Roman glass - Knowledge (XXG)

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in technology. From the 2nd century onwards styles became increasingly regionalised, and evidence indicates that bottles and closed vessels such as unguentaria moved as a by-product of the trade in their contents, and many appear to have matched the Roman scale of liquid measurement. The use of coloured glass as a decorative addition to pale and colourless glasses also increased, and metal vessels continued to influence the shape of glass vessels. After the conversion of Constantine, glass works began to move more quickly from depicting Pagan religious imagery towards Christian religious imagery. The movement of the capital to

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this period vessel forms varied between workshops, with areas such as the Rhineland and northern France producing distinctive forms which are not seen further south. Growth in the industry continued into the 3rd century AD, when sites at the Colonia Claudia Agrippinensis appear to have experienced significant expansion, and by the 3rd and early 4th centuries producers north of the Alps were exporting down to the north of Italy and the transalpine regions.

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that styles of glass varied geographically, with the translucent coloured fine wares of the early 1st century notably 'western' in origin, whilst the later colourless fine wares are more 'international'. These objects also represent the first with a distinctly Roman style unrelated to the Hellenistic casting traditions on which they are based, and are characterised by novel rich colours. 'Emerald' green, dark or

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from Wadi El Natrun as a flux, has resulted in a largely homogenous composition in the majority of Roman glasses. Despite the publication of major analyses, comparisons of chemical analyses produced by different analytical methods have only recently been attempted, and although there is some variation in Roman glass compositions, meaningful compositional groups have been difficult to establish for this period.

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frequent and extensive, and that quantities of broken glassware were concentrated at local sites prior to melting back into raw glass. In the eastern empire, there is evidence of recycled Roman glass being used to glaze Parthian pottery. Compositionally, repeated recycling is visible via elevated levels of those metals used as colourants.

938:-rich minerals were used. However, antimony acts as a stronger decolourant than manganese, producing a more truly colourless glass; in Italy and northern Europe antimony or a mixture of antimony and manganese continued to be used well into the 3rd century. This end has been linked to the end of Roman occupation of 1014:

The natural 'aqua' shade can be intensified with the addition of copper. During the Roman period this was derived from the recovery of oxide scale from scrap copper when heated, to avoid the contaminants present in copper minerals. Copper produced a translucent blue moving towards a darker and denser

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The scarcity of archaeological evidence for Roman glass-making facilities has resulted in the use of chemical compositions as evidence for production models, as the division of production indicates that any variation is related to differences in raw glass making. However, the Roman reliance on natron

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allowed glass workers to produce vessels with considerably thinner walls, decreasing the amount of glass needed for each vessel. Glass blowing was also considerably quicker than other techniques, and vessels required considerably less finishing, representing a further saving in time, raw material and

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Under strongly reducing conditions, copper present in the glass will precipitate inside the matrix as cuprous oxide, making the glass appear brown to blood red. Lead encourages precipitation and brilliance. The red is a rare find, but is known to have been in production during the 4th, 5th and later

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By the early-to-mid-1st century AD, the growth of the Empire saw the establishment of glass working sites at locations along trade routes, with Cologne and other Rhineland centres becoming important glass working sites from the Imperial period, and Syrian glass being exported as far as Italy. During

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From around 70 AD colourless glass becomes the predominant material for fine wares, and the cheaper glasses move towards pale shades of blue, green, and yellow. Debate continues whether this change in fashion indicates a change in attitude that placed glass as individual material of merit no longer

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both indicate that recycling broken glass was an important part of the glass industry, and this seems to be supported by the fact that only rarely are glass fragments of any size recovered from domestic sites of this period. In the western empire there is evidence that recycling of broken glass was

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Glass making reached its peak at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, with glass objects in domestic contexts of every kind. The primary production techniques of blowing, and to a lesser extent casting, remained in use for the rest of the Roman period, with changes in vessel types but little change

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for mosaics, and the first window glass, as furnace technology improved allowing molten glass to be produced for the first time. At the same time, the expansion of the empire also brought an influx of people and an expansion of cultural influences that resulted in the adoption of eastern decorative

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The glass industry was therefore a relatively minor craft during the Republican period; although, during the early decades of the 1st century AD the quantity and diversity of glass vessels available increased dramatically. This was a direct result of the massive growth of the Roman influence at the

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and the dominance of colourless or 'aqua' glasses. Production of raw glass was undertaken in geographically separate locations to the working of glass into finished vessels, and by the end of the 1st century AD large scale manufacturing resulted in the establishment of glass as a commonly available

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Artisans used a mass of mud and straw fixed around a metal rod to form a core, and built up a vessel by either dipping the core in liquified glass, or by trailing liquid glass over the core. The core was removed after the glass had cooled, and handles, rims and bases were then added. These vessels

529:, a deep blue-green and Persian or 'peacock' blue are most commonly associated with this period, and other colours are very rare. Of these, Emerald green and peacock blue were new colours introduced by the Romano-Italian industry and almost exclusively associated with the production of fine wares. 524:

The earliest Roman glass follows Hellenistic traditions and uses strongly coloured and 'mosaic' patterned glass. During the late Republican period new highly coloured striped wares with a fusion of dozens of monochrome and lace-work strips were introduced. During this period there is some evidence

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developed in Rome, Campania and the Po Valley by the end of the 1st century BC, producing the new blown vessels alongside cast vessels. Italy is known to have been a centre for the working and export of brightly coloured vessels at this time, with production peaking during the mid-1st century AD.

