Romance linguistics - Knowledge (XXG)

4002:) is sometimes used in speech, but only in situations where an English speaker would say "sir" or "ma'am". The result is that second-person verb forms have disappeared, and the whole pronoun system has been radically realigned. However that is the case only in the spoken language of central and northern Brazil, with the northeastern and southern areas of the country still largely preserving the second-person verb form and the "tu" and "você" distinction. 1034:) still maintain this secondary phonemic length, but in most languages the new long vowels were either diphthongized or shortened again, in the process eliminating phonemic length. French is again the odd man out: Although it followed a normal Gallo-Romance path by diphthongizing five of the seven long vowels and shortening the remaining two, it phonemicized a third vowel length system around 1300 AD in syllables that had been closed with an 25: 66: 113: 3827:), similar to the former English distinction between familiar "thou" and polite "you". This distinction was determined by the relationship between the speakers. As in English, this generally developed by appropriating the plural second-person pronoun to serve in addition as a polite singular. French is still at this stage, with familiar singular 514:+ accusative. This left only two cases: nominative and oblique. (However, a morphologically unmarked genitive, the so-called juxtaposition genitive, syntactically still discernible, survives in Old French and Old Occitan, also leaving traces in Old Italian and some modern Italian dialects.) Some of the older 4094:

or with plural nouns—both cases where the indefinite article cannot occur. A partitive article is used (and in French, required) whenever a bare noun refers to specific (but unspecified or unknown) quantity of the noun, but not when a bare noun refers to a class in general. For example, the partitive

3344:

A number of synchronically quite irregular differences between nominative and oblique reflect direct inheritances of Latin third-declension nouns with two different stems (one for the nominative singular, one for all other forms), most with of which had a stress shift between nominative and the other

596:

This was the pattern followed by the Romance languages: In the Romance languages that still preserved a functioning nominal case system (e.g., Romanian and Old French), only the combination of article and case ending serves to uniquely identify number and case (compare the similar situation in modern

7581:

has been bypassed; likewise, the learned word usually has a meaning closer to that of the original. In French, the stress of the modern form of the learned loan may be on the "wrong" syllable vis-à-vis Latin, whereas the stress of the inherited word always corresponds to the Latin stress: e.g. Latin

3694:

Similarly, in place of the genitive of the Latin pronouns, most Romance languages adopted the reflexive possessive, which then serves indifferently as both reflexive and non-reflexive possessive. Note that the reflexive, and hence the third-person possessive, is unmarked for the gender of the person

592:

where Latin had none. Articles are often introduced around the time a robust case system falls apart in order to disambiguate the remaining case markers (which are usually too ambiguous by themselves) and to serve as parsing clues that signal the presence of a noun (a function that used to be served

5073:

tenses, for hypothetical or uncertain conditions. Several languages (for example, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish) have also imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives, although it is not unusual to have just one subjunctive equivalent for preterit and imperfect (e.g. no unique subjunctive equivalent in

4125:

The sentence "Men arrived today", however, (presumably) means "some specific men arrived today" rather than "men, as a general class, arrived today" (which would mean that there were no men before today). On the other hand, "I hate men" does mean "I hate men, as a general class" rather than "I hate

2913:

Noun inflection has survived in Romanian somewhat better than elsewhere. Determiners are still marked for two cases (nominative/accusative and genitive/dative) in both singular and plural, and feminine singular nouns have separate endings for the two cases. In addition, there is a separate vocative

2650:

In all Romance languages, this system was drastically reduced. In most modern Romance languages, in fact, case is no longer marked at all on nouns, adjectives and determiners, and most forms are derived from the Latin accusative case. Much like English, however, case has survived somewhat better on

2231:

Remnants of the neuter, interpretable now as "a sub-class of the non-feminine gender" (Haase 2000:233), are vigorous in Italy in an area running roughly from Ancona to Matera and just north of Rome to Naples. Oppositions with masculine typically have been recategorized, so that neuter signifies the

658:, and change into a free-stressed language. Classical Latin had an automatically determined stress on the second or third syllable from the end, conditioned by vowel length; once vowel length was neutralized, stress was no longer predictable so long as it remained where it was (which it mostly did). 3774:

forms, which must stand adjacent to a verb and merge phonologically with it. Originally, object pronouns could come either before or after the verb; sound change would often produce different forms in these two cases, with numerous additional complications and contracted forms when multiple clitic

2776:

classes to merge. In French, merger of remaining /e/ with final /a/ into , and its subsequent loss, has completely obscured the original Romance system, and loss of final /s/ has caused most nouns to have identical pronunciation in singular and plural, although they are still marked differently in

3650:

Unlike in English, a separate neuter personal pronoun ("it") generally does not exist, but the third-person singular and plural both distinguish masculine from feminine. Also, as described above, case is marked on pronouns even though it is not usually on nouns, similar to English. As in English,

2756:

The same system underlines many other modern Romance languages, such as Portuguese, French and Catalan. In these languages, however, further sound changes have resulted in various irregularities. In Portuguese, for example, loss of /l/ and /n/ between vowels (with nasalization in the latter case)

3782:. Most languages, however, have simplified this system by undoing some of the clitic mergers and requiring clitics to stand in a particular position relative to the verb (usually after imperatives, before other finite forms, and either before or after non-finite forms depending on the language). 3804:

of northern Italy), verbal agreement marking has degraded to the point that subject pronouns have become mandatory, and have turned into clitics. These forms cannot be stressed, so for emphasis the disjunctive pronouns must be used in combination with the clitic subject forms. Friulian and the

3729:

is the source of the definite article in most Romance languages (see below), which explains the similarity in form between personal pronoun and definite article. When the two are different, it is usually because of differing degrees of phonological reduction. Generally, the personal pronoun is

505:

The case system was drastically reduced from the six-case system of Classical Latin. Although five cases can be reconstructed for Vulgar Latin nouns (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and ablative), for Proto-Romance this had been reduced to three: nominative, accusative-ablative, and

6287:

Romance languages have borrowed heavily, though mostly from other Romance languages. However, some, such as Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and French, have borrowed heavily from other language groups. Vulgar Latin borrowed first from indigenous languages of the Roman empire, and during the

4500:

Subsequent changes often reduced the number of demonstrative distinctions. Standard Italian, for example, has only a two-way distinction "this" vs. "that", as in English, with second-person and third-person demonstratives combined. In Catalan, however, a former three-way distinction

789:. These may or may not be considered as phonemic units (rather than sequences of vowel+glide or vowel+vowel), depending on their behavior. As an example, French, Spanish and Italian have occasional instances of putative falling diphthongs formed from a vowel plus a non-syllabic 756:, which is kept in most Italo-Western languages. In some languages, like Spanish and Romanian, the phonemic status and difference between open-mid and close-mid vowels was lost. French has probably the largest inventory of monophthongs, with conservative varieties having 12 821:"neuter"), but these are normally analyzed as sequences of vowel and glide. The diphthongs in Romanian, Portuguese, Catalan and Occitan, however, have various properties suggesting that they are better analyzed as unit phonemes. Portuguese, for example, has the diphthongs 3675:); in addition, third-person pronouns distinguish accusative and dative. There is also an additional set of possessive determiners, distinct from the genitive case of the personal pronoun; this corresponds to the English difference between "my, your" and "mine, yours". 2062:, where there is a productive class of "neuter" nouns, which include the descendants of many Latin neuter nouns and which behave like masculines in the singular and feminines in the plural, both in the endings used and in the agreement of adjectives and pronouns (e.g. 2300:) and two numbers. Many adjectives were additionally declined in three genders, theoretically leading to a possible 6 × 2 × 3 = 36 endings per adjective. In practice, some category combinations had identical endings to other combinations, but a basic adjective like 2055:, masculine and feminine. The gender of animate nouns is generally natural (i.e. nouns referring to males are generally masculine, and vice versa), but for non-animate nouns it is arbitrary, a grammatical category with no correspondence to natural gender. 3805:

Gallo-Italian languages have actually gone further than this and merged the subject pronouns onto the verb as a new type of verb agreement marking, which must be present even when there is a subject noun phrase. (Some non-standard varieties of French treat

1806:

of the penultimate syllable. Stress in the Romance Languages mostly remains on the same syllable as in Latin, but various sound changes have made it no longer so predictable. Minimal pairs distinguished only by stress exist in some languages, e.g. Italian

7098:

A number of common Latin words that have disappeared in many or most Romance languages have survived either in the periphery or in remote corners (especially Sardinia and Romania), or as secondary terms, sometimes differing in meaning. For example, Latin

715:. Many basic nouns and verbs, especially those that were short or had irregular morphology, were replaced by longer derived forms with regular morphology. Throughout the medieval period, words were borrowed from Classical Latin in their original form ( 864:"less" remain highly nasalized). In Portuguese, nasal vowels are sometimes analyzed as phonemic sequences of oral vowels plus an underlying nasal consonant, but such an analysis is difficult in French because of the existence of minimal pairs such as 3835:. In cases like this, the pronoun requires plural agreement in all cases whenever a single affix marks both person and number (as in verb agreement endings and object and possessive pronouns), but singular agreement elsewhere where appropriate (e.g. 4129:

As in many other cases, French has developed the farthest from Latin in its use of articles. In French, nearly all nouns, singular and plural, must be accompanied by an article (either indefinite, definite, or partitive) or demonstrative pronoun.

