee down when not engaged in combat. The
604:
270:
3820:
921:, in 387 BC the military structure was reformed. Under the Camillan system the legions were initially structured based on social class, with
2753:
The military discipline of the legions was harsh. Regulations were strictly enforced, and a broad array of punishments could be inflicted.
1828:
and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old legions. The earliest
1772:. Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three-year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six elected
1609:
909:
2542:
for military service, but had chosen to re-enlist. They received double pay and were excluded from regular duties, such as manual labour.
1582:
provisioning and to expand the regions under surveillance. Numbers would also vary depending on casualties suffered during a campaign;
3753:
3378:
3965:
3056:
3036:
2969:
695:
The size of a typical legion varied throughout the history of ancient Rome, with complements ranging from 4,200 legionaries and 300
496:
158:
116:
2854:, in front of the assembled troops, by his fellow soldiers or those whose lives had been put in danger. Soldiers under sentence of
2140:: the Camp Prefect was third in command of the legion. Generally he was a long serving veteran from a lower social status than the
1941:. A rare instance of apparent direct continuity between the legions of the early Empire and those of the post-6th century army was
3041:
2735:, mounted on a silver base, was sometimes awarded to officers as a recognition of their service upon retirement or reassignment.
2384:
1994:
1225:
1067:
737:
174:
2661:
1462:
1163:
252:
3441:
3347:
3171:
2408:
1682:
1489:
1257:): these were mainly poorer citizens who could not afford to equip themselves properly. Their primary function was to act as
1157:
963:
830:
786:
from the auxiliaries). The Roman army, for most of the Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions.
366:
327:
278:
54:
1665:(twin) legions, where two legions were consolidated into a single organisation (and was later made official and put under a
1186:
BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two legions each.
97:
1640:
1474:
482:
415:
203:
139:
50:
1739:
Throughout the Imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for a
69:
2800:), or "short whip" – a much more brutal punishment than simple flogging. The "short whip" was used by slave volunteers,
2065:
1279:, a heavy javelin whose range was about 30 metres. After the Second Punic War, the preferred weapon for the hastati and
2100:, appointed by the emperor, who held command for 3 or 4 years, although he could serve for a much longer period. In a
1800:
3545:
1645:
1218:
that normally enlarged the number to about 4,200), the legion only had around 300 horsemen, divided into ten units (
76:
2006:
301:
2412:
or ten men tent party, eight soldiers and two non-combatants. A group of four soldiers would be referred to as a
43:
1859:
1748:
2584:
and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in a sizeable supplement to their regular pay.
3654:
1854:
656:
511:
166:
3296:
83:
3476:
3098:
3026:
2946:
2871:
2604:
2204:
2157:
2018:
1429:
1175:
966:
the ranks were no longer structured by wealth, and instead by age and experience. All legionaries had their
938:
3586:
3085:
2193:
was an officer grade that held much responsibility. The most senior centurion in a legion was known as the
3985:
3268:
3052:
2539:
2463:
2208:
1842:
1533:
The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied auxiliary troops, called
803:
709:
378:
227:
65:
3859:
3782:
3283:
The Cavalry of the Roman Republic: Cavalry Combat and Elite Reputations in the Middle and Late Republic.
3031:
2571:. In spite of the steady inflation during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time of
2281:
retired, he would most likely gain entry into the equestrian class. He was paid 60 times the base wage.
1795:
1635:
1605:
1575:
1494:
1468:
1128:
Rome's early period is undocumented and shrouded in myths, but those myths tell that during the rule of
899:
477:
213:
133:
2592:
3519:
3740:"Roman Infantry Tactics in the mid-Republic: A Reassessment"( Historia 63, 2014) by Michael J. Taylor
3673:
William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.
3613:
2666:
2131:
2117:
1604:
broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated a
883:
and his account most likely was influenced by the organization of the Roman army after the defeat of
794:
Many of the legions founded before 40 BC were still active until at least the fifth century, notably
467:
409:
2959:
Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success.
2181:
3008:
2990:
Roman military training focused on the more effective thrusting of the sword rather than the slash.
1853:
The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began under
1733:
1629:
918:
594:
318:
1653:
3791:
3763:
3726:
3702:
3607:
3238:
2877:
1909:
1883:
1871:
1809:
1042:
1014:
795:
742:
563:
898:
In terms of organization and function, the early Republican era military was inherited from the
3637:
The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present. (2nd Revised Edition 1986)
3502:
3163:
1978:, giving the legion a formidable siege train of 59 ballistae and 10 onagers, each manned by 10
3888:
3851:
3816:
3812:
3749:
3437:
3374:
3343:
3167:
2953:
2572:
2112:
attached to the legion though they were not formally a part of the legion's command structure.