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illustrates. These workshops could produce many tonnes of raw glass in a single furnace firing, and although this firing might have taken weeks, a single primary workshop could potentially supply multiple secondary glass working sites. It is therefore thought that raw glass production was centred

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As a result of these factors, the cost of production was reduced and glass became available for a wider section of society in a growing variety of forms. By the mid-1st century AD this meant that glass vessels had moved from a valuable, high-status commodity, to a material commonly available: "a

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The siting of glass-making workshops was governed by three primary factors: the availability of fuel which was needed in large quantities, sources of sand which represented the major constituent of the glass, and natron to act as a flux. Roman glass relied on natron from Wadi El Natrun, and as a

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However, during the last thirty years of the 1st century AD there was a marked change in style, with strong colours disappearing rapidly, replaced by 'aqua' and true colourless glasses. Colourless and 'aqua' glasses had been in use for vessels and some mosaic designs prior to this, but start to

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In comparison to glass making, there is evidence for glass working in many locations across the empire. Unlike the making process, the working of glass required significantly lower temperatures and substantially less fuel. As a result of this and the expansion of the Empire, glass working sites

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states that "the most highly valued glass is colourless and transparent, as closely as possible resembling rock crystal" (36, 198), which is thought to support this last position, as is evidence for the persistence of casting as a production technique, which produced the thickly walled vessels

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Colourless glass was produced in the Roman period by adding either antimony or manganese oxide. This oxidised the iron (II) oxide to iron (III) oxide, which although yellow, is a much weaker colourant, allowing the glass to appear colourless. The use of manganese as a decolourant was a Roman

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This was produced by binding rods of coloured glass together and heating and fusing them into a single piece. These were then cut in cross-section, and the resulting discs could be fused together to create complex patterns. Alternately, two strips of contrasting-coloured glass could be fused

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styles. The changes that took place in the Roman glass industry during this period can therefore be seen as a result of three primary influences: historical events, technical innovation and contemporary fashions. They are also linked to the fashions and technologies developed in the

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dominate the blown glass market at this time. The use of strong colours in cast glass died out during this period, with colourless or 'aqua' glasses dominating the last class of cast vessels to be produced in quantity, as mould and free-blowing took over during the 1st century AD.

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Melting does not appear to have taken place in crucibles; rather, cooking pots appear to have been used for small scale operations. For larger work, large tanks or tank-like ceramic containers were utilised. In the largest cases, large furnaces were built to surround these tanks.

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Roman glass has also been shown to contain around 1% to 2% chlorine, in contrast to later glasses. This is thought to have originated either in the addition of salt (NaCl) to reduce the melting temperature and viscosity of the glass, or as a contaminant in the natron.

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Roman glass production relied on the application of heat to fuse two primary ingredients: silica and soda. Technical studies of archaeological glasses divide the ingredients of glass as formers, fluxes, stabilisers, as well as possible opacifiers or colourants.

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Glass working sites such as those at Aquileia also had an important role in the spread of glassworking traditions and the trade in materials that used hollow glasswares as containers. However, by the 4th and 5th centuries Italian glass workshops predominate.

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has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated. In contrast, a much smaller group of 3rd century portrait levels are superbly executed, with pigment painted on top of the gold. The same technique began to be used for gold

428:(36, 194), in addition to evidence for the first use of molten glass in the mid-1st century AD, indicates that furnace technologies experienced marked development during the early-to-mid-1st century AD, in tandem with the expansion of glass production. 415:

periods, it is clear that glass making was a significant industry. By the end of the Roman period glass was being produced in large quantities contained in tanks situated inside highly specialised furnaces, as the 8-tonne glass slab recovered from

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Verney-Carron, Aurélie; Sessegolo, Loryelle; Chabas, Anne; Lombardo, Tiziana; Rossano, Stéphanie; Perez, Anne; Valbi, Valentina; Boutillez, Chloé; Muller, Camille; Vaulot, Cyril; Trichereau, Barbara; Loisel, Claudine (2023-06-17).

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and revived in the 3rd century. There are a very fewer larger designs, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the cut-off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the

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Strips of coloured glass were twisted with a contrasting coloured thread of glass before being fused together. This was a popular method in the early period, but appears to have gone out of fashion by the mid-1st century

378:: Glasses formed of silica and soda are naturally soluble, and require the addition of a stabiliser such as lime or magnesia. Lime was the primary stabiliser in use during the Roman period, entering the glass through 95:

material in the Roman world, and one which also had technically very difficult specialized types of luxury glass, which must have been very expensive, and competed with silver and gold as elite tableware.

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period. The majority of manufacturing techniques were time-consuming, and the initial product was a thick-walled vessel which required considerable finishing. This, combined with the cost of importing

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Lengths of monochrome and lacework glass were fused together to create vivid striped designs, a technique that developed from the lace pattern technique during the last decades of the 1st century AD.

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of the glass plate during melting. However, by using spiral and circular patterns of alternating colours producers were also able to deliberately imitate the appearance of natural stones such as

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together, and then wound round a glass rod whilst still hot to produce a spiral pattern. Cross-sections of this were also cut, and could be fused together to form a plate or fused to plain glass.

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Guidetti, Giulia; Zanini, Roberta; Franceschin, Giulia; Moglianetti, Mauro; Kim, Taehoon; Cohan, Nathaniel; Chan, Lisa; Treadgold, John; Traviglia, Arianna; Omenetto, Fiorenzo G. (2023-09-18).

2016:

Guidetti, Giulia; Zanini, Roberta; Franceschin, Giulia; Moglianetti, Mauro; Kim, Taehoon; Cohan, Nathaniel; Chan, Lisa; Treadgold, John; Traviglia, Arianna; Omenetto, Fiorenzo G. (2023-09-18).

849:, were being produced specifically for use in mosaics. These were usually in shades of yellow, blue or green, and were predominantly used in mosaics laid under fountains or as highlights. 701:

The glass sheets used for slumping could be produced of plain or multicoloured glass, or even formed of 'mosaic' pieces. The production of these objects later developed into the modern

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Shards of broken glass or glass rods were being used in mosaics from the Augustan period onwards, but by the beginning of the 1st century small glass tiles, known as

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There is only limited evidence for local glass making, and only in context of window glass. The development of this large-scale industry is not fully understood, but

154:, at the beginning of the 1st century AD there was still no Latin word for it in the Roman world. However, glass was being produced in Roman contexts using primarily 2219:

Meredith, H. G., 2015. Word becomes Image: Open-Work Vessels as a Reflection of Late Antique Transformation. Archaeopress Archaeology Series. Oxford: Archaeopres.

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Dussart, O., B. Velde, et al., 2004. Glass from Qal'at Sem'an (Northern Syria): The reworking of glass during the transition from Roman to Islamic compositions.

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Dussart, O., B. Velde, et al., 2004. Glass from Qal'at Sem'an (Northern Syria): The reworking of glass during the transition from Roman to Islamic compositions.