3885:

was displaced to a familiar form, either becoming a familiar plural (as in European Spanish) or a familiar singular (as in many varieties of Latin American Spanish). In the latter case, it either competes with the original familiar singular

640:

expressed through participles. All of these are replaced in the Romance languages by subordinate clauses expressed with finite verbs, making the Romance languages much more "verbal" and less "nominal" than Latin. Under the influence of the

4216:

came to have a specifically derogatory meaning, but this innovation apparently did not reach the provinces and is not reflected in the modern Romance languages. A number of these languages still have such a three-way distinction, although

5106:

are either newly constructed or inherited from different categories (e.g. the Romance imperfect subjunctive most commonly is derived from the Latin pluperfect subjunctive, while the Romance pluperfect subjunctive is derived from a new

2736:

The system of inflectional classes is also drastically reduced. The basic system is most clearly indicated in Spanish, where there are only three classes, corresponding to the first, second and third declensions in Latin: plural in

927:

Most languages have fewer vowels in unstressed syllables than stressed syllables. This again reflects the Italo-Western Romance parent language, which had a seven-vowel system in stressed syllables (as described above) but only

2972:

In Italian, the situation is somewhere in between Spanish and Romanian. There are no case endings and relatively few classes, as in Spanish, but noun endings are generally formed with vowels instead of /s/, as in Romanian:

6544:

Many basic nouns and verbs, especially those that were short or had irregular morphology, were replaced by longer derived forms with regular morphology. Nouns, and sometimes adjectives, were often replaced by

546:), a couple of examples are found which preserve the old nominative. In the East, a genitive-dative made entirely of dative forms was retained but the nominative and accusative-ablative eventually merged. 932:(with no low-mid vowels) in unstressed syllables. Some languages have seen further reductions: e.g. Standard Catalan has only in unstressed syllables. In French, on the other hand, any vowel may take 2193:

three hotels (f)). (A few isolated nouns in Latin had different genders in the singular and plural, but this was an unrelated phenomenon; this is similarly the case with a few French nouns, such as

4181:. In more conservative Romance languages, neither articles nor subject pronouns are necessary, since all of the above words are pronounced differently. In Italian, for example, the equivalents are 3890:(as in Guatemala), displaces it entirely (as in Argentina), or is itself displaced (as in Mexico, except in Chiapas). In the Spanish of the Americas, the gap created by the loss of familiar plural 4059:

Romance languages have both indefinite and definite articles, but none of the above words form the basis for either of these. Usually the definite article is derived from the Latin demonstrative

1082:

Most Romance languages have similar sets of consonants. The following is a combined table of the consonants of the five major Romance languages (French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian).

573:.) Some freedom, however, is allowed in the placement of adjectives relative to their head noun. In addition, some languages (e.g. Spanish, Romanian) have an "accusative preposition" (Romanian 549:

Concomitant with the loss of cases, freedom of word order was greatly reduced. Classical Latin had a generally verb-final (SOV) but overall quite free word order, with a significant amount of

4282:

came to be used as an article as well as a demonstrative. Such forms were often created even when not strictly needed to distinguish otherwise ambiguous forms. Italian, for example, has both

8451: 3789:

form is used. These result from dative object pronouns pronounced with stress (which causes them to develop differently from the equivalent unstressed pronouns), or from subject pronouns.

3881:

In Portuguese and Spanish (as in other languages with similar forms), the "extra-polite" forms in time came to be the normal polite forms, and the former polite (or plural) second-person

3306:

The oblique case in these languages generally inherits from the Latin accusative; as a result, masculine nouns have distinct endings in the two cases while most feminine nouns do not.

848:

followed by loss of the consonant (this occurred especially when the nasal consonant was not directly followed by a vowel). Originally, vowels in both languages were nasalized before

561:

constructions. The Romance languages eliminated word scrambling and nearly all left-branching constructions, with most languages developing a rigid SVO, right-branching syntax. (

3566:, used when the object is the same as the subject. This approximately corresponds to English "-self", but separate forms exist only in the third person, with no number marking. 3584:. Many languages have a three-way distinction of distance (near me, near you, near him) which, though not paralleled in current English, used to be present as "this/that/yon". 159: 1881:"forge"). This process has gone even farther in French, with deletion of all post-stressed vowels, leading to consistent, predictable stress on the last syllable: e.g. Latin 3730:

unreduced (beyond normal sound change), while the article has undergone various degrees of reduction, beginning with loss of one of the two original syllables, e.g. Spanish

1018:

Phonemic vowel length is uncommon. Vulgar Latin lost the phonemic vowel length of Classical Latin and replaced it with a non-phonemic length system where stressed vowels in

5115:

Several tenses and aspects, especially of the indicative mood, have been preserved with little change in most languages, as shown in the following table for the Latin verb

959:

and uniformly accenting the final syllable (except for a more-or-less non-phonemic final unstressed that occasionally appears). Modern Spanish now allows final unstressed

4543:

is only a pronoun, and both forms indifferently mean either "this" or "that". (The distinction between "this" and "that" can be made, if necessary, by adding the suffixes

6047:"to stand", and mostly used for temporary states. This development is most notable in Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. In French, Italian and Romanian, the derivative of 5940:

The main tense and mood distinctions that were made in classical Latin are generally still present in the modern Romance languages, though many are now expressed through

3683:

The Romance languages do not retain the Latin third-person personal pronouns, but have innovated a separate set of third-person pronouns by borrowing the demonstrative

645:, Romanian has progressed the furthest, largely eliminating the infinitive. (It is being revived, however, due to the increasing influence of other Romance languages.) 7808:

Delfitto, Denis; Paradisi, Paola (2009). "Chapter 17: Towards a Diachronic Theory of Genitive Assignment in Romance". In Crisma, Paola; Langobardi, Giuseppe (eds.).

4012:

for formal distinction (similarly to French) but it is falling out of use, and nowadays is usually seen in extremely formal circumstances or in writing. Instead,

542:) preserved this two-case system well into the literary period, and in Ibero-Romance languages, such as Spanish and Portuguese, as well as in Italian (see under 449:

The phonemic inventory of most Romance languages is of moderate size with few unusual phonemes. Phonemic vowel length is uncommon. Some languages have developed

442:), the use of an article with a noun is nearly obligatory; it serves to express grammatical number (no longer marked on most nouns) and to cope with the extreme 2654:

Most pronouns have distinct nominative, accusative, genitive and possessive forms (cf. English "I, me, mine, my"). Many also have a separate dative form, a

1830:

Erosion of unstressed syllables following the stress has caused most Spanish and Portuguese words to have either penultimate or ultimate stress: e.g. Latin

3303:). This inflection distinguished nominative from oblique, grouping the accusative case with the oblique, rather than with the nominative as in Romanian. 2228:(used to intensify adjectives). Portuguese also has neuter demonstrative adjectives: "isto", "isso", "aquilo" (meaning "this ", "this/that ", "that "). 878:"good (fem.)". In both languages, there are fewer nasal than oral vowels. Nasalization triggered vowel lowering in French, producing the 4 nasal vowels 8122:

Used sometimes a past conditional; also used in an apodosis (then-clause) when the protasis (if-clause) is in the imperfect subjunctive. Frede Jensen,

8101: 3309:

A number of different inflectional classes are still represented at this stage. For example, the difference in the nominative case between masculine

87: 74: 8446: 624:

Latin had a large number of syntactic constructions expressed through infinitives, participles, and similar nominal constructs. Examples are the

3846:

Many languages, however, innovated further in developing an even more polite pronoun, generally composed of some noun phrases (e.g. Portuguese

5944:

rather than simple verbs. The passive voice, which was mostly synthetic in classical Latin, has been completely replaced with compound forms.

7822: 5986:

constructions, most of the active voice remained in use. However, several tenses have changed meaning, especially subjunctives. For example:

2185:(which is heavily Romance-influenced), and the category remains highly productive with a number of new words loaned or coined in the neuter ( 1038:(still marked with a circumflex accent), and now is phonemicizing a fourth system as a result of lengthening before final voiced fricatives. 4212:'that (over there)', similar to the distinction that used to exist in English as "this" vs. "that" vs. "yon(der)". In urban Latin of Rome, 2232:

referent in general, while masculine indicates a more specific instance, with the distinction marked by the definite article. In Southeast

1217:

Most instances of most of the sounds below that occur (or used to occur, as described above) in all of the languages are cognate. However:

38: 6011:

The Latin preterite subjunctive, together with the future perfect indicative, became a future subjunctive in Old Spanish, Portuguese, and

2142:"an iron bar → iron ". The neuter gender does not admit plural forms emerging from metaphorical uses, changing to masculine or feminine ( 4527:), both of which could function as either adjectives or pronouns. Modern French, however, has no distinction between "this" and "that": 506:

genitive-dative. This system is preserved best in pronouns. In the West, the genitive-dative disappeared with the genitive replaced by

7547:"ankle" (inherited; archaic and dialectal). In many cases, the learned word simply displaced the original popular word: e.g. Spanish 4133:

Due to pervasive sound changes in French, most nouns are pronounced identically in the singular and plural, and there is often heavy

8197: 189: 52: 1041:

In modern spoken and literary Romanian, Slavic influences are evident in phonetics and morphology. Phonetic Slavicisms include the

3821:

In medieval times, most Romance languages developed a distinction between familiar and polite second-person pronouns (a so-called

3796:. The subject pronouns are used only for emphasis and take the stress, and as a result are not clitics. In French, however (as in 3517:) is unique in that the original nominative/oblique distinction has been reinterpreted as a predicative/attributive distinction: 1987:"we were giving it to you". Stress on verbs is almost completely predictable in Spanish and Portuguese, but less so in Italian. 314:

word order, with varying degrees of flexibility from one language to another. Constructions are predominantly of the head-first (

7809: 7577:). The learned loan always sounds (and, in writing, looks) more like the original than the inherited word does, because regular 939:

Most languages have even fewer vowels in word-final unstressed syllables than elsewhere. For example, Old Italian allowed only

1205:

Romanian was influenced by Slavic phonology, most notably in the palatalization of consonants in the plural form (for example

7604:

Borrowing from Classical Latin has produced a large number of suffix doublets. Examples from Spanish (learned form first):

1022:

were long, and all other vowels were short. Standard Italian still maintains this system, and it was rephonemicized in the

6199:

present perfect predominant, preterite now literary: French, Romanian, several Italian dialects, some dialects of Spanish;

662: 8280: 6257:) were dropped in favor of constructions with subordinate clause. Exceptions can be found in Italian, for example, Latin 3862:) and taking third-person singular agreement. A plural equivalent was created at the same time or soon after (Portuguese 6243: 6239: 5323: 527: 311: 8325: 8256: 8226: 8209: 4559:"that woman", but this is rarely done except when specifically necessary to distinguish two entities from each other.) 678:

Loss of the Latin synthetic passive voice, replaced by an analytic construction comparable to English "it is/was done".