1729:
1237:
779:
664:
570:
436:
425:
3732:
The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC)
3457:
2595:) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000
2082:, the Imperial Legate was appointed by the Emperor and usually held command for 3 or 5 years.
3880:
3843:
3808:
3598:
3155:
2696:
1998:
1877:
1694:
1686:
1565:
1089:
547:
536:
451:
170:
3202:
2317:: the "ranks of the first " were the five centurions of the first cohort, and included the
3918:
2927:
2808:
2527:
2325:, were paid 30 times the base wage. This rank is senior to all other centurions, save the
2033:
1987:
1975:
1789:
1129:
770:, recruited exclusively from Roman citizens, while the remainder of the army consisted of
541:
519:
462:
90:
2498:
and issuing the audible commands of the officers. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
1483:
Visual representation of the legion showing size and disposition for Infantry formations
1428:
Each of these three lines was subdivided into (usually ten) chief tactical units called
1113:
role taken instead by allied troops. The roles of century leader (later formalised as a
3692:
3631:
2816:
2677:
2650:
2440:
2168:
2105:
2101:
2075:
1986:) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, as
1966:
1597:
1558:
1548:
1361:
1270:
1267:
were also used as scouts. They did not have a precise formal organisation or formation.
1254:
1103:
1022:
783:
767:
732:
684:
676:
672:
648:
636:
556:
526:
487:
2445:(eagle) – bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. Losing the
3959:
3717:
3664:
3156:
2977:
2523:
2436:
2022:
1740:
1601:
1583:
1520:
1374:
1099:
926:
862:
775:
720:
713:
531:
503:
431:
2774:
Reduction of rations or to be forced to eat barley instead of the usual grain ration
2259:
2195:
2097:
2079:
1865:
1613:
1570:
1171:
1133:
1045:
1026:
866:
745:
3737:"Legion GmbH. Das Unternehmen Römische Armee" (Saarbrücken 2012) by Stefan Zehnter
2804:, who constituted the majority of the army in the later years of the Roman Empire.
1816:
expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the
3863:
3714:
From the Rise of the Republic and the Might of the Empire to the Fall of the West
766:
For most of the Roman Imperial period, the legions formed the Roman army's elite
3847:
3618:
3051:
For a more detailed analysis, as well as the Romans in battle, see the articles
2919:
2905:
2763:
2635:
2371:
1678:
879:
814:
668:
441:
332:
32:
3546:"It's totally fine to use 'decimate' as a synonym for 'devastate'. This is why"
2074:: the commander of two or more legions. The Imperial Legate also served as the
1612:
which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of the
3937:
3907:
3884:
3831:
3744:
Addison, Bickham, Diamond, Thompson, Penny, Christian, Anthony, Steve (2008).
2998:
2923:
2846:
2727:
2686:
2654:(eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known as
2558:
2502:
2044:
1925:
1825:
1725:
1698:
1479:
1258:
1170:
was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the two
1063:
947:, the final line of the formation who instead fought as hoplites, using Greek
925:
being the first line of the formation. The legionaries most often fought with
888:
810:
728:
680:
660:
472:
247:
237:
193:
3892:
3855:
3571:
Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and Their Decline
1780:(commander of the camp) and other specialists such as priests and musicians.
1402:
legionaries frequently discouraged exultant enemies in pursuit of retreating
1193:
In the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units:
962:
By the 3rd century BC, this system was seen to be inefficient. Under the new
3777:
3233:
2931:
2655:
2608:
2427:
2285:
were also paid more than an average centurion and like a narrowband tribune.
2253:
sub-divided within the century into a more forward and a more rear century.
2190:
2028:
2002:
1817:
1756:
1744:
1717:
1593:
1437:
1335:): these were the more experienced soldiers, often better equipped than the
1323:
1281:
1122:
1114:
1050:
818:
750:
705:
457:
17:
1993:
Despite a number of organisational changes, the legion system survived the
1929:
or from old legions. In addition, there were 24 vexillationes palatini, 73
1182:
says was a greater number than had been raised previously at any one time.
3871:
Rawson, Elizabeth (1971). "The Literary Sources for the Pre-Marian Army".