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These colours formed the basis of all Roman glass, and although some of them required high technical ability and knowledge, a degree of uniformity was achieved.

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by pressing them into the mortar. The great majority are 4th century, extending into the 5th century. Most are Christian, but many pagan and a few Jewish; their

2882: 436:. This facilitated the trade in the raw colourless or naturally coloured glass which they produced, which reached glass-working sites across the Roman empire. 1141:

Precipitation of lead pyroantimonate creates an opaque yellow. Yellow rarely appears alone in Roman glass, but was used for the mosaic and polychrome pieces.

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Silvestri, A., G. Molin, et al., 2005. Roman and medieval glass from the Italian area: Bulk characterization and relationships with production technologies.

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Amrein, H.,2001, L'atelier de verriers d'Avenches. L'artisanat du verre au milieu du 1er siècle après J.-C., Cahiers d'archéologie romande 87, Lausanne 2001.

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Degryse, P.; Gonzalez, S.N.; Vanhaecke, F.; Dillis, S.; Van Ham-Meert, A. (2024). "The rise and fall of antimony: Sourcing the "colourless" in Roman glass".

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Sulfur is likely to have entered the glass as a contaminant of natron, producing a green tinge. Formation of iron-sulfur compounds produces an amber colour.

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required to imitate precious stones, ceramics, or metal, or whether the shift to colourless glass indicated an attempt to mimic highly prized rock crystal.

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was used primarily for the production of vessels, although mosaic tiles and window glass were also produced. Roman glass production developed from

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are characterised by relatively thick walls, bright colours and zigzagging patterns of contrasting colours, and were limited in size to small

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These techniques, which were to dominate the Roman glass working industry after the late 1st century AD, are discussed in detail on the

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result it is thought that glass-making workshops during the Roman period may have been confined to near-coastal regions of the eastern

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Price, J., 1990. A survey of the Hellenistic and early Roman vessel glass found on the Unexplored Mansion Site at Knossos in Crete.

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in the western provinces did much to prevent any downturn there. By the mid-4th century mould-blowing was in use only sporadically.

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for the production of raw glass, contributed to the limited use of glass and its position as an expensive and high-status material.

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for mosaics in the mid-1st century in Rome, and by the 5th century these had become the standard background for religious mosaics.

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Antimony reacts with the lime in the glass matrix to precipitate calcium antimonite crystals creating a white with high opacity.

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or scent containers. This early technique continued in popularity during the 1st century BC, despite the earlier introduction of

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Velde, B., Year. Observations on the chemical compositions of several types of Gallo-Roman and Frankish glass production. In:

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Velde, B., Year. Observations on the chemical compositions of several types of Gallo-Roman and Frankish glass production. In:

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glass network, or incorporated in a later stade in the altered glass (buried in the soil or exposed to ambient air) by a slow

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constituted by hundred of nanolayers of silica crystallised at the surface of the altered glass is responsible for a typical

906:'Aqua', a pale blue-green colour, is the common natural colour of untreated glass. Many early Roman vessels are this colour. 1847:, 1990. A survey of the Hellenistic and early Roman vessel glass found on the Unexplored Mansion Site at Knossos in Crete. 856:

into a wooden frame on top of a layer of sand or stone, but from the late 3rd century onwards window glass was made by the

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Majérus, Odile; Lehuédé, Patrice; Biron, Isabelle; Alloteau, Fanny; Narayanasamy, Sathya; Caurant, Daniel (2020-08-27).

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Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style," in Eva R. Hoffman (ed),

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around a relatively small number of workshops, where glass was produced on a large scale and then broken into chunks.

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Archaeological evidence for glass making during the Roman period is scarce, but by drawing comparisons with the later

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The production of multicoloured vessels declined after the mid-1st century, but remained in use for some time after.

2626: 2419:"A review of glass corrosion: the unique contribution of studying ancient glass to validate glass alteration models" 2184:

Freestone, I. C., 2006. Glass production in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic period: a geochemical perspective.

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Degryse, P., 2014. Glass Making in the Greco-Roman World, Results of the ARCHGLASS Project, Leuven University Press.

4756: 4420: 4312: 4082: 3854: 3676: 3584: 3449: 3392: 425: 219: 42: 731:. This occurs most often on pillar-moulded bowls, which are one of the commonest glass finds on 1st century sites. 242:

periods, by the middle to late 1st century AD earlier techniques had been largely abandoned in favour of blowing.

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period, to which the glass belongs, 52–125 AD (although there is some scholarly debate about the precise dating).

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Facchini, G. M., 1990. Roman glass in an excavational context: Angere (VA). Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam.

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However, during the 1st century AD the industry underwent rapid technical growth that saw the introduction of

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In addition to this a major new technique in glass production had been introduced during the 1st century AD.

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technical traditions, initially concentrating on the production of intensely coloured cast glass vessels.

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Freestone, I. C., M. Ponting, Hughes, M.J., 2002. Origins of Byzantine glass from Maroni Petrera, Cyprus.

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Grose, D. F., 1991. Early Imperial Roman cast glass: The translucent coloured and colourless fine wares.

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Freestone, I. C., M. Ponting, Hughes, M.J.,2002. Origins of Byzantine glass from Maroni Petrera, Cyprus.

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Grose, D. F., 1991. Early Imperial Roman cast glass: The translucent coloured and colourless fine wares.

4761: 4691: 4515: 4267: 4067: 4062: 3859: 3766: 3691: 3654: 3639: 3614: 3594: 3496: 2793: 2766: 1809: 789: 603:, artisans were able to produce a variety of small containers from blocks of raw glass or thick moulded 2666: 2613: 852:

Around the same time the first window panes are thought to have been produced. The earliest panes were

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Wood, J.R. (2022): Approaches to interrogate the erased histories of recycled archaeological objects.

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techniques, but is noticeably different. Six primary patterns of 'mosaic' glass have been identified:

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Some of these patterns are clearly formed through the distortion of the original pattern during the

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necessary to take the pressure of extensive cutting and polishing associated with crystal working.