8378: 8356: 8311: 3937:

was resurrected as a polite singular, and discarded again afterwards, although it remains in some southern dialects.)

2058:

Although Latin had a third gender (neuter), there is little trace of this in most languages. The biggest exception is

8806: 8337: 8292: 8268: 8221: 7967:"Moving beyond T/V pronouns of power and solidarity in interaction : Persian agreement mismatch construction" 4137:

between nouns and identically pronounced words of other classes. For example, all of the following are pronounced

2102:, which uses a neuter gender to refer to abstract, collective and uncountable entities. It appears in adjectives ( 342: 79: 7716: 4810: 3921:(literally "she", but capitalized when meaning "you"). As in European Spanish, the original second-person plural 3779: 2016: 4413:). In western languages such as Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan, doublets and triplets arose such as Portuguese 3291:

A different type of noun inflection survived into the medieval period in a number of western Romance languages (

1155:. By the fourteenth century or so, these all turned into fricatives except for Spanish and dialectal Portuguese 852:

nasal consonants, but have subsequently become denasalized before nasal consonants that still remain (except in

5952:

with the preterite, the Latin future indicative tense was dropped, and replaced with a periphrasis of the form

5092: 3546: 3514: 3300: 1027: 326: 138: 44: 5078:). Portuguese and Spanish also have future and future perfect subjunctives, which have no equivalent in Latin. 3718:, these collocations are the usual way of expressing the third-person possessive, since the former possessive 346: 8400:, eds. Günter Holtus, Michael Metzeltin & Christian Schmitt (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1998), 121–34:123–4. 2015:

The Romance languages inherited from Latin two grammatical numbers, singular and plural; the only trace of a

8109: 7212: 5035: 3801: 1023: 948: 637: 515: 264: 8244: 6249:

Many Latin constructions involving nominalized verbal forms (e.g. the use of accusative plus infinitive in

318:) type. Adjectives, genitives and relative clauses all tend to follow their head noun, although (except in 8456: 7857: 6916:) . The same thing sometimes happened to religious terms, due to the pervasive influence of Christianity: 6224:, a morphological present perfect does exist but has a different meaning (closer to "I have been doing"). 5905: 5898: 5891: 5884: 5877: 4138: 2782: 1941: 1924: 1903: 1778: 1769: 1727: 1714: 1684: 1667: 1639: 1630: 1619: 1612: 1605: 1598: 1589: 1582: 1575: 1547: 1540: 1533: 1526: 1498: 1491: 1476: 1469: 1454: 1447: 1427: 1414: 1397: 1311: 1269: 1261: 1257: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1062: 1035: 964: 960: 952: 944: 940: 929: 921: 917: 913: 906: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 868: 834: 830: 826: 822: 794: 790: 779: 775: 767: 760: 753: 745: 280: 155: 4177:, and distinguish singular from plural; likewise, the mandatory subject of verbs helps identify the verb 2165:

with the feminine singular. A similar class exists in Italian, although it is no longer productive (e.g.

7300: 3793: 1741: 1296: 1289: 749: 476:). Stress most often occurs on one of the last three syllables, with predictability varying by language. 420: 6182:(at least in the vernacular); in others, the two coexist with somewhat different meanings (cf. English 4048:

meaning approximately "this/that/the". The closest indefinite articles were the indefinite determiners

565:, however, had a freer word order due to the two-case system still present, as well as a predominantly 365:, with three-case marking (nominative/accusative vs. genitive/dative and vocative) on nominal elements. 7860:

can occur only in unstressed syllables, and it tends to be rounded ; it is replaced by when stressed.

4196:

Latin, at least originally, had a three-way distinction among demonstrative pronouns distinguished by

3898:, with the result that there is no familiar/polite distinction in the plural, just as in the original 1225:, almost none of these sounds are cognate between pairs of languages. The only real exception is many 737:

Every language has a different set of vowels from every other. Common characteristics are as follows:

6250: 6028: 5628: 3975: 3715: 1795: 853: 461: 6151:

For a more detailed illustration of how the verbs have changed with respect to classical Latin, see

3823: 1866:. Most words with antepenultimate stress are learned borrowings from Latin, e.g. Spanish/Portuguese 1798:

was rigorously predictable in classical Latin except in a very few exceptional cases, either on the

8070: 7015:"to sew", with total loss of the bare stem. Many prepositions and commonly became compounded, e.g. 6333: 6221: 5655: 5547: 3806: 3786: 2749:(either masculine or feminine). The singular endings exactly track the plural, except the singular 2656: 2261: 1565: 1508: 771: 589: 550: 454: 3964:

was discarded centuries ago in speech, and is used today only in translations of the Bible, where

3687:("that (over there)"), and creating a separate reinforced demonstrative by attaching a variant of 8511:

Romanische Sprachgeschichte: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Geschichte der romanischen Sprachen

6301: 6293: 6164: 6000:

The Latin pluperfect subjunctive developed into an imperfect subjunctive in all languages except

5961: 5520: 5188: 4760: 4505:

has been reduced differently, with first-person and second-person demonstratives combined. Hence

4064: 3672: 3598: 2052: 2000: 1996: 1306: 1284: 837:

appear frequently in verb or noun inflections. (Portuguese also has nasal diphthongs; see below.)

708: 570: 431: 389: 385: 373: 369: 334: 330: 251: 242: 238: 234: 6776:

Many Classical Latin words became archaic or poetic and were replaced by more colloquial terms:

4221:

has been lost and the other pronouns have shifted somewhat in meaning. For example, Spanish has

955:. Of these languages, French has carried things to the extreme by deleting all vowels after the 7848:(NY: Cambridge UP, 2010), 279; p. 349, note 25: due to preference for the dative of possession. 7287:

During the Middle Ages, scores of words were borrowed directly from Classical Latin (so-called

6963:

Many prepositions were used as verbal particles to make new roots and verb stems, e.g. Italian

4044:

Latin had no articles as such. The closest definite article was the non-specific demonstrative

3461:). All of these multi-stem nouns refer to people; other nouns with stress shift in Latin (e.g. 2660:

form used after prepositions, and (in some languages) a special form used with the preposition

8193: 7818: 6361: 6012: 5979: 5790: 5736: 5682: 5385: 5269: 5215: 4087: 3797: 3574: 3570: 3563: 2182: 2099: 2059: 1694: 1441: 1333: 1318: 956: 786: 697: 642: 625: 614: 539: 531: 435: 393: 377: 362: 319: 288: 276: 246: 206: 7267:"at home". Sardinian preserves some words that were already archaic in Classical Latin, e.g. 6368:

words were incorporated into the core vocabulary, partly for words with no Latin equivalent (

6220:, which in other languages signals the future) persists in speech, with the same meaning. In 2768:

In French and Catalan, loss of /o/ and /e/ in most unstressed final syllables has caused the

8155:. Not clearly distinct in meaning from the first (normal) preterite, cf. the parallel lines 8019: 7978: 7775: 7171:). In some cases, one language happens to preserve a word displaced elsewhere, e.g. Italian 6365: 6297: 6289: 6209: 6193:

preterite only: Galician, Asturian, Sicilian, Leonese, Portuguese, some dialects of Spanish;

6167:

which did not exist in Latin. In French, progressive constructions remain very limited, the

6001: 5994: 5990: 5972: 5817: 5763: 5709: 5574: 5493: 5466: 5412: 5296: 5242: 5019: 5011: 5007: 4999: 4746: 4740: 4732: 4072: 4005: 3587: 3556: 2147: 2079: 2004: 1802:

syllable (second from last) or antepenultimate syllable (third from last), according to the

1647: 1328: 1301: 1167:, at least in Northern, Central and some parts of Southern Spain; elsewhere, it merged with 1066: 1031: 712: 535: 499: 473: 427: 381: 354: 338: 284: 256: 8018:

later shifted to mean "the" (still reflected in Sardinian and in the Catalan spoken in the

7671:

This borrowing also introduced large numbers of classical prefixes in their original form (

6196:

preterite and present perfect: Catalan, Occitan, standard Spanish, Tuscan/standard Italian;

4079:(emphatic, as in "I myself"). The indefinite article everywhere is derived from the number 2949:). (Many other exceptional forms, however, are due to later sound changes or analogy, e.g. 2925:

The inflectional classes of Latin have also survived more in Romanian than elsewhere, e.g.