3232:
A saying attributed to Emperor Augustus, according to the Roman historian
941:
formation with assistance from skirmishers. The exception to this was the
3082:"Organization of the Roman Army: Manipular legion Organization of Legion"
2709:
2600:
2564:
2553:
2534:
2507:
2486:
2454:
2039:
1971:
1961:
1617:
1433:
1108:
1030:
884:
870:
865:
period that could have included 1000 men from each of the three original
826:
822:
799:
675:
the manipular legion comprised 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. After the
653:
3912:
Roman Legionary 109–58 BC: The Age of Marius, Sulla and Pompey the Great
2912:
Examples of ideas that were copied and adapted include weapons like the
2526:, drill and weapons instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical staff and
1586:'s legions during his campaign in Gaul often only had around 3,500 men.
712:
of 6 centuries of 80 legionaries) from the late republic to the time of
3795:
2935:
2914:
2859:
2788:
2514:
2402:
2149:
2109:
2087:
1915:
1764:
1667:
1553:
1543:
1395:
1344:
1302:
1293:
1287:
1263:
1249:
1242:
1203:
1198:
1005:
992:
986:
955:
949:
943:
922:
903:
771:
755:
697:
222:
3748:. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Pearson Education Australia. p. 135.
2375:(guard commander): one for each century. They acted as seconds to the
2983:
2851:
2581:
2078:
of the province in which the legions he commanded were stationed. Of
1752:
1707:
1526:
932:
833:(September 9, AD 9) and never raised again by the Romans thereafter.
312:
3924:
3126:
2229:
The six centuries of a normal cohort, were, in order of precedence:
3942:
1600:
were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. When
3338:
Totals from summary of Notitia Dignitatum in Richardot, Philippe,
2889:
2660:
2390:
2363:
2180:
1561:
1510:
1419:
1275:
1220:
1137:
1118:
999:
981:
976:
3933:
Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine
2631:
Sesquiplicarii: a pay grade receiving one and a half standard pay
2096:: the overall legion commander. The post was usually filled by a
1574:, who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form of
1207:
lances. The cavalry was outnumbered in the legion. In a total of
3263:
1487:
Each century had its own standard and was made up of ten units (
1179:
774:, who provided additional infantry and the vast majority of the
3780:(April 1915). "The Promotion of Centurions in Caesar's Army".
2780:– reduction in pay, fines or deductions from the pay allowance
1673:
1394:
stopped using spears in 387 BC). Thus armed, they fought in a
1018:
were also offered a position in the military as auxiliaries.
26:
3832:"The Evolution of the Manipular Legion in the Early Republic"
902:
and seemingly influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian
3127:"Greco-Macedonian influences in the manipular Legion system"
802:
in 43 BC and was in Egypt in the seventh century during the
2005:
to supply the increasing need for soldiers resulted in the
825:
around 41 BC, were destroyed by a Germanic alliance led by
3297:"Gladius hispaniensis: an archaeological view from Iberia"
2207:"), who directly commanded the first century of the first
2104:
with only one legion, the legatus was also the provincial
1957:
and surviving in Egypt until the Arab conquest of 637 AD.
1685:, in which three legions were completely destroyed by the
1657:
Roman Empire and legions in 125 AD near its maximum extent
1493:) of eight men who shared a tent, a millstone, a mule and
1398:
formation. The sight of an advancing armored formation of
869:. The earliest surviving detailed description comes from
3949:
3689:
The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation
3436:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 173.
2987:), was another major advantage for the Roman legions.
2001:
until the 7th century, when reforms begun by Emperor
2470:
would be the senior. He was standard-bearer for the
2144:
whom he outranked, and who previously had served as
1021:
The Republican legion evolved from 3,000 men in the
3976:
Military units and formations of the Roman Republic
57:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3507:. Self-Publish. pp. 1069–. GGKEY:DXPWT430TXP.
2918:(Iberians) and warship design (cf. Carthaginians'
2783:Flogging in front of the century, cohort or legion
2494:drawing the attention of the men to the centurial
2462:(thus, there were 59 in a legion) and within each
1881:, provided the infantry of late Roman armies. The
3971:Military units and formations of the Roman Empire
3520:"The Histories of Polybius: Fragments of Book VI"
3470:"Payscales for different grades of Roman soldier"
2538:: a veteran of the Roman army who had earned his
2185:A historical reenactor in Roman centurion costume
1990:during battles or in support of river crossings.
683:and middle Empire, before further changes in the
3938:The Roman Army: A Bibliography (Dr. J. P. Adams)
3101:of 120 hastati, 120 principes, and sixty triarii
2639:: a pay grade receiving double the standard pay.
861:Almost nothing is known about the legion of the
687:resulted in new formations of around 1,000 men.