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Ancient glass covered by a patina responsible of their iridescent hues of blue, green, and orange

4390: 364:) was used exclusively in glass production. During this period, the primary source of soda was 190:

that followed the decades of civil war, and the stabilisation of the state that occurred under

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Jackson, C. M., H. E. M. Cool, Wager, E.C.W., 1998. The manufacture of glass in Roman York.

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Jackson, C. M., H. E. M. Cool, Wager, E.C.W., 1998. The manufacture of glass in Roman York.

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Baxter, M. J., H. E. M. Cool, Jackson, C.M., 2006. Comparing glass compositional analyses.

4545: 4357: 4337: 4297: 4232: 4182: 4177: 4052: 4002: 3910: 3744: 3724: 3644: 3093: 2918: 2844: 2839: 2776: 2740: 1473:, 79–94. Edited by Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. 1232: 1228: 916: 830: 412: 343: 227: 199: 115: 2417:

Zanini, Roberta; Franceschin, Giulia; Cattaruzza, Elti; Traviglia, Arianna (2023-05-20).

615:(still thought by most scholars to have been decorated by cutting, despite some debate). 417: 2498: 2463: 2177:

Freestone, I. C., 2005. The provenance of ancient glass through compositional analysis.

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Freestone, I. C., 2005. The provenance of ancient glass through compositional analysis.

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Gudenrath, W., 2006. Enameled Glass Vessels, 1425 BC – 1800: The decorating Process.

1962: 1801: 1061: 857: 654: 624: 600: 584: 558: 518: 433: 357: 203: 135: 2247:. Rome, Italy: L'Erma di Bretschneider in association with the Toledo Museum of Art. 2104:

Baxter, M. J., H. E. M. Cool, et al., 2006. Comparing glass compositional analyses.

513: 4610: 4470: 3915: 3864: 3819: 3814: 3666: 3476: 3362: 3306: 3301: 3191: 3073: 2957: 2891: 2834: 2725: 2600: 2589: 1745:"Approaches to interrogate the erased histories of recycled archaeological objects" 1594:. Rome, Italy, L'Erma di Fretshneidur in association with the Toledo Museum of Art. 1427: 1206: 686: 400: 296: 234: 195: 91: 72: 2292:

Wood, J.R. and Hsu, Y-T. (2020): Recycling Roman glass to glaze Parthian pottery.

2167:. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. 1777: 1744: 1405:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. 1989: 1212:

Glass alteration can also induce the formation of rhythmic bands of crystallised

860:, where a blown cylinder was cut laterally and flattened out to produce a sheet. 4405: 4027: 3849: 3739: 3133: 2634: 2583: 1244: 813: 781: 702: 644: 608: 604: 562: 526: 452: 334:: The major component of the glass is silica, which during the Roman period was 247: 207: 127: 2435: 2418: 2400: 2383: 2364: 2347: 2156:

Facchini, G. M., 1990. Roman glass in an excavational context: Angere (VA). In

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equipment. Although earlier techniques dominated during the early Augustan and

17: 4630: 4570: 4535: 4327: 4262: 4252: 4147: 4032: 3920: 3503: 3471: 3216: 3143: 2975: 2970: 2824: 1265: 1224: 987: 853: 777: 773: 757: 706: 379: 187: 139: 2509:"Ancient Roman "wow glass" has photonic crystal patina forged over centuries" 2489: 2454: 2409: 2373: 2069:"Ancient Roman "wow glass" has photonic crystal patina forged over centuries" 2043: 1209:, other processes of pure physical nature can also affect the glass colour. 627:

page. Mould-blown glass appears in the second quarter of the 1st century AD.

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Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road

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A number of other techniques were in use during the Roman period, including

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Rutti, B., 1991. Early Enamelled Glass. In M. Newby and K. Painter (eds.)

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Not all the colours of ancient glass are necessarily produced by chemical

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of the silica to form glass. Analysis of Roman glass has shown that soda (

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Jackson, Caroline (2005). "Making colourless glass in the Roman period".

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Glass Making in the Greco-Roman World, Results of the ARCHGLASS Project

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By adding lead, the green colour produced by copper could be darkened.

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Caldera de Castro, M. d. P., 1990. Roman glass in southwest Spain. In

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This technique is related to the origin of glass as a substitute for

365: 167: 123: 2254:. M. Newby and K. Painter. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. 2202:. M. Newby and K. Painter. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. 1578:. M. Newby and K. Painter. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. 2525: 1881:

Caldera de Castro, M. d. P., 1990. Roman glass in southwest Spain.

194:' rule. Still, Roman glasswares were already making their way from 4435: 4157: 3884: 3176: 2111:

Biek, L. and J. Bayley, 1979. Glass and other Vitreous Materials.

1174: 1173:, well known for their characteristic colours, or less frequently 939: 767: 680: 672: 635:

A number of other techniques were in use during the Roman period:

512: 487: 460: 447: 394: 317: 313: 273: 261: 211: 172: 110: 102: 80: 48: 29: 2275:, Nancy, France: Editions du Centre de Publications de L'A.I.H.V. 2149:

Evison, V. I., 1990. Red marbled glass, Roman to Carolingian. In

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particles in the beach sand, rather than as a separate component.

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Evison, V. I., 1990. "Red marbled glass, Roman to Carolingian".

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rejuvenated the Eastern glass industry, and the presence of the

178: 57:

is exemplary of luxury Roman glassware, c. late 1st century BC.

2864: 2529: 2186:

Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage: Geological Society of London

1919:, pp. 25–26, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, 346:. Alumina contents vary, peaking around 3% in glasses from the 259:

trade, from which a number of forms and techniques were drawn.

250:

XVI.2). This growth also saw the production of the first glass

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with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in

350:, and remaining notably lower in glasses from the Middle East. 1898:, 11–18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. 1469:

An, Jiayao. (2002). "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in

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invention first noted in the Imperial period; prior to this,

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Ribbed bowl of mosaic glass in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

2098:. Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, Shire Publications. 1554:. Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, Shire Publications. 492:

Engraved glass bowl from Colonia Agrippina, 3rd century AD

1636:

and the Early Islamic period: a geochemical perspective.