8231: 7869:

Haase, Martin. 2000. "Reorganization of a gender system: The Central Italian neuters". in

6175: 5601: 5358: 5108: 5085: 4358: 4019: 3770:

Object pronouns in Latin were normal words, but in the Romance languages they have become

3656: 3652: 2285: 2277: 2233: 1803: 1389: 1323: 1030:) as a result of the deletion of many final vowels. Some northern Italian languages (e.g. 988: 933: 629: 598: 582: 558: 498:(and hence all the modern Romance languages) relate to the reduction or loss of the Latin 491: 439: 350: 315: 304: 260: 8684:

From Latin to Portuguese, Historical Phonology and Morphology of the Portuguese Language

6051:

largely preserved an earlier meaning of "to stand/to stay", although in modern Italian,

7934: 6144: 5439: 5161: 5063: 3664: 2268:, referring to different types of wine. Phonological forms of articles vary by locale. 894:. Vowel contraction and other changes also resulted in the Portuguese nasal diphthongs 554: 397: 358: 7223:"yardarm". Sardinian in particular preserves many words entirely lost elsewhere, e.g. 3695:

being referred to. Hence, although gendered possessive forms do exist—e.g. Portuguese

2007:. Adjectives and pronouns must agree in all features with the noun they are bound to. 8800: 8599:

Intonational Phrasing in Romance and Germanic: Cross-Linguistic and Bilingual studies

8585:

Comparative Historical Dialectology: Italo-Romance Clues to Ibero-Romance Sound Chang

8333: 8288: 8264: 8217: 7983: 7966: 7780: 7763: 7260: 6674: 6254: 6152: 5043: 4568: 4197: 3668: 3591: 3581: 3001:); however, the other plurals are thought to stem from special developments of Latin 2915: 2297: 2293: 2281: 1229:

between Italian and Romanian, stemming from Latin C- before E or I. Italian also has

1019: 682: 672: 566: 495: 469: 396:(active, passive, middle/reflexive) and some grammatical aspects (in particular, the 268: 164: 128: 7590: 3545:

As described above, case marking on pronouns is much more extensive than for nouns.

1139:

The western languages (French, Spanish, Portuguese) all used to have the affricates

890:). Vowel raising was triggered in Portuguese, however, producing the 5 nasal vowels 7578: 6654: 6296:, especially Gothic; for Eastern Romance languages, during Bulgarian Empires, from 6228: 6168: 5965: 5059: 4024: 4014: 3948:. Hence, modern European Portuguese has a three-way distinction between "familiar" 3930: 3706:

The gender of the possessor needs to be made clear by a collocation such as French

3660: 3443:

A few of these multi-stem nouns derive from Latin forms without stress shift, e.g.

3325:"the woman", faithfully reflects the corresponding Latin inflectional differences ( 968: 655: 465: 401: 148: 8398:

Kontakt, Migration und Kunstsprachen: Kontrastivität, Klassifikation und Typologie

341:

is marked only on pronouns, as in English; case marking, as in English, is of the

7597: 6043:"to sit", and is used mostly for essential attributes; the other is derived from 1245:

is from Latin C- before A, either word-initial or following a consonant; Spanish

8030: 7552: 6160: 5983: 5941: 5070: 4881: 4865: 4797: 4068: 3481: 3296: 2914:

case, enriched with native development and Slavic borrowings (see some examples

2289: 2276:

Latin had an extensive case system, where all nouns were declined in six cases (

1959:

generally falls on one of the last three syllables. Exceptions may be caused by

841: 764: 742: 689: 523: 450: 7939: 1955:

Other than French (with consistent final stress), the position of the stressed

1260:(from some instances of Vulgar Latin -DI-) are not cognate with former western 1171:, as in some other Romance languages, such as French and Portuguese.) Romanian 752:

languages (which includes the vast majority) actually had a seven-vowel system

7584: 7563: 6546: 6132: 6060: 6019: 6005: 5953: 5055: 4805: 4690: 4516: 4237:) "that (over yonder)". The Spanish pronouns derive, respectively, from Latin 3549:(e.g. words such as "a", "the", "this") are also marked for case in Romanian. 3477: 3292: 2922:

definite article produces a separate set of "definite" inflections for nouns.

999:"bogeyman" (onomatopoeic, cf. English "boo!"). The apparent Spanish exception 845: 757: 562: 519: 423:(but modern French is not, as a result of the phonetic decay of verb endings). 222: 6908:

is continued with the meaning "to achieve, manage to do" as in Middle French

6163:, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and a few other Romance languages developed a 3703:(fem.)—these refer to the gender of the object possessed, not the possessor. 3484:

have come down in Italian in the nominative rather than the accusative (e.g.

688:

Replacement of the Latin future tense with a new tense formed (usually) by a

6213: 6179: 5051: 5047: 4716: 4134: 4091: 4032:) is normally used orally, which functions just like Spanish and Portuguese 4029: 3552:

Most Romance languages have the following sets of pronouns and determiners:

3510: 1249:

is from Latin -CT-, or from PL, CL following a consonant; former Portuguese

1112:

Spanish has no phonemic voiced fricatives (however, occur as allophones of

696:"have", which usually contracts into a new synthetic tense. A corresponding 633: 601:). All Romance languages have a definite article (originally developed from 443: 233:) that are attached to word roots to convey grammatical information such as 6227:

The following are common features of the Romance languages (inherited from

3870:), taking third-person plural agreement. Spanish innovated similarly, with 3594:, with the same forms used for both (similar to English "who" and "which"). 2146:"cold water "→ "cold waters"). Some of these neuter traces also feature in 65: 4165:"tied around, girded"; and the equivalent noun and adjective plural forms 3913:"your excellency" has simply been supplanted by the corresponding pronoun 7873:, ed. by Barbara Unterbeck et al., pp. 221–236. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter 7668:; etc. Similar examples can be found in all the other Romance languages. 7288: 6340:

of English "north", "south", "east" and "west" replaced the native words

3476:"love") have not survived. Some of the same nouns with multiple stems in 2208:

Spanish also has vestiges of the neuter in the demonstrative adjectives:

2161:

with the masculine singular, and the identity of the Latin neuter plural

1956: 1265: 1042: 279:, with a single affix representing multiple features (as contrasted with 272: 217:

Romance languages have a number of shared features across all languages:

8373: 8351: 8306: 7303:—pairs of inherited and learned words—such as those in the table below: 943:, while the early stages of most Western Romance languages allowed only 6957: 6621:

were retained also, sometimes without change of meaning, as in Italian

6337: 6212:, the synthetic preterite is predominantly a literary tense, except in 6174:

Many Romance languages now have a verbal construction analogous to the

5949: 4753: 3978:, however, has diverged from this system, and most dialects simply use 3926: 1253:

is from Latin PL, CL, FL, either word-initial or following a consonant.

1233:

from Vulgar Latin -CI-, and from -TI- following a consonant (elsewhere

7798:(Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2018), 9. 6055:

is used in a few constructions where English would use "to be", as in

2157:

Such nouns arose because of the identity of the Latin neuter singular

3810: 3771: 3506:), suggesting that a similar system existed in pre-literary Italian. 2919: 1960: 1799: 585:, which allows for some freedom in ordering the arguments of a verb. 230: 8559:

Las lenguas románicas estándar. Historia de su formación y de su uso

6840:). In some cases, terms from common occupations became generalized: 3940:

Portuguese innovated again in developing a new extra-polite pronoun

2098:"the arms" feminine in the plural). Another noteworthy exception is 675:, comparable to English "I have done, I had done, I will have done". 368:

Verbs are inflected according to a complex morphology that may mark

7955:

16.0416 (Paris, 20–25 juillet 1997). Oxford: Pergamon (CD edition).

7275:, while Sicily and Calabria typically have forms with initial /r/: 5111:

tense with the auxiliary verb placed in the imperfect subjunctive).

3905:

A similar path was followed by Italian and Romanian. Romanian uses

707:

Numerous lexical changes. A number of words were borrowed from the

700:

is formed in the same way but using one of the past-tense forms of

8513:. 3 vols. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003 (vol. 1), 2006 (vol. 2). 6103:"he was"), replacing the irregular forms derived from Latin (e.g. 4090:

that approximately translates as "some". This is used either with

2664:"with" (a conservative feature inherited from Latin forms such as 2244:

refers to an individual piece or loaf of bread. Similarly, neuter

226: 6004:, where it became a conditional, and Romanian, where it became a 4185:, where all vowels and consonants are pronounced as written, and 249:, etc. Verbs have much more inflection than nouns. The amount of 4183:

sano, santo, seno, cingi, cinge, cinto, sani, santi, seni, cinti

3972:

serve as universal singular and plural pronouns, respectively.)

2130:"The convenient right now is to get out"), one neuter pronoun ( 438:(expressing the concept of "some"). In some languages (notably, 8628:

Holtus, Günter; Metzeltin, Michael; Schmitt, Christian (1988).

1116:

after a vowel and after certain consonants). The equivalent of

609:"that (over there)") and an indefinite article (developed from 502:, and the corresponding syntactic changes that were triggered. 446:

of French vocabulary as a result of extensive sound reductions.

8548:

Lindenbauer, Petrea; Metzeltin, Michael; Thir, Margit (1995).