2767:– being hit by the centurion with his staff or
1722:It is ill arguing with the master of 30 legions
1106:, forces are described as being organised into
835:
3952:– Legio X Gemina (Equites) – "Viri Clarissimi"
3410:(New Haven, Yale University Press, 1989) p. 40
2490:("horn blower"): worked hand in hand with the
2297:was given command of their entire cohort. The
2239:The forward principes (forward principal line)
1812:, the number of legions was increased and the
1471:for details of notable late Republican legions
984:. The former classes of poor legionaries, the
980:, which were used as an opening volley before
3504:History of The Roman Legions: History of Rome
3204:History of The Roman Legions: History of Rome
3112:Cornell, T. J. (1995): The Beginnings of Rome
1907:in the frontier armies. Legion names such as
612:
8:
3768:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3295:Quesada Sanz, Fernando (28 September 1996).
2628:Caligati: a pay grade receiving standard pay
2587:All legionary soldiers would also receive a
1743:or take it away. For example, the defeat of
3304:Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies
2829:– relegation to inferior service or duties.
2665:Reenacters portraying Roman legionaries of
2431:: a single position within the legion. The
2200:
1436:and was commanded by the senior of the two
1236:. In battle, they were used to disrupt and
937:(large rectangular shields) in a checkered
837:
2749:Roman military decorations and punishments
2690:, whose role was to carry a pike with the
1291:, a short sword. Their hobnailed sandals (
844:Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!
619:
605:
401:
371:
297:
189:
144:
3125:Manousos Kambouris, Spyros Bakas (2016).
3097:Each of these three lines contained five
2648:From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an
1636:List of Roman legions of the early Empire
1224:) of 30 men. These men were commanded by
117:Learn how and when to remove this message
3805:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics
3803:Campbell, Brian (2015-07-06). "legion".
3456:Caesar's Civil War, Adrian Goldsworthy,
3395:The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 11
3359:Jones, Later Roman Empire, pp. 1449–1450
3251:
3047:Structural history of the Roman military
2245:The forward triarii (forward third line)
2242:The rear principes (rear principal line)
1799:
1652:
1644:
1478:
1094:In the period before the raising of the
1072:Structural history of the Roman military
908:
857:Structural history of the Roman military
3813:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3632
3639:, R. Ernest Dupuy, and Trevor N. Dupuy.
3408:Septimius Severus: The African Emperor.
3073:
1677:). At the end of the civil war against
1504:: armed with two heavy javelins called
300:
236:
192:
165:
129:Largest military unit of the Roman army
3761:
3154:Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A (2004).
3120:
3118:
3027:List of topics related to ancient Rome
2922:), as well as military units, such as
2506:: a special position from the time of
1903:in the field armies, and a further 47
3981:Military units and formations by size
3723:The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200
3419:
3162:(2 ed.). Facts On File. p.
2694:(image, sculpture) of the emperor as
1349:
1328:
1307:
1125:are referenced in this early period.
647:
7:
3873:Papers of the British School at Rome
3649:The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare
3285:(New York, Routledge, 2002) pp. 53ff
2233:The forward hastati (forward spears)
1945:; created in 43 BC, recorded in the
55:adding citations to reliable sources
3588:The Encyclopedia of Ancient History
1960:According to the late Roman writer
953:and whose wealth could afford them
3661:(with English translation on-line)
3590:, Legions, history and location of
2823:Loss of time in service advantages
2248:The rear triarii (rear third line)
2031:(who received the base wage of 10
1557:, and labourers. There was also a
1524:), helmet and rectangular shield (
1448:consisted of 60 men; a century of
1009:. Unit sizes were also expanded.
821:("Nineteenth Legion"), founded by
25:
3734:(Routledge 1995) by T. J. Cornell
3708:The Military System Of The Romans
3340:La fin de l'armée romaine 284–476
3222:. Thames and Hudson. p. 121.
3057:Roman military personal equipment
3037:List of Roman auxiliary regiments
2970:Roman military personal equipment
2273:had a chance of later becoming a
1933:; 305 other units in the Eastern
1422:meaning to use one's last resort.
3393:Bowman, Garnsey, Rathbone (eds)
3158:Handbook to life in ancient Rome
3042:Military history of ancient Rome
3001:
2703:Each legion, furthermore, had a
1995:fall of the Western Roman Empire
1440:. At this time, each century of
1360:served primarily as reserves or
1068:Military history of ancient Rome
1054:) may have become even smaller.
959:in the case of a broken spear.
588:
148:
31:
2886:Factors in the legion's success
1463:Roman army of the late Republic
1164:overthrow of the Roman monarchy
917:After a crushing defeat at the
913:Depiction of Roman legionnaires
42:needs additional citations for
3434:Warfare in the Classical World
2968:Roman military equipment (cf.