322:

Close-up of beach sand, the main component of Roman glass

246:

drinking cup could be bought for a copper coin" (Strabo,

2464:"Photonic crystals built by time in ancient Roman glass" 2264:

Stern, W. B., 1990. The composition of Roman glass. In:

2018:"Photonic crystals built by time in ancient Roman glass" 372:, Egypt, although there may have been a source in Italy. 2250:

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Caron, B., 1993. A Roman Figure-Engraved Glass Bowl.

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9e Congres International d'Etude Historique du Verre

1705:

9e Congres International d'Etude Historique du Verre

1606:

Stern, W. B., 1990. The composition of Roman glass.

799:

or gold glass was a technique for fixing a layer of

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Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World

2278:Whitehouse, D., 1990. Late Roman cameo glass. In: 2782:Conservation and restoration of Pompeian frescoes 1778:"Recycling Roman glass to glaze Parthian pottery" 1434:, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, 2468:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2287:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 2252:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 2231:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 2200:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 2022:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1576:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 517:Glass vessel from the 2nd century AD, found in 2429:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 2394:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 2358:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 1628: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1235:process of the glass, likely occurring in the 697:, lit from behind, with a modern foot and rim. 2876: 2541: 1432:Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire 8: 1814:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1632:Freestone, I. C., 2006. Glass production in 776:medallion with a portrait of a family, from 2233:. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. 2165:Roman Glass; reflections on cultural change 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1683: 1681: 1403:Roman Glass; reflections on cultural change 1201:responsible for the typical blue colour of 619:Glass blowing: free and mould blown vessels 206:in Afghanistan and India and as far as the 41:, dated to the mid-4th century. Collection 3965: 3291: 2923: 2883: 2869: 2861: 2548: 2534: 2526: 1978:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 1877: 1875: 1873: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1602: 1600: 1546: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1492:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 1397: 1395: 1393: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1385: 1383: 1381: 1379: 1377: 1375: 1373: 1371: 1369: 1367: 1365: 1363: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1161:, or impurities, initially present in the 2497: 2479: 2444: 2434: 2399: 2363: 2179:Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology 7 2051: 2033: 1830:Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology 7 1760: 1586: 1584: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1494:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1452: 1450: 1448: 1331: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1321: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1313: 1840: 1838: 1699: 1697: 1215: 874: 714:Floral (millefiori) and spiral patterns: 599:. By borrowing techniques for stone and 552: 403:, dated between 1st and 3rd centuries AD 356:: This ingredient was used to lower the 278:Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an 1570: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1309: 71:objects have been recovered across the 2115:11, Early Chemical Technology/1, 1–25. 1807: 148:glass working in the Hellenistic World 2762:Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum 1169:-controlled process. Beside metallic 7: 2122:. New York, Corning Museum of Glass. 1720:. New York, Corning Museum of Glass. 1189:), or the trisulfide cyclic species 2654:Art of Diocletian and the tetrarchy 2285:Whitehouse, D., 1991. Cameo Glass. 2188:. Special publication 257: 201–216. 2507:Ouellette, Jennifer (2023-09-18). 2307:https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12756 2298:https://doi.org/10.1017/irq.2020.9 2120:Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses 2067:Ouellette, Jennifer (2023-09-18). 1718:Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses 186:end of the Republican period, the 150:and the growing place of glass in 99:Growth of the Roman glass industry 25: 2324:"Roman glass in Northern Britain" 1917:Early Christian and Byzantine Art 1638:Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage 138:during the contemporaneous Roman 2337: 1963:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00231.x 1268: 1243:of the outer glass surface. The 216:first Roman glass found in China 107:Roman glass from the 2nd century 2578:Augustan and Julio-Claudian art 2259:American Journal of Archaeology 2172:Studies in ancient technology V 1937:Studies in ancient technology V 1416:American Journal of Archaeology 1776:Wood, J.R., Hsu, Y-T. (2020). 1231:produced by a slow rhythmic re 342:(typically 2.5%) and up to 8% 338:(quartz), which contains some 1: 1906:, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18. 1074:Opaque red to brown (Pliny's 721:Marbled and dappled patterns: 181:from Syria, c. 4th century AD 130:, which was once part of the 3455:Frontiers and fortifications 1990:10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104344 1227:glass. These bands resemble 1096:centuries on the continent. 764:List of gold-glass portraits 611:in two or more colours, and 549:Vessel production techniques 270:, found in Varpelev, Denmark 220:an early 1st-century BC tomb 75:in domestic, industrial and 3514:Decorations and punishments 2641:Art in the age of Gallienus 2134:Metropolitan Museum Journal 825:Other decorative techniques 631:Other production techniques 570:Core and rod formed vessels 158:techniques and styles (see 4854: 4421:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2996:historiography of the fall 2622:Art in the age of Commodus 2436:10.1038/s41529-023-00355-4 2401:10.1038/s41529-023-00367-0 2365:10.1038/s41529-020-00130-9 1733:, Leuven University Press. 