6091:

has been lost as a separate verb; but the former imperfect of

840:

Among the major Romance languages, Portuguese and French have

782:, and a large number of oral and nasal diphthongs (see below). 106: 59: 18: 8537:. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011 (vol. 1) & 2013 (vol. 2). 8525:

Martin Maiden, John Charles Smith & Adam Ledgeway, eds.,

8326: 8281: 8257: 8210: 7764:"From verbal prefixes to direction/result markers in Romance" 6528: 6503: 6486: 6421: 6111:). In Italian, the two verbs share the same past participle, 661:

Development of a series of palatal consonants as a result of

8022:), and still later came to be a demonstrative pronoun. From 7031:"forward". Some words derived from phrases, e.g. Portuguese 3986:) as a general-purpose second-person pronoun, combined with 2252:

is a specific sort of wine, with the consequence that mass

8452:

Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance

8096: 8094: 7817:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 292–310. 8630:

Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik. (LRL, 12 volumes)

5102:

are largely inherited from Classical Latin, many of the

4509:

means either "this" or "that (near you)"; on the phone,

3909:"your lordship", while Italian the former polite phrase 8758:(3rd ed.). Milano: RCS Libri (Tascabili Bompiani). 8606:

The Structure of Spoken Language: Intonation in Romance

6380:"beer"), but in some cases replacing Latin vocabulary ( 6216:; but an analytic preterite (formed using an auxiliary 6178:

of English. In some, it has taken the place of the old

5873:

The spelling is conservative. Note the pronunciations:

1870:"factory" (the corresponding inherited word is Spanish 723:), often replacing the popular forms of the same words. 628:, the accusative-plus-infinitive construction used for 8713:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8691:

Wetzels, W. Leo; Menuzzi, Sergio; Costa, João (2016).

7953:

Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists

3013:

Evolution of case in various Romance languages (Latin

7940:"Le français de Paris dans le français des Amériques" 6995:), or to augment already existing words, e.g. French 2181:"the eggs"). A similar phenomenon may be observed in 882:(although most speakers in France nowadays pronounce 774:

also has a large inventory, with 9 oral monophthongs

384:(indicative, subjunctive, imperative), and sometimes 8767:. Milano: RCS Libri (Biblioteca Universale Rizzoli). 8550:

Die romanischen Sprachen. Eine einführende Übersicht

8076:. The more frequent Italian equivalent, however, is 7147:"to eat (up)", which survives as Spanish/Portuguese 4314:). French generally prefers forms derived from bare 3785:

When a pronoun cannot serve as a clitic, a separate

1944:(the inherited word in this case being monosyllabic 1241:

from -TI- before a stressed syllable. Former French

951:

went even farther, deleting all final vowels except

8659:. New York: Modern Language Association of America. 7924:. New York: Modern Language Association of America. 6416:). Many Greek loans also entered the lexicon, e.g. 6135:the future is a direct derivation from Latin, e.g. 3778:Catalan still largely maintains this system with a 1963:or (in Italian) certain verb endings, e.g. Italian 1221:Although all of the languages have or used to have 1104:((double parentheses)): Appears in only 1 language. 6018:The Latin imperfect subjunctive became a personal 5091:Distinct active and passive voices, as well as an 4095:would be used in both of the following sentences: 2989:is thought to reflect the Latin nominative plural 1995:Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns can be marked for 1124:, and all the rest became voiceless. It also lost 404:constructions, as in the Italian present perfect ( 7123:), but in the central areas has been replaced by 7079:approx. "here's that thing of yours"; Portuguese 6235:Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify. 1182:French, and most varieties of Spanish, have lost 719:) or in something approaching the original form ( 154:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 8579:. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. 8126:(Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1994), 244–5; Povl Skårup, 7885: 7883: 7881: 7879: 6039:"to be" with an admixture of forms derived from 4822:1st, 2nd and 3d person plural of the Simple past 4574:Correspondence between Latin and Romance tenses 4513:is used to refer both to speaker and addressee. 4461:) were created; compare Catalan neuter pronouns 4086:Some languages, e.g. French and Italian, have a 967:, but they tend to occur largely in borrowed or 8754:Devoto, Giacomo; Giacomelli, Gabriella (2002). 8729:A Brief History History of the Spanish Language 6896:(orig. "to harbor at a riverbank", cf. Italian 6848:(orig. "to sniff out", in hunting, cf. Spanish 5066:in the indicative mood, for statements of fact. 2918:) and the combination of noun with a following 1927:. This applies even to borrowings: e.g. Latin 605:"self" but replaced in nearly all languages by 225:, i.e. there is a moderately complex system of 8527:The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages 8409:Originally formal, now equalizing or informal. 5982:of classical Latin was abandoned in favour of 4886:Conditional in Old Romanian (until 17th cent.) 856:, where the pre-nasal vowels in words such as 844:phonemes, stemming from nasalization before a 8128:Morphologie synchronique de l'ancien français 7183:, originally "whole" or by a reflex of Greek 6880:(orig. "to fold (sails; tents)", cf. Spanish 3925:serves as familiar plural. (In Italy, during 3714:, literally "the car of him/her". (In spoken 3691:"behold!" (or "here is ...") to the pronoun. 963:, and modern Italian allows final unstressed 8: 8519:Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction 8130:(Copenhagen: Stougaard Jensen, 1994), 121–2. 7846:Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction 4169:. The article helps identify the noun forms 1983:"let's put some of it in there"; Portuguese 8686:(2nd ed.). University of Pennsylvania. 8597:Christoph Gabriel & Conxita Lleó, eds. 8392:Wolf Dietrich, "Griechisch und Romanisch", 7143:also available in much of Italy; similarly 6231:) that are different from Classical Latin: 4393:"that way". Here again French prefers bare 4259:"behold (it!)" (still vigorous in Italy as 4193:/tʃ/ are clearly distinct from each other. 833:) appear only in some dialects. All except 53:Learn how and when to remove these messages 8561:. Uviéu: Academia de la Llingua Asturiana. 8192:. Modern Language Association of America. 6246:, and is much less flexible than in Latin. 5960:(to have). Eventually, this structure was 5088:: infinitive, gerund, and past participle. 4715:Simple preterite (literary except in some 920:is actually a final-syllable allophone of 464:(dynamic) type, rather than making use of 8740:(2nd ed.). Madrid: Editorial Gredos. 8542:The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages 7982: 7779: 7719:) also found their way into the lexicon: 7071:"this, that" (near you) < Old Italian 5989:The Latin pluperfect indicative became a 4263:'Behold!'), possibly with influence from 3994:) as the clitic object pronoun. The form 3580:A two-way or three-way distinction among 785:Some languages have a large inventory of 668:Loss of most traces of the neuter gender. 426:All Romance languages have two articles ( 190:Learn how and when to remove this message 16:Scientific study of the Romance languages 8544:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. 8540:Martin Maiden & Adam Ledgeway, eds. 8521:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8505:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7305: 7127:, originally "moulded (cheese)" (French 6119:persists most notably in the future of * 5931:Sicilian now uses imperfect subjunctive 5123: 5081:An imperative mood, for direct commands. 4572: 4369:), based on related Latin forms such as 4357:Reinforced forms are likewise common in 3011: 2787: 2678: 2306: 2082:with a restricted number of words (e.g. 1275: 361:). A significant exception, however, is 90:of all important aspects of the article. 8789:John Haiman & Paola Benincà, eds., 8731:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 8491:Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel (1988). 8447:Palatalization in the Romance languages 7890:Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel (1988). 7811:Historical Syntax and Linguistic Theory 7751: 6924:(orig. "to tell parables", cf. Occitan 6729:, etc., meaning "help", alongside e.g. 6348:(also "noon; midday nap"; cf. Romanian 6171:generally being preferred, as in Latin. 4981:both (but usually an analytic preterite 3850:"your mercy", progressively reduced to 8693:The Handbook of Portuguese Linguistics 7103:"cheese" in the periphery (Portuguese 6956:), based on Jesus' way of speaking in 6944:(orig. "to tell stories", cf. Spanish 5971:In a similar process, an entirely new 4701:3rd person plural Imperfect indicative 4519:had a similar distinction to Italian ( 2304:"good" still had 14 distinct endings. 1101:(parentheses): Appears in 2 languages. 1073:, without the Slavic iotation effect). 86:Please consider expanding the lead to 8648:The French language: present and past 8590:Sónia Frota & Pilar Prieto, eds. 8577:From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts 8394:Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik 8159:"for this reason she was presented" ( 7907:The French language: past and present 7715:). Many Greek prefixes and suffixes ( 6123:(e.g. Spanish/Portuguese/French/etc. 5948:Owing to sound changes which made it 4445:was extracted, from which forms like 3960:. (The original second-person plural 3577:that expresses the concept of "some". 3299:, and the older forms of a number of 2753:is dropped after certain consonants. 2519: 2514: 2454: 2449: 2090:"the arm" masculine in the singular, 748:. The parent language of most of the 636:constructions, and the common use of 569:developed under the influence of the 490:The most significant changes between 7: 8487:. Georgetown University Press, 1984. 8171:"for these reasons she was killed" ( 7757: 7755: 6433:which shifted to "iris", cf. French 6412:(later resurrected) and eliminating 6031:. One is derived from Vulgar Latin * 4752:Simple past (literary except in the 3944:"the sir", which in turn downgraded 3780:highly complex clitic pronoun system 2757:produces various irregular plurals ( 2248:is wine in general, while masculine 2114:"fruitless thinking"), possessives ( 671:Development of a series of analytic 8587:e. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2002. 7295:) or in a somewhat nativized form ( 6396:except in Romanian and Portuguese; 6095:is used as the modern imperfect of 4255:is an emphatic prefix derived from 4063:("that"), but some languages (e.g. 3559:, in three persons and two genders. 2122:"your cider"), one neuter article ( 310:Romance languages have a primarily 8601:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2011. 7291:), either in their original form ( 6079:, respectively. In modern French, 4270:Reinforced demonstratives such as 1859:"to love" > Spanish/Portuguese 741:Most languages have at least five 325:In general, nouns, adjectives and 144:for transliterated languages, and 124:of its non-English content, using 14: 8756:I Dialetti delle Regioni d'Italia 8711:A History of the Spanish Language 8517:Alkire, Ti; Rosen, Carol (2010). 8037:was created, later evolving into 7531:Sometimes triplets arise: Latin 6657:constructions were used instead: 4397:while Spanish and Italian prefer 3722:now has the meaning "your car".) 3527:"the hotel has been nationalized" 2781:"woman – women", both pronounced 2078:). This behavior happens also in 1011:, and was probably influenced by 692:of infinitive + present tense of 685:, replaced by active-voice verbs. 593:by the case endings themselves). 416:"I have loved/I have been loved". 221:Romance languages are moderately 34:This article has multiple issues. 8666:French: From Dialect to Standard 8608:. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2016. 8104:On the use of the passato remoto 7984:10.4312/linguistica.52.1.253-266 7781:10.4312/linguistica.51.1.201-216 7219:"sail pole" < Dalmatian < 6027:Many Romance languages have two 5935:in place of present subjunctive. 5460:dize, diz, di דִיזֵי, דִיז, דִי 3894:was filled by originally polite 2240:is 'the bread', while masculine 2051:Most Romance languages have two 588:The Romance languages developed 111: 64: 23: 8774:A Linguistic History of Italian 8736:Zamora Vicente, Alonso (1967). 8477:A Course in Romance Linguistics 8247:". Online Etymology Dictionary. 8175:= second preterite, from Latin 8080:, derived from the combination 8000:originally meant "self", as in 7909:. London: Grant and Cutler Ltd. 7871:Gender in Grammar and Cognition 7687:-) and reinforced many others ( 7155:, originally "to chew" (French 7047:"with" (prep.) < Old French 6673:. Verbs were often replaced by 6669:(orig. "big fish") > French 6581:(orig. "chick, nestling") > 6238:The normal clause structure is 5119:(to say), and its descendants. 5038:, including in most languages: 2985:"dog(s)". The masculine plural 2256:has no plural counterpart, but 2224:(meaning "it") and the article 1975:"delivering it to me"; Italian 1003:"almost" originates from Latin 434:), and many have in addition a 299:"love" and the fusional suffix 205:is the scientific study of the 78:may be too short to adequately 42:or discuss these issues on the 8720:Historia de la Lengua Española 8190:An Introduction to Old Occitan 8163:= first preterite, from Latin 7573:"flower" (Galician-Portuguese 7307:Doublets in Romance languages 6362:History of French – The Franks 5993:in Sicilian, and an imperfect 4008:still retains the plural form 3601:and determiners (e.g. Spanish 2993:rather than accusative plural 1819:" limit", present subjunctive 322:) determiners usually precede. 