2725:, and were called, therefore,
2236:The rear hastati (rear spears)
1997:. It was continued within the
1804:Map of Roman legions by 212 AD
1372:, and were equipped with long
1158:Roman army of the mid-Republic
839:Quintili Vare, legiones redde!
1:
3746:Humanities Dimensions History
3373:. Winged Hussar. p. 77.
2048:
2027:Aside from the rank and file
1649:Map of Roman legions by 14 AD
1641:Sub-units of the Roman legion
1475:Sub-Units of the Roman legion
1432:. A maniple consisted of two
1416:To fall back upon the triarii
1208:
1078:
874:
483:Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes
140:Roman legion (disambiguation)
3725:(Oxford, September 1998) by
3084:. Penn State. Archived from
2388:: commanded a cavalry unit (
2066:Legatus Augusti pro praetore
778:(provincials who aspired to
397:Frontiers and fortifications
3848:10.25162/historia-2020-0003
3830:Taylor, Michael J. (2020).
3807:. Oxford University Press.
3369:Esposito, Gabriele (2016).
1897:legiones pseudocomitatenses
1857:. In addition to the elite
1624:Early Empire (27 BC–AD 284)
1098:and the early years of the
209:Decorations and punishments
4002:
3597:. Vol 1. Ancient Warfare,
2746:
2575:, who increased it to 500
2567:, who increased it to 300
2023:Military rank § Roman
2016:
1931:vexillationes comitatenses
1793:
1787:
1784:Later Empire (from 284 AD)
1683:Battle of Teutoburg Forest
1633:
1627:
1514:), the short sword called
1466:
1460:
1155:
1087:
1061:
1041:In the fourth century AD,
854:
817:("Eighteenth Legion") and
727:may have meant the entire
137:
131:
3926:Roman Legionary AD 69–161
3885:10.1017/S0068246200007789
3595:History of the Art of War
3524:The University of Chicago
2820:– dishonourable discharge
2551:Legionaries received 225
1755:legions chose to support
1749:Year of the Four Emperors
1457:Late Republic (107–27 BC)
1378:(spears) rather than the
1364:designed to backstop the
1241:agility in a time before
1178:raised ten legions which
1152:Mid Republic (509–107 BC)
1025:to over 5,200 men in the
891:some 50 years earlier.
804:Islamic conquest of Egypt
762:Function and constitution
3966:Military of ancient Rome
3655:Flavius Vegetius Renatus
3501:Several Authors (2015).
2603:) and/or a plot of good
1712:(legionary fortresses).
1162:At some point after the
813:("Seventeenth Legion"),
512:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum
497:Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes
167:Military of ancient Rome
3699:The Complete Roman Army
3189:A manual of Roman coins
3187:Boyne, William (1968).
3131:Archaeology and Science
2885:
2357:Standard duty positions
2019:Ranks in the Roman army
1974:and each cohort had an
1937:and 181 in the Western
1863:, other legions called
1697:along with a permanent
1176:Manius Valerius Maximus
798:, which was founded by
595:Ancient Rome portal
3628:Greece and Rome at War
3218:Watson, G. R. (1969).
3053:Roman infantry tactics
2945:Roman discipline (cf.
2902:
2669:
2421:Special duty positions
2321:. They, excluding the
2186:
1805:
1658:
1650:
1608:. This crisis and the
1484:
914:
848:
838:
640:
3944:UNRV's Roman Military
3783:The Classical Journal
3685:, Victor Davis Hanson
3679:, Adrian Goldsworthy.
3573:, Hacket, 1999, p. 24
3207:. Self-Publish. 2015.
3032:List of Roman legions
3022:List of Roman battles
2924:heavy mounted cavalry
2901:Reenactment: training
2900:
2664:
2557:a year (equal to 900
2458:: each century had a
2184:
2158:Tribuni angusticlavii
1970:, each century had a
1893:legiones comitatenses
1803:
1796:List of Roman legions
1751:was decided when the
1656:
1648:
1606:constitutional crisis
1576:military intelligence
1564:of ten or more light
1482:
1469:List of Roman legions
1003:were replaced by the
912:
784:honourably discharged
478:Neckar-Odenwald Limes
293:Technological history
134:List of Roman legions
3710:, by Albert Harkness
3614:A History of Warfare
3432:John, Warry (1995).
3281:Mccall, Jeremiah B.
2769:animadversio fustium
2667:Legio XV Apollinaris
2580:be claimed from the
2275:praefectus castrorum
2164:Narrow Band Tribunes
2132:Praefectus castrorum
2118:Tribunus laticlavius
1999:Eastern Roman Empire
1778:praefectus castrorum
468:Lower Germanic Limes
367:Strategy and tactics
302:Military engineering
204:Unit types and ranks
138:For other uses, see
51:improve this article
3683:Carnage and Culture
3406:Birley, Anthony R.