1247:of light by the so-formed 1140: 1116: 1094: 1067: 1050: 1032: 1013: 970: 932: 905: 761: 755: 311: 43:Staatliche Antikensammlung 4802:External wars and battles 2926: 2899: 2609:Art of the early Antonini 2423:npj Materials Degradation 2388:npj Materials Degradation 2352:npj Materials Degradation 1939:. Editors: Leiden, Brill. 1490:Ebrey, Patricia. (1999). 1219:(neoformed nanolayers of 888: 885: 841:Tesserae and window glass 4838:Ancient Roman technology 2214:Journal of Glass Studies 2207:Journal of Glass Studies 2144:Journal of Glass Studies 1673:Journal of Glass Studies 1458:Journal of Glass Studies 1223:) at the surface of the 882: 879: 877: 4833:Ancient Roman glassware 4797:Roman–Iranian relations 3272:Optimates and populares 2808:Art in related cultures 2481:10.1073/pnas.2311583120 2245:Roman Mould-blown Glass 2035:10.1073/pnas.2311583120 1592:Roman Mould-blown Glass 1401:Fleming, S. J. (1999). 1136:(such as bindheimite). 463:, early 1st century AD. 455:plaque with the infant 426:Pliny's Natural History 177:A double-handled glass 134:, but was ruled by the 4807:Civil wars and revolts 4073:Sextus Pompeius Festus 3720:Conflict of the Orders 3079:Legislative assemblies 2280:Annales du 11e Congres 2266:Annales du 11e Congres 2224:Annales du 11e Congres 2163:Fleming, S. J., 1999. 2158:Annales du 11e Congres 2151:Annales du 11e Congres 2127:Annales du 11e Congres 2096:Roman Glass in Britain 2004:Annales du 11e Congres 1883:Annales du 11e Congres 1849:Annales du 11e Congres 1608:Annales du 11e Congres 1552:Roman Glass in Britain 1177:such as the red-brown 793: 698: 678: 645:Cameo glass production 566: 521: 493: 464: 404: 323: 287: 271: 182: 146:Despite the growth of 143: 132:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 108: 65: 46: 4516:Simplicius of Cilicia 4268:Quintus Curtius Rufus 3497:Siege in Ancient Rome 3106:Executive magistrates 2767:Fayum mummy portraits 2320:Charlesworth, Dorothy 2296:82, p. 259–270. 2170:Forbes, R. J., 1966. 1935:Forbes, R. J., 1966. 864:Chemistry and colours 790:Museo di Santa Giulia 771: 762:Further information: 684: 676: 661:Decorative techniques 556: 516: 491: 451: 398: 321: 277: 266:"Circus beaker" from 265: 226:, ostensibly via the 176: 114: 106: 52: 33: 4526:Stephanus Byzantinus 4431:Eusebius of Caesaria 4293:Sidonius Apollinaris 3983:Ammianus Marcellinus 3322:Tribune of the plebs 2572:Roman Republican art 2328:Archaeologia Aeliana 2118:Brill, R. H., 1999. 1716:Brill, R. H., 1999. 1590:Stern, E. M., 1995. 1239:layer formed by the 1051:Intense colouration 784:), 3rd–4th century ( 4702:Distinguished women 4353:Velleius Paterculus 4193:Nicolaus Damascenus 4173:Marcellus Empiricus 3562:Republican currency 2830:Early Christian art 1743:Wood, J.R. (2022). 1729:Degryse, P., 2014. 1289:Diffraction grating 1284:Ancient glass trade 1276:Ancient Rome portal 1153:Physics and colours 1111:(such as stibnite) 1040:Royal blue to navy 889:Furnace conditions 870:modern glass colors 797:Gold sandwich glass 640:Cage cup production 280:Eastern Han Dynasty 4476:Phlegon of Tralles 4283:Seneca the Younger 3757:Naming conventions 3487:Personal equipment 3020:Later Roman Empire 2709:Roman funerary art 2704:Roman architecture 1794:10.1017/irq.2020.9 1762:10.1111/arcm.12756 1299:Speyer wine bottle 1099:Strongly reducing 794: 699: 693:(colour-changing) 679: 567: 561:, 5–25 AD(?) 522: 494: 467:The Roman writers 465: 405: 399:Roman blown-glass 324: 288: 282:(25–220 AD) tomb, 272: 183: 144: 109: 66: 59:Walters Art Museum 47: 4815: 4814: 4777:Pontifices maximi 4559: 4558: 4416:Diogenes Laërtius 4238:Pliny the Younger 3993:Asconius Pedianus 3953:Romance languages 3825:Civil engineering 3567:Imperial currency 3440:Political control 3401: 3400: 3035: 3034: 2858: 2857: 2815:Ancient Greek art 2746:Roman portraiture 2667:Constantinian art 2565:Roman art periods 2113:World Archaeology 2094:Allen, D., 1998. 1904:978-1-4051-2071-5 1550:Allen, D., 1998. 1440:978-0-415-72078-6 1147: 1146: 810:Catacombs of Rome 805:Hellenistic glass 742:Striped patterns: 16:(Redirected from 4845: 4828:History of glass 4767:Magistri equitum 4682:Cities and towns 4675: 4601:Constantinopolis 4411:Diodorus Siculus 4343:Valerius Maximus 4278:Seneca the Elder 4198:Nonius Marcellus 3966: 3519:Hippika gymnasia 3482:Infantry tactics 3388:Consular tribune 3378:Magister equitum 3327:Military tribune 3292: 3252:Pontifex maximus 3247:Princeps senatus 3237:Magister militum 3003:Byzantine Empire 2924: 2885: 2878: 2871: 2862: 2850:Late Antique art 2714:Roman sarcophagi 2688: 2675: 2662: 2649: 2630: 2617: 2604: 2574:(509 BC - 27 BC) 2550: 2543: 2536: 2527: 2522: 2520: 2519: 2503: 2501: 2483: 2458: 2448: 2438: 2413: 2403: 2377: 2367: 2342: 2341: 2335: 2174:. Leiden, Brill. 2083: 2082: 2080: 2079: 2064: 2058: 2057: 2055: 2037: 2013: 2007: 2000: 1994: 1993: 1973: 1967: 1966: 1946: 1940: 1933: 1927: 1915:Beckwith, John, 1913: 1907: 1892: 1886: 1879: 1868: 1865: 1852: 1842: 1833: 1826: 1820: 1819: 1813: 1805: 1773: 1767: 1766: 1764: 1740: 1734: 1727: 1721: 1714: 1708: 1701: 1692: 1685: 1676: 1669: 1654: 1647: 1641: 1630: 1611: 1604: 1595: 1588: 1579: 1572: 1555: 1548: 1503: 1488: 1482: 1467: 1461: 1454: 1443: 1425: 1419: 1412: 1406: 1399: 1294:Photonic crystal 1278: 1273: 1272: 1271: 1218: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1188: 1184: 875: 591:Cold-cut vessels 362:sodium carbonate 152:material culture 21: 4853: 4852: 4848: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4843: 4842: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4811: 4673: 4671: 4665: 4555: 4391:Aëtius of Amida 4372: 4358:Verrius Flaccus 4338:Valerius Antias 4298:Silius Italicus 4233:Pliny the Elder 4178:Marcus Aurelius 4053:Cornelius Nepos 4003:Aurelius Victor 3957: 3879: 3791: 3725:Secessio plebis 3696: 3571: 3523: 3397: 3351: 3281: 3163: 3115: 3031: 2952: 2913: 2895: 2889: 2859: 2854: 2845:Hellenistic art 2840:Gallo-Roman art 2803: 2777:Pompeian Styles 2750: 2741:Roman sculpture 2692: 2682: 2669: 2656: 2643: 2624: 2611: 2598: 2580:(44 BC - 69 AD) 2560: 2554: 2517: 2515: 2506: 2461: 2416: 2380: 2345: 2336: 2318: 2315: 2313:Further reading 2261:103/3, 441–484. 2091: 2086: 2077: 2075: 2066: 2065: 2061: 2015: 2014: 2010: 2001: 1997: 1975: 1974: 1970: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1934: 1930: 1914: 1910: 1893: 1889: 1880: 1871: 1866: 1855: 1843: 1836: 1827: 1823: 1806: 1775: 1774: 1770: 1742: 1741: 1737: 1728: 1724: 1715: 1711: 1702: 1695: 1686: 1679: 1670: 1657: 1648: 1644: 1631: 1614: 1605: 1598: 1589: 1582: 1573: 1558: 1549: 1506: 1489: 1485: 1468: 1464: 1455: 1446: 1426: 1422: 1418:103/3, 441–484. 