263:and much less than the oldest 160:multilingual support templates 88:provide an accessible overview 1: 8657:An introduction to Old French 8061:"same". The alternative form 7922:An introduction to Old French 7844:Ti Alkire & Carol Rosen, 7691:, popular Spanish/Portuguese 7151:but elsewhere is replaced by 6617:"headboard"; but reflexes of 6202:present perfect only: Romansh 5911:Until the eighteenth century. 5020:Regional Italian in the South 5008:Regional Italian in the North 4966:Preterite vs. present perfect 4747:Regional Italian in the South 4741:Regional Italian in the North 4322:"this one/that one" (earlier 2680:Spanish inflectional classes 2144:l'agua frío → les agües fríes 2134:"he/she/it") and some nouns ( 1092:: Appears in all 5 languages. 510:+ ablative and the dative by 8791:The Rhaeto-Romance Languages 8065:eventually produced Catalan 8053:, which replaced both Latin 7539:"joint, knuckle" (learned), 6912:, or "to happen" in Italian 6788:"mare" remains, cf. Spanish 6753:"to hunt", frequentative of 6408:"piece", largely displacing 4318:"behold", as in the pronoun 4306:), in addition to dialectal 4167:sains, saints, seins, ceints 2308:Spanish pronoun inflections 2023:> Spanish and Portuguese 1256:Italian and former Romanian 823:/ajɐjɛjejɔjojujawɛwewiw(ow)/ 481:Changes from Classical Latin 333:(masculine or feminine) and 8722:. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. 8682:Williams, Edwin B. (1968). 8655:Kibler, William W. (1984). 8613:Vowel Prosthesis in Romance 8575:Boyd-Bowman, Peter (1980). 8557:Metzeltin, Michael (2004). 8509:Gerhard Ernst et al., eds. 8379:Online Etymology Dictionary 8357:Online Etymology Dictionary 8312:Online Etymology Dictionary 8124:Syntaxe de l'ancien occitan 7920:Kibler, William W. (1984). 7796:An Anthology of Old Spanish 7588:(stress on /i/) vs. French 6022:in Portuguese and Galician. 5000:Regional Italian in Tuscany 4975:but has different meaning) 4765:only traces in modern lang 4733:Regional Italian in Tuscany 4338:'that') and the determiner 4161:"(he) ties around, girds"; 3817:Familiar–formal distinction 3792:Most Romance languages are 3573:, and in some languages, a 3317:"the father", and feminine 1823:" limit(s)" and preterite 1098:: Appears in 3–4 languages. 419:Most Romance languages are 345:type (rather than e.g. the 291:). For example, Portuguese 255:is significantly more than 8825: 8793:. London: Routledge, 1992. 8695:. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 8664:Lodge, R. Anthony (1993). 8615:. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010. 8594:. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2015. 8475:Frederick Browning Agard. 8327: 8282: 8258: 8211: 7965:Nanbakhsh, Golnaz (2012). 7543:"article" (semi-learned), 7299:). These resulted in many 6529: 6504: 6487: 6422: 6308:"white", replacing native 5815: 5788: 5761: 5734: 5707: 5680: 5653: 5626: 5599: 5572: 5545: 5518: 5491: 5464: 5437: 5410: 5383: 5356: 5321: 5294: 5267: 5240: 5213: 5186: 5159: 5098:Note that, although these 4566: 4535:is only an adjective, and 4157:"(you) tie around, gird"; 4052:"some (non-specific)" and 2789:Romanian noun inflections 1971:"they telephone"; Spanish 1888:"Stephen" > Old French 902:occurs in only two words, 621:"of" + definite article). 329:inflect only according to 8646:Price, Glanville (1971). 8552:. Wilhelmsfeld: G. Egert. 8188:Paden, William D. 1998. 8151:"they wanted" < Latin 7905:Price, Glanville (1984). 7762:Cordin, Patrizia (2011). 7320: 7317: 7314: 7311: 7179:, displaced elsewhere by 7091:< Galician-Portuguese 6557:(orig. "outer ear") > 6392:"to exchange", replacing 5914:With the disused variant 5131: 5128: 5126: 5074:Italian of the so-called 5016:preference for preterite 4950:in 18th-century Romanian) 4919: 4896: 4832: 4811:Sequence of Saint Eulalia 4772: 4711: 4629: 4621: 4613: 3279: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3232: 3214: 3211: 3190: 3187: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3172: 3162: 3146: 3143: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3115: 3109: 3099: 3083: 3080: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3043: 2870: 2838: 2832: 2829: 2821: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2554: 2549: 2479: 2474: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2128:Lo que cal agora ye colar 2070:"two fingers", cf. Latin 1322: 1317: 1310: 1300: 1295: 1288: 1283: 987:"spirit" (loanwords from 613:"one"). Many also have a 543: 295:"I loved" is composed of 8763:Devoto, Giacomo (1999). 8501:Posner, Rebecca (1996). 8102:"Accademia della Crusca 7535:"joint" > Portuguese 6987:"draw, pull", Aromanian 6975:"to extract" from Latin 6920:"to speak" succumbed to 6876:"to arrive" gave way to 6836:is continued in Italian 6832:(orig. "footpath") (but 6332:; and the words for the 6328:"war", replacing native 6304:. Notable examples are * 6147:for further information. 5093:impersonal passive voice 4973:(present perfect exists, 4441:). From these, a prefix 3569:Definite and indefinite 3536:"the nationalized hotel" 3515:Rhaeto-Romance languages 3509:The modern situation in 3385:li prestre – le prevoire 3301:Rhaeto-Romance languages 2126:"The beautiful is...", 2019:number comes from Latin 1913:"young" > Old French 1837:"thirteen" > Spanish 1190:). Romanian merged both 1028:Rhaeto-Romance languages 909:"much, many, very", and 829:(and to a lesser extent 638:reduced relative clauses 8772:Maiden, Martin (1995). 8727:Pharies, David (2007). 8718:Lapesa, Rafael (1981). 8227:A Greek–English Lexicon 8041:and eventually Spanish 7479:"barrister (attorney)" 7203:"every day"); Friulian 7043:"at this hour"; French 6661:"fish" > Old French 6465:"blow" (Greek: κόλαφος 6290:Germanic folk movements 5440:Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) 4830:Pluperfect subjunctive 4784:Imperfect subjunctive ( 4662:Imperfect subjunctive / 4457:"there (over yonder)" ( 4361:(words such as English 4050:aliquī, aliqua, aliquod 3813:as agreement markers.) 3802:Gallo-Italian languages 3725:The same demonstrative 3641:"other/another"; etc.). 2941:"body – bodies" (Latin 2745:(masculine), plural in 2138:"one hair → the hair", 2041:ambo, ambedue, entrambi 1136:in some other dialects. 1024:Gallo-Romance languages 949:Gallo-Romance languages 778:, 5 nasal monophthongs 516:Gallo-Romance languages 486:Loss of the case system 303:"first-person singular 281:agglutinative languages 275:). Inflection is often 265:Indo-European languages 8765:Il Linguaggio d'Italia 8738:Dialectología Española 8457:Proto-Romance language 7794:Tatiana Fotitch, ed., 7473:"solicitor (attorney)" 7405:"blacksmith (archaic)" 6844:"to find" replaced by 6063:, the derivatives of * 5069:Present and preterite 4778:Pluperfect indicative 4725:Simple past (literary) 4635:Imperfect subjunctive 4503:aquest, aqueix, aquell 4229:"that (near you)" vs. 4110:But neither of these: 4023: 4013: 3794:null subject languages 3679:Development from Latin 2741:(feminine), plural in 2236:, for example, neuter 1934:> French borrowing 1070: 567:verb-second word order 460:Word accent is of the 421:null subject languages 400:) are expressed using 376:(singular or plural), 337:(singular or plural). 8709:Penny, Ralph (2002). 8632:. Tübingen: Niemeyer. 8592:Intonation in Romance 8503:The Romance Languages 8493:The Romance Languages 8218:Liddell, Henry George 8143:"she had" < Latin 7892:The Romance Languages 7055:"with that"; Spanish 6006:pluperfect indicative 5028:present perfect only 5025:present perfect only 4995:present perfect only 4992:present perfect only 4986:+infinitive is used) 4836:Pluperfect indicative 4833:Imperfect subjunctive 4743:); Preterite/Perfect 4737:Literary Remote Past 4630:Imperfect indicative 4627:Imperfect indicative 4485:) "that (near you)", 4342:"this/that" (earlier 4116:Milk is good for you. 3876:vuestra(s) merced(es) 3831:vs. formal or plural 3775:pronouns cooccurred. 3708:la voiture à lui/elle 3541:Pronouns, determiners 3404:li sire – le seigneur 2977:"friend(s) (masc.)", 2140:un fierru → el fierro 1237:). Romanian also has 750:Italo-Western Romance 343:nominative–accusative 8668:. London: Routledge. 8495:. London: Routledge. 8157:por o fut presentede 7894:. London: Routledge. 7594:, learned loan, and 7352:"craft, manufacture" 7195:"everyone"; Italian 6828:(orig. "furrow") or 6757:"to seize" (Italian 6749:) > replaced by * 6498:); common suffixes * 6453:"face" (Greek: κάρα 5978:While the synthetic 5004:present perfect only 4770:Perfect subjunctive 4664:Personal infinitive 4622:Present subjunctive 4619:Present subjunctive 4449:"there (near you)" ( 4310:"that (near you)" (* 4126:some specific men". 3976:Brazilian Portuguese 3929:times leading up to 3807:disjunctive pronouns 3716:Brazilian Portuguese 3651:there are forms for 2981:"friend(s) (fem.)"; 1815:"daddy", or Spanish 854:Brazilian Portuguese 590:grammatical articles 577:, Spanish "personal 455:front rounded vowels 158:. Knowledge (XXG)'s 122:specify the language 120:This article should 8583:Cravens, Thomas D. 8179:) in the same poem. 8169:por o's furet morte 8071:Galician-Portuguese 7308: 7231:"also/yes/indeed", 7175:"each, every" < 6983:"to pull" (Italian 6860:, Southern Italian 6784:(orig. "nag") (but 6653:, etc.). Sometimes 6457:, partly replacing 6384:"sword", replacing 6334:cardinal directions 6259:tempore permittente 6253:and the use of the 6190:). A few examples: 5956:+ present tense of 4709:Perfect indicative 4638:Personal infinitive 4614:Present indicative 4611:Present indicative 4575: 4497:) "that (yonder)". 4405:"here" vs. Spanish 4208:'that (near you)', 3673:possessive pronouns 3633:"much/many/a lot", 3599:indefinite pronouns 3522:il hotel ej vɛɲiws 3423:li enfes – l'enfant 3313:"the neighbor" and 3044:Masculine singular 3018: 2929:"man – men" (Latin 2790: 2681: 2309: 2104:la xente galbaniego 2053:grammatical genders 1278: 1277:Romance consonants 1186:(which merged with 896:/ɐ̃w̃ɐ̃j̃ẽj̃õj̃ũj̃/ 772:European Portuguese 414:io sono stato amato 347:ergative–absolutive 312:subject–verb–object 203:Romance linguistics 8776:. London: Longman. 8243:Harper, Douglas. " 7741:-logie/logia/logía 7707:, popular Italian 7306: 7297:semi-learned loans 7131:, Occitan/Catalan 7067:"so big"; Italian 7011:"to sew up", from 6820:(orig. "hearth"); 6625:"head", alongside 6540:Lexical innovation 6400:"cart", replacing 6294:Germanic languages 6251:indirect discourse 6165:progressive aspect 6139:"he will be" < 4878:future subjunctive 4876:possible traces of 4862:future subjunctive 4860:possible traces of 4852:Future subjunctive 4849:(very much in use) 4847:Future subjunctive 4794:Second conditional 4669:Future indicative 4573: 4104:Men arrived today. 