3371:The Late Roman Army
3133:. 11 2015: 145–154.
3009:Ancient Rome portal
2835:– additional duties
2812:– reduction in rank
2771:(Tac. Annals I, 23)
2615:increased to 5,000
1953:under the title of
1951:legione comitatense
1943:Legion V Macedonica
1630:Imperial Roman army
1412:Ad triarios redisse
919:Battle of the Allia
809:On the other hand,
704:A legion had 4,800
463:Lauter Valley Limes
3917:2021-05-19 at the
3727:Adrian Goldsworthy
3703:Adrian Goldsworthy
3651:, Trevor N. Dupuy.
3608:Adrian Goldsworthy
3482:on 21 January 2022
3239:The Twelve Caesars
3017:List of Roman wars
2956:, illustrate this.
2903:
2817:Missio ignominiosa
2786:Whipping with the
2670:
2593:veterans' benefits
2466:the 1st century's
2187:
2124:Broad Band Tribune
1947:Notitia Dignitatum
1889:legiones palatinae
1884:Notitia Dignitatum
1872:pseudocomitatenses
1830:legiones palatinae
1822:legiones palatinae
1810:Later Roman Empire
1806:
1659:
1651:
1485:
915:
873:, who was writing
796:Legio V Macedonica
663:, was composed of
564:Limes Tripolitanus
185:Structural history
3822:978-0-19-938113-5
3342:Economica, 2005.
3254:, Early republic.
3220:The Roman Soldier
2954:Pyrrhus of Epirus
2898:
2840:Major punishments
2778:Pecuniaria mulcta
2757:Minor punishments
2599:from the time of
2573:Septimius Severus
2435:was the legion's
1955:Quinta Macedonica
1875:, along with the
1774:military tribunes
1701:where served the
1119:second in command
974:, along with two
780:Roman citizenship
649:[ˈɫɛɡioː]
629:
628:
580:
579:
571:Limes Mauretaniae
426:Limes Britannicus
387:
386:
351:Political history
341:
340:
261:
260:
127:
126:
119:
101:
16:(Redirected from
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3896:
3867:
3826:
3799:
3773:
3767:
3759:
3574:
3569:Montesquieu C.,
3567:
3561:
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3558:
3556:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3487:
3481:
3475:. Archived from
3474:
3466:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3429:
3423:
3417:
3411:
3404:
3398:
3391:
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3255:
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3110:
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3011:
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3005:
3004:
2899:
2833:Munerum indictio
2827:Militiae mutatio
2697:pontifex maximus
2582:prisoners of war
2540:military diploma
2472:centurial signum
2337:Other centurions
2202:
2088:Legatus legionis
2053:
2050:
1901:auxilia palatina
1878:auxilia palatina
1695:Praetorian Guard
1596:was recognised.
1566:mounted infantry
1351:
1330:
1309:
1213:
1210:
1090:Early Roman army
1083:
1080:
1029:, consisting of
1012:Non-citizens or
882:
876:
841:
651:
646:
621:
614:
607:
593:
592:
591:
452:Limes Germanicus
402:
379:Infantry tactics
372:
328:Triumphal arches
298:
279:Wars and battles
271:Campaign history
190:
152:
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145:
122:
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21:
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3956:
3955:
3919:Wayback Machine
3904:
3899:
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3829:
3823:
3802:
3776:
3760:
3756:
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3568:
3564:
3554:
3552:
3550:Merriam-Webster
3544:
3543:
3539:
3529:
3527:
3518:Edwards, H. J.
3517:
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3326:.hypotheses.org
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3269:Ab urbe condita
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2928:mounted archers
2890:
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2809:Gradus deiectio
2759:
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2745:
2646:
2625:
2549:
2528:military police
2423:
2359:
2350:
2179:
2110:auxiliary units
2080:Senatorial rank
2072:Imperial Legate
2060:
2058:Senior officers
2051:
2025:
2015:
2013:Legionary ranks
1988:field artillery
1798:
1792:
1790:Late Roman army
1786:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1626:
1598:Roman governors
1477:
1472:
1465:
1459:
1211:
1202:(cavalry): the
1160:
1154:
1130:Servius Tullius
1123:standard bearer
1092:
1086:
1081:
1077:Roman Kingdom (
1074:
1062:Main articles:
1060:
964:Polybian system
877:
859:
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3669:The Gallic War
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3659:De Re Militari
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3624:The Roman Army
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721:Roman Kingdom
719:In the early
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714:Julius Caesar
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671:. During the
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537:Trajan's Wall
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532:Limes Moesiae
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68: –
67:
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62:Find sources:
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40:This article
38:
34:
29:
28:
19:
3943:
3931:Ross Cowan,
3925:
3923:Ross Cowan,
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3842:(1): 38–56.