1413: 1409: 1400: 1311: 1307: 1274: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1233:crystallisation 1229:Liesegang rings 1217: 1213: 1196: 1193: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1155: 1135: 1110: 1091: 1003:Blue and green 985: 967: 927: 923: 919: 917:Iron(III) oxide 900: 866: 843: 831:enamelled glass 827: 766: 760: 754: 671: 663: 633: 621: 593: 572: 551: 541:Natural History 511: 486: 446: 393: 316: 310: 305: 228:South China Sea 200:Parthian Empire 116:Enamelled glass 101: 28: 23: 22: 18:Roman glassware 15: 12: 11: 5: 4851: 4849: 4841: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4820: 4819: 4813: 4812: 4810: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4678: 4676: 4667: 4666: 4664: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4567: 4565: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4382: 4380: 4374: 4373: 4371: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4243:Pomponius Mela 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3978:Aelius Donatus 3974: 3972: 3963: 3959: 3958: 3956: 3955: 3950: 3949: 3948: 3946:Ecclesiastical 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3900: 3895: 3889: 3887: 3881: 3880: 3878: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3801: 3799: 3793: 3792: 3790: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3748: 3747: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3706: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3694: 3689: 3687:Toys and games 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3658: 3657: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3627: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3581: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3570: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3533: 3531: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3500: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3469: 3464: 3463: 3462: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3411: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3399: 3398: 3396: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3359: 3357: 3353: 3352: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3298: 3296: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3229: 3227:Vigintisexviri 3224: 3219: 3214: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3187:Cursus honorum 3184: 3179: 3173: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3162: 3161: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3125: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3114: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3102: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3056: 3051: 3045: 3043: 3037: 3036: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3029: 3028: 3027: 3017: 3016: 3015: 3010: 3000: 2999: 2998: 2993: 2986:Western Empire 2983: 2978: 2973: 2968: 2962: 2960: 2954: 2953: 2951: 2950: 2945: 2944: 2943: 2933: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2900: 2897: 2896: 2890: 2888: 2887: 2880: 2873: 2865: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2811: 2809: 2805: 2804: 2802: 2801: 2796: 2791: 2789:Roman graffiti 2786: 2785: 2784: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2758: 2756: 2755:Related topics 2752: 2751: 2749: 2748: 2743: 2738: 2733: 2731:Roman painting 2728: 2723: 2718: 2717: 2716: 2706: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2693: 2691: 2690: 2680:Theodosian art 2677: 2664: 2651: 2638: 2632: 2619: 2606: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2568: 2566: 2562: 2561: 2555: 2553: 2552: 2545: 2538: 2530: 2524: 2523: 2504: 2459: 2414: 2378: 2343: 2314: 2311: 2310: 2309: 2300: 2290: 2283: 2276: 2269: 2262: 2255: 2248: 2243:Stern, E. M., 2241: 2240:47/4, 797–816. 2234: 2227: 2220: 2217: 2210: 2203: 2196: 2189: 2182: 2175: 2168: 2161: 2154: 2147: 2140: 2137: 2130: 2123: 2116: 2109: 2108:48/3, 399–414. 2102: 2099: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2084: 2059: 2008: 1995: 1968: 1957:(4): 763–780. 1941: 1928: 1908: 1887: 1869: 1853: 1834: 1821: 1768: 1735: 1722: 1709: 1693: 1691:48/3, 399–414. 1677: 1655: 1642: 1634:Late Antiquity 1612: 1596: 1580: 1556: 1504: 1483: 1462: 1444: 1420: 1407: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1280: 1279: 1263: 1260: 1154: 1151: 1145: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1079: 1071: 1070: 1068: 1066: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1041: 1037: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1024: 1020: 1019: 1016: 1012: 1009: 1004: 1000: 999: 996: 994: 991: 980: 976: 975: 972: 969: 964: 954: 950: 949: 947: 931: 929: 925: 921: 914: 910: 909: 907: 904: 902: 898:Iron(II) oxide 895: 891: 890: 887: 884: 881: 878: 865: 862: 842: 839: 835:engraved glass 826: 823: 756:Main article: 753: 750: 746: 745: 739: 735:Lace patterns: 732: 718: 670: 664: 662: 659: 658: 657: 652: 647: 642: 632: 629: 620: 617: 592: 589: 571: 568: 550: 547: 510: 507: 485: 482: 445: 442: 392: 389: 384: 383: 373: 370:Wadi El Natrun 351: 348:western Empire 312:Main article: 309: 306: 304: 301: 297:Roman military 293:Constantinople 268:Roman Iron Age 240:Julio-Claudian 162:) by the late 160:glass, history 100: 97: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4850: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4668: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4375: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4133:Julius Paulus 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4068:Fabius Pictor 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3979: 3976: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3967: 3964: 3960: 3954: 3951: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3882: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3805:Amphitheatres 3803: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3794: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3699: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3656: 3653: 3652: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3631: 3628: 3626: 3623: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3574: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3542:Deforestation 3540: 3538: 3535: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3505: 3502: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3492:Siege engines 