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3580:Bibliography
3570:
3565:
3553:. Retrieved
3549:
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3528:. Retrieved
3523:
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3503:
3496:
3484:. Retrieved
3477:the original
3464:
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3096:
3090:. Retrieved
3086:the original
3076:
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2876:
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2797:
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2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2704:
2702:
2695:
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2683:
2678:tenth legion
2673:
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2409:contubernium
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2383:
2376:
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2362:
2351:
2341:primus pilus
2340:
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2330:
2327:primus pilus
2326:
2323:primus pilus
2322:
2319:primus pilus
2318:
2313:
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2307:primus pilus
2306:
2302:
2299:primus pilus
2298:
2294:
2289:
2288:
2283:Primus pilus
2282:
2279:primus pilus
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2271:primus pilus
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2265:
2260:Primus pilus
2258:
2257:
2251:
2228:
2223:
2221:
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2196:primus pilus
2194:
2189:The rank of
2188:
2167:
2163:
2156:
2155:
2146:primus pilus
2145:
2141:
2138:Camp Prefect
2137:
2130:
2129:
2123:
2116:
2115:
2093:
2086:
2085:
2071:
2064:
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2038:
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2007:Theme system
1992:
1983:
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1954:
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1924:
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1916:Gratianenses
1914:
1908:
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1866:comitatenses
1864:
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1212: 3,000
1197:
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1127:
1107:
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1093:
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1046:border guard
1040:
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1027:Roman Empire
1020:
1013:
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1004:
998:
991:
985:
975:
971:
970:replaced by
967:
961:
954:
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927:
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893:
867:Roman tribes
860:
843:
836:
808:
793:
765:
749:
746:border guard
736:
724:
718:
703:
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633:Roman legion
632:
630:
569:
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546:
510:
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424:
408:
311:
113:
104:
94:
87:
80:
73:
61:
49:Please help
44:verification
41:
18:Roman Legion
3619:John Keegan
3555:October 24,
3397:pp. 326–327
2920:quinquereme
2906:Montesquieu
2878:sacramentum
2636:Duplicarius
2372:Tesserarius
2348:Legionaries
2331:pilus prior
2303:pilus prior
2301:was also a
2295:pilus prior
2290:Pilus prior
2277:. When the
2213:pilus prior
2150:auxiliaries
1824:created by
1679:Mark Antony
1495:cooking pot
1490:contubernia
1259:skirmishers
923:the poorest
878: 150
815:Legio XVIII
772:auxiliaries
706:legionaries
669:legionaries
667:serving as
442:Saxon Shore
3960:Categories
3908:Ross Cowan
3864:2328625404
3778:Radin, Max
3443:0806127945
3420:Radin 1915
3348:2717848614
3310:: 251–254.
3173:0816050260
3092:2023-03-03
3064:References
2947:decimation
2872:Decimation
2865:fustuarium
2856:fustuarium
2847:Fustuarium
2764:Castigatio
2743:Discipline
2705:vexillifer
2687:imaginifer
2674:Gallic War
2623:Pay scales
2503:Imaginifer
2414:quaternion
2177:Centurions
2052: 290
2045:Diocletian
2017:See also:
1848:Divitenses
1843:Herculiani
1826:Diocletian
1814:Roman army
1794:See also:
1726:Pax Romana
1710:legionaria
1699:Roman navy
1620:in 27 BC.
1610:civil wars
1541:contained
1508:(singular
1438:centurions
1084:to 509 BC)
1082: 752
1064:Roman army
1043:East Roman
889:Punic wars
811:Legio XVII
743:East Roman
729:Roman army
681:Principate
661:Roman army
473:Main Limes
132:See also:
107:March 2024
77:newspapers
3893:0068-2462
3879:: 13–31.
3856:0018-2311
3764:cite book
3486:3 January
3234:Suetonius
3069:Citations
2936:Parthians
2932:Numidians
2794:flagellum
2656:aquilifer
2609:Caracalla
2560:sestertii
2433:aquilifer
2428:Aquilifer
2380:vanguard.
2191:centurion
2029:legionary
2003:Heraclius
1980:libritors
1939:limitanei
1935:limitanei
1910:Honoriani
1887:lists 25
1834:Lanciarii
1832:were the
1818:Tetrarchy
1757:Vespasian
1745:Vitellius
1718:Favorinus
1687:Germanics
1639:See also
1634:See also
1594:demagogue
1578:service.
1502:principes
1473:See also
1467:See also
1446:principes
1434:centuries
1408:principes
1392:principes
1370:principes
1324:principes
1282:principes
1226:decurions
1115:centurion
1109:centuriae
1051:limitanei
1048:legions (
1031:centuries
1015:peregrini
900:Etruscans
851:Evolution
819:Legio XIX
790:Longevity
751:limitanei
748:legions (
723:the term
458:Alb Limes
3915:Archived
3860:ProQuest
3836:Historia
3530:April 2,
3099:manipuli
2995:See also
2798:flagella
2733:vexillum
2719:vexillum
2710:vexillum
2605:farmland
2601:Augustus
2565:Domitian
2563:) until
2535:Evocatus
2508:Augustus
2492:signifer
2487:Cornicen
2480:signifer
2468:signifer
2460:signifer
2455:Signifer
2437:standard
2385:Decurion
2142:tribunii
2106:governor
2076:governor
1972:ballista
1962:Vegetius
1905:legiones
1899:and 111
1860:palatini
1753:Danubian
1734:division
1671:and six
1618:Augustus
1430:maniples
1410:troops.
1354:triarius
1333:princeps
1312:hastatus
1285:was the
1243:stirrups
1238:outflank
1190:Legion.
1102:and the
885:Hannibal
871:Polybius
827:Arminius
823:Augustus
800:Augustus
654:military
253:Admirals
228:Generals
159:a series
157:Part of
3950:Legio X
3796:3287327
2915:gladius
2860:tribune
2852:cudgels
2802:volones
2789:flagrum
2644:Symbols
2617:denarii
2613:praemia
2597:denarii
2589:praemia
2577:denarii
2569:denarii
2554:denarii
2520:immunes
2515:Immunes
2403:Decanus
2205:maniple
2203:"first
2098:senator
2040:denarii
1921:Notitia
1838:Joviani
1808:In the
1765:legatus
1747:in the
1741:usurper
1730:Severus
1703:liberti
1668:legatus
1568:called
1554:velites
1544:immunes
1539:Auxilia
1535:auxilia
1516:gladius
1450:triarii
1442:hastati
1404:hastati
1400:triarii
1396:phalanx
1388:hastati
1384:gladius
1366:hastati
1358:triarii
1345:triarii
1337:hastati
1316:hastati
1303:hastati
1294:caligae
1288:gladius
1264:velites
1250:Velites
1234:equites
1232:or the
1230:hastati
1216:velites
1204:cavalry
1199:Equites
1172:consuls
1058:History
1006:velites
993:rorarii
987:accensi
944:triarii
939:maniple
904:phalanx
887:in the
829:in the
756:phalanx
710:cohorts
708:(in 10
698:equites
659:of the
223:Auxilia
214:Legions
91:scholar
3891:
3862:
3854:
3819:
3794:
3752:
3695:, 1988
3440:
3377:
3346:
3272:, 2.30
3170:
2984:castra
2723:aquila
2715:signum
2651:aquila
2611:, the
2496:signum
2478:, the
2476:signum
2464:cohort
2447:aquila
2442:aquila
2377:optios
2264:: the
2209:cohort
1984:castra
1976:onager
1770:legate
1708:castra
1663:Gemina
1616:under
1614:Empire
1527:scutum
1375:hastae
1221:turmae
1142:censeō
1136:(from
1134:census
1132:, the
1070:, and
972:gladii
968:hastae
956:gladii
950:clipei
928:hastae
725:legion
645:Latin:
356:
313:Castra
248:Fleets
175:AD 476
171:753 BC
161:on the
93:
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3792:JSTOR
3716:, by
3701:, by
3691:, by
3480:(PDF)
3473:(PDF)
3458:p. 20
3322:"Map"
3300:(PDF)
3144:data.
2978:sudis
2692:imago
2450:wage.
2439:– or
2391:turma
2364:Optio
2034:assēs
1949:as a
1895:, 47
1891:, 70
1720:that
1674:duces
1562:squad
1511:pilum
1420:idiom
1386:(the
1380:pilum
1276:pilum
1168:legio
1146:legio
1138:Latin
1096:legio
1000:leves
982:melee
934:scuta
641:legiō
637:Latin
416:Walls
410:Limes
333:Roads
98:JSTOR
84:books
3889:ISSN
3852:ISSN
3817:ISBN
3770:link
3750:ISBN
3626:and
3557:2018
3532:2020
3488:2022
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3264:Livy
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691:Size
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194:Army
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