3490: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3474: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3461: 3458: 3457: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3425:Establishment 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3404: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3356:Extraordinary 3354: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3342:Promagistrate 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3297: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3275: 3273: 3270: 3268: 3265: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3238: 3235: 3233: 3230: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3218: 3215: 3213: 3210: 3208: 3205: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3166: 3160: 3157: 3155: 3152: 3150: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3129:Twelve Tables 3127: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3081: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3065: 3062: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3052: 3050: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3026: 3023: 3022: 3021: 3018: 3014: 3011: 3009: 3006: 3005: 3004: 3001: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2949: 2946: 2942: 2939: 2938: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2920: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2905: 2902: 2901: 2898: 2893: 2886: 2881: 2879: 2874: 2872: 2867: 2866: 2863: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2820:Byzantine art 2818: 2816: 2813: 2812: 2810: 2806: 2800: 2799:Tintinnabulum 2797: 2795: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2783: 2780: 2779: 2778: 2775: 2773: 2772:Neoclassicism 2770: 2768: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2739: 2737: 2736:Roman pottery 2734: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2715: 2712: 2711: 2710: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2686: 2681: 2678: 2673: 2668: 2665: 2660: 2655: 2652: 2647: 2642: 2639: 2636: 2633: 2628: 2623: 2620: 2615: 2610: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2596:Hadrianic art 2594: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2551: 2546: 2544: 2539: 2537: 2532: 2531: 2528: 2514: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2446:10278/5021581 2442: 2437: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2340: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2305: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2288: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2274: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2260: 2256: 2253: 2249: 2246: 2242: 2239: 2235: 2232: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2211: 2208: 2204: 2201: 2197: 2194: 2190: 2187: 2183: 2180: 2176: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2162: 2159: 2155: 2152: 2148: 2145: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2124: 2121: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2107: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2074: 2070: 2063: 2060: 2054: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2012: 2009: 2005: 1999: 1996: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1972: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1932: 1929: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1891: 1888: 1884: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1825: 1822: 1817: 1811: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 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Retrieved 2513:Ars Technica 2512: 2471: 2467: 2426: 2422: 2391: 2387: 2355: 2351: 2331: 2330:, Series 4, 2327: 2304:Archaeometry 2303: 2293: 2286: 2282:. Amsterdam. 2279: 2272: 2268:. Amsterdam. 2265: 2258: 2251: 2244: 2238:Archaeometry 2237: 2230: 2226:. Amsterdam. 2223: 2213: 2206: 2199: 2195:44, 257–272. 2193:Archaeometry 2192: 2185: 2178: 2171: 2164: 2160:. Amsterdam. 2157: 2153:. Amsterdam. 2150: 2143: 2133: 2129:. Amsterdam. 2126: 2119: 2112: 2106:Archaeometry 2105: 2095: 2089:Bibliography 2076:. Retrieved 2073:Ars Technica 2072: 2062: 2025: 2021: 2011: 2006:. Amsterdam. 2003: 1998: 1981: 1977: 1971: 1954: 1951:Archaeometry 1950: 1944: 1936: 1931: 1916: 1911: 1895: 1890: 1885:. Amsterdam. 1882: 1851:. Amsterdam. 1848: 1829: 1824: 1810:cite journal 1785: 1781: 1771: 1752: 1749:Archaeometry 1748: 1738: 1730: 1725: 1717: 1712: 1704: 1689:Archaeometry 1688: 1672: 1653:44, 257–272. 1651:Archaeometry 1650: 1645: 1637: 1610:. Amsterdam. 1607: 1591: 1575: 1551: 1491: 1486: 1470: 1465: 1457: 1431: 1428:Warwick Ball 1423: 1415: 1410: 1402: 1211: 1207:lapis lazuli 1156: 1148: 1092:1% – 20% Pb 1058:Powder blue 867: 858:muff process 851: 844: 828: 795: 772:Detail of a 747: 741: 734: 720: 713: 700: 687:Lycurgus Cup 666: 634: 622: 607:, including 594: 573: 540: 535: 531: 523: 503: 499: 495: 478: 466: 438: 430: 423: 418:Bet She'arim 406: 401:cinerary urn 391:Glass making 385: 375: 353: 331: 325: 289: 244: 235:Glassblowing 232: 196:Western Asia 184: 145: 118:depicting a 89: 73:Roman Empire 68: 67: 4742:Geographers 4426:Dioscorides 4406:Cassius Dio 4028:Cassiodorus 3931:Renaissance 3537:Agriculture 3509:Auxiliaries 3450:Engineering 3287:Magistrates 3139:Citizenship 3134:Mos maiorum 3069:Late Empire 2794:Roman music 2721:Roman glass 2689:(379 - 395) 2683: [ 2676:(312 - 337) 2670: [ 2663:(284 - 312) 2657: [ 2650:(253 - 268) 2644: [ 2637:(193 - 253) 2635:Severan art 2625: [ 2618:(138 - 180) 2612: [ 2605:(117 - 138) 2599: [ 2584:Flavian art 1788:: 259–270. 1755:: 187–205. 1245:diffraction 1023:Dark green 966:0.2%-1.4% S 913:Colourless 814:iconography 782:Roman Egypt 703:caneworking 609:cameo glass 601:carved gems 563:cameo glass 527:cobalt blue 453:Cameo glass 308:Composition 248:Geographica 156:Hellenistic 128:Afghanistan 122:, found at 85:Hellenistic 69:Roman glass 4822:Categories 4631:Mediolanum 4571:Alexandria 4536:Themistius 4501:Porphyrius 4328:Tertullian 4263:Quintilian 4253:Propertius 4148:Lactantius 4098:Fulgentius 4033:Censorinus 3855:Sanitation 3840:Metallurgy 3797:Technology 3762:Demography 3710:Patricians 3677:Spectacles 3635:Literature 3630:Hairstyles 3467:Technology 3217:Praefectus 3169:Government 3159:Litigation 3144:Auctoritas 3089:Centuriate 2976:Principate 2971:Pax Romana 2931:Foundation 2825:Coptic art 2631:(180 -192) 2592:(98 - 117) 2518:2023-09-19 2216:40, 55–61. 2146:46, 67–83. 2136:28, 47–55. 2078:2023-09-19 1984:: 104344. 1925:0140560335 1675:40, 55–61. 1502:. 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