4075:) have forms from 3742:"the (fem.)" < 3366:la suer – la seror 3173:Feminine singular 3012: 2788: 2679: 2307: 1991:Nominal morphology 1276: 1163:ended up becoming 813:"rubber"; Italian 787:falling diphthongs 721:semi-learned words 709:Germanic languages 571:Germanic languages 335:grammatical number 331:grammatical gender 8807:Romance languages 8604:Philippe Martin. 8485:A Diachronic View 8481:A Synchronic View 8418:Likewise Spanish 8372:Harper, Douglas. 8350:Harper, Douglas. 8305:Harper, Douglas. 7824:978-0-19-956054-7 7699:, popular French 7656:(< accusative 7648:(< nominative 7529: 7528: 7464:"advocate (noun)" 7239:"rather/yes/no", 7139:, with, however, 6741:"hunt" (Romanian 6737:"to be of use"); 6263:tempo permettendo 6255:ablative absolute 5924:In modern times, 5867: 5866: 5032: 5031: 4943:(split apart from 4687:future of "to be" 4563:Verbal morphology 4555:"this woman" vs. 4191:⟨c⟩ 4187:⟨s⟩ 4088:partitive article 3809:as arguments and 3754:, developed from 3712:o carro dele/dela 3646:Personal pronouns 3588:Relative pronouns 3575:partitive article 3564:reflexive pronoun 3557:Personal pronouns 3347:li ber – le baron 3289: 3288: 3110:Masculine plural 2961:"brother(s)" vs. 2911: 2910: 2734: 2733: 2648: 2647: 2189:one hotel(m) vs. 2169:"the finger" vs. 2136:un pelu → el pelo 2066:"one finger" vs. 1948:< Pre-French * 1787: 1786: 1108:Notable changes: 1071:el, ella, estamos 1049:in words such as 957:accented syllable 698:conditional tense 654:Loss of phonemic 643:Balkan sprachbund 626:ablative absolute 615:partitive article 436:partitive article 394:Grammatical voice 207:Romance languages 200: 199: 192: 182: 181: 162:may also be used. 105: 104: 57: 8814: 8777: 8768: 8759: 8741: 8732: 8723: 8714: 8696: 8687: 8669: 8660: 8651: 8650:. Edward Arnold. 8633: 8611:Rodney Sampson. 8580: 8562: 8553: 8522: 8506: 8496: 8435: 8416: 8410: 8407: 8401: 8390: 8384: 8383: 8369: 8363: 8361: 8347: 8341: 8330: 8329: 8323: 8317: 8316: 8302: 8296: 8285: 8284: 8278: 8272: 8261: 8260: 8254: 8248: 8241: 8235: 8214: 8213: 8207: 8201: 8186: 8180: 8137: 8131: 8120: 8114: 8113: 8112:on June 7, 2006. 8108:. Archived from 8098: 8089: 8020:Balearic Islands 7995: 7989: 7988: 7986: 7962: 7956: 7950: 7946: 7944: 7932: 7926: 7925: 7917: 7911: 7910: 7902: 7896: 7895: 7887: 7874: 7867: 7861: 7859: 7855: 7849: 7842: 7836: 7835: 7833: 7831: 7816: 7805: 7799: 7792: 7786: 7785: 7783: 7759: 7309: 7077:eccum tibi istum 6872:'to find out'); 6856:, Romansh dial. 6689:"to throw" > 6532: 6531: 6521:-eggiare/-izzare 6507: 6506: 6490: 6489: 6425: 6424: 6420:"sword" (Greek: 6298:Slavic languages 6059:"I am well". In 5973:conditional form 5907: 5900: 5893: 5886: 5879: 5640:dìsser, l'ha dit 5324:Franco-Provençal 5254:digué/va dir/dit 5124: 5086:non-finite forms 5034:Verbs have many 4917:New conditional 4802:Second preterite 4576: 4381:"this way", and 4359:locative adverbs 4192: 4188: 4140: 4073:Balearic Catalan 3657:subject pronouns 3321:"the thing" vs. 3233:Feminine plural 3019: 2857:băiatule, băiete 2791: 2784: 2682: 2310: 1943: 1926: 1905: 1780: 1771: 1729: 1716: 1686: 1669: 1641: 1632: 1621: 1614: 1607: 1600: 1591: 1584: 1577: 1549: 1542: 1535: 1528: 1500: 1493: 1478: 1471: 1456: 1449: 1429: 1416: 1399: 1279: 1271: 1263: 1259: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1178: 1175:likewise became 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1064: 1037: 979:"taxi", Spanish 966: 962: 954: 946: 942: 931: 923: 919: 915: 908: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 871:"good (masc.)", 870: 836: 832: 828: 824: 796: 792: 781: 777: 769: 762: 755: 747: 713:Celtic languages 534:, and in traces 518:(in particular, 474:Slavic languages 472:and some modern 406:passato prossimo 355:split ergativity 339:Grammatical case 259:, but less than 195: 188: 177: 174: 168: 153: 147: 143: 137: 133: 127: 115: 114: 107: 100: 97: 91: 68: 60: 49: 27: 26: 19: 8824: 8823: 8817: 8816: 8815: 8813: 8812: 8811: 8797: 8796: 8783:Rhaeto-Romance: 8771: 8762: 8753: 8735: 8726: 8717: 8708: 8690: 8681: 8663: 8654: 8645: 8627: 8574: 8556: 8547: 8516: 8500: 8497:. Reprint 2003. 8490: 8465: 8443: 8438: 8417: 8413: 8408: 8404: 8391: 8387: 8371: 8370: 8366: 8349: 8348: 8344: 8324: 8320: 8304: 8303: 8299: 8279: 8275: 8255: 8251: 8242: 8238: 8232:Perseus Project 8208: 8204: 8187: 8183: 8138: 8134: 8121: 8117: 8100: 8099: 8092: 7996: 7992: 7964: 7963: 7959: 7948: 7942: 7938: 7933: 7929: 7919: 7918: 7914: 7904: 7903: 7899: 7889: 7888: 7877: 7868: 7864: 7856: 7852: 7843: 7839: 7829: 7827: 7825: 7814: 7807: 7806: 7802: 7793: 7789: 7761: 7760: 7753: 7749: 7569:); Portuguese 7285: 7255:"to tell", and 7007:"to sew", from 6812:(orig. "hut"); 6681:"to sing" > 6677:constructions: 6542: 6485:"each" (Greek: 6285: 6280: 6176:present perfect 6131:), although in 6105:ere(t), iere(t) 5938: 5921:long infinitive 5454:dezía דֵיזִייָה 5109:present perfect 5017: 5015: 5005: 5003: 4982: 4974: 4972: 4967: 4957: 4949: 4944: 4942: 4879: 4877: 4863: 4861: 4853: 4848: 4844:Future perfect 4808: 4803: 4795: 4764: 4744: 4738: 4736: 4688: 4663: 4571: 4565: 4190: 4186: 4149:"saint, holy"; 4042: 3952:, "equalizing" 3843:"yourselves"). 3839:"yourself" vs. 3824:T–V distinction 3819: 3811:clitic pronouns 3768: 3766:Clitic pronouns 3750:, or masculine 3681: 3665:object pronouns 3653:nominative case 3648: 3543: 2953:"house(s)" vs. 2894: 2875: 2845: 2826: 2777:spelling (e.g. 2629: 2618: 2607: 2596: 2274: 2173:"the fingers", 2106:"lazy people", 2049: 2027:, Old Romanian 2013: 1993: 1804:syllable weight 1792: 1327: 1313: 1305: 1291: 1128:, which became 1080: 1045:of the initial 1026:(including the 989:Classical Latin 934:prosodic stress 846:nasal consonant 817:"you are/six", 805:"debt"; French 735: 730: 651: 630:reported speech 583:clitic doubling 559:right-branching 551:word scrambling 492:Classical Latin 488: 483: 316:right-branching 261:Classical Latin 215: 196: 185: 184: 183: 178: 172: 169: 163: 151: 145: 141: 139:transliteration 135: 131: 125: 116: 112: 101: 95: 92: 85: 73:This article's 69: 28: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8822: 8821: 8818: 8810: 8809: 8799: 8798: 8795: 8794: 8779: 8778: 8769: 8760: 8743: 8742: 8733: 8724: 8715: 8698: 8697: 8688: 8671: 8670: 8661: 8652: 8635: 8634: 8617: 8616: 8609: 8602: 8595: 8588: 8581: 8564: 8563: 8554: 8545: 8538: 8523: 8514: 8507: 8498: 8488: 8464: 8461: 8460: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8436: 8424:vuestra merced 8411: 8402: 8385: 8364: 8342: 8318: 8297: 8273: 8249: 8236: 8202: 8181: 8132: 8115: 8090: 8029:the emphatic ( 7990: 7977:(1): 253–266. 7957: 7949:(52.1 KB) 7935:Henri Wittmann 7927: 7912: 7897: 7875: 7862: 7850: 7837: 7823: 7800: 7787: 7774:(1): 201–216. 7750: 7748: 7745: 7551:"crude, raw" ( 7527: 7526: 7520: 7514: 7511: 7504: 7503: 7497: 7496:"to wear thin" 7491: 7488: 7481: 7480: 7474: 7468: 7465: 7458: 7457: 7451: 7445: 7442: 7436: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7420: 7413: 7412: 7406: 7400: 7397: 7391: 7390: 7384: 7378: 7375: 7369: 7368: 7362: 7356: 7353: 7346: 7345: 7339: 7333: 7330: 7323: 7322: 7319: 7316: 7313: 7284: 7281: 7259:"house" < ( 7251:"to say" < 7213:Serbo-Croatian 7207:"to cry" < 7187:(e.g. Italian 7095:"your mercy". 6824:"street" > 6541: 6538: 6473:, cf. Spanish 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6275: 6274: 6247: 6242:, rather than 6236: 6206: 6205: 6204: 6203: 6200: 6197: 6194: 6172: 6149: 6148: 6145:Romance copula 6087:"to be" while 6025: 6024: 6023: 6016: 6009: 5998: 5976: 5969: 5937: 5936: 5929: 5922: 5919: 5912: 5909: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5865: 5864: 5861: 5858: 5855: 5852: 5849: 5846: 5840: 5839: 5836: 5833: 5830: 5827: 5824: 5821: 5813: 5812: 5809: 5806: 5803: 5800: 5797: 5794: 5786: 5785: 5782: 5779: 5776: 5773: 5770: 5767: 5759: 5758: 5755: 5752: 5749: 5746: 5743: 5740: 5732: 5731: 5728: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5716: 5713: 5705: 5704: 5701: 5698: 5695: 5692: 5689: 5688:a zice, zicere 5686: 5678: 5677: 5674: 5671: 5668: 5665: 5662: 5659: 5651: 5650: 5647: 5644: 5641: 5638: 5635: 5632: 5624: 5623: 5620: 5617: 5614: 5611: 5608: 5605: 5597: 5596: 5593: 5590: 5587: 5584: 5581: 5578: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5563: 5560: 5557: 5554: 5551: 5543: 5542: 5539: 5536: 5533: 5530: 5527: 5524: 5516: 5515: 5512: 5509: 5506: 5503: 5500: 5497: 5489: 5488: 5485: 5482: 5479: 5476: 5473: 5470: 5462: 5461: 5458: 5455: 5452: 5449: 5446: 5443: 5435: 5434: 5431: 5428: 5425: 5422: 5419: 5416: 5408: 5407: 5404: 5401: 5398: 5395: 5392: 5389: 5381: 5380: 5377: 5374: 5371: 5368: 5365: 5362: 5354: 5353: 5350: 5343: 5340: 5337: 5334: 5327: 5319: 5318: 5315: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5303: 5300: 5292: 5291: 5288: 5285: 5282: 5279: 5276: 5273: 5265: 5264: 5261: 5258: 5255: 5252: 5249: 5246: 5238: 5237: 5234: 5231: 5228: 5225: 5222: 5219: 5211: 5210: 5207: 5204: 5201: 5198: 5195: 5192: 5184: 5183: 5180: 5177: 5174: 5171: 5168: 5165: 5157: 5156: 5153: 5150: 5147: 5144: 5140: 5139: 5136: 5133: 5130: 5127: 5113: 5112: 5096: 5089: 5082: 5079: 5076:passato remoto 5067: 5064:future perfect 5030: 5029: 5026: 5023: 4996: 4993: 4990: 4987: 4979: 4976: 4971:preterite only 4969: 4963: 4962: 4951: 4936: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4914: 4913: 4907: 4901: 4895: 4891: 4890: 4887: 4884: 4874: 4871: 4868: 4858: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4840: 4837: 4834: 4831: 4827: 4826: 4823: 4820: 4817: 4814: 4804:in very early 4800: 4792: 4789: 4782: 4779: 4775: 4774: 4771: 4767: 4766: 4757: 4750: 4729: 4726: 4723: 4720: 4713: 4710: 4706: 4705: 4702: 4699: 4696: 4693: 4685: 4682: 4679: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4665: 4660: 4657: 4654: 4651: 4648: 4645: 4642: 4639: 4636: 4632: 4631: 4628: 4624: 4623: 4620: 4616: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4607: 4604: 4601: 4598: 4597:Rhaeto-Romance 4595: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4580: 4564: 4561: 4557:cette femme-là 4553:cette femme-ci 4551:"there", e.g. 4541:cel lui, celle 4334:; cf. Italian 4123: 4122: 4121: 4120: 4117: 4108: 4107: 4106: 4105: 4102: 4041: 4038: 3998:(and feminine 3911:sua eccellenza 3818: 3815: 3767: 3764: 3680: 3677: 3647: 3644: 3643: 3642: 3637:"few/little"; 3595: 3592:interrogatives 3585: 3582:demonstratives 3578: 3567: 3560: 3542: 3539: 3538: 3537: 3528: 3524:natsionalizaws 3445:li om – le ome 3287: 3286: 3282: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3273: 3270: 3266: 3265: 3262: 3258: 3257: 3253: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3240: 3237: 3234: 3230: 3229: 3226: 3222: 3221: 3217: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3206: 3205: 3202: 3198: 3197: 3193: 3192: 3189: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3177: 3174: 3170: 3169: 3165: 3164: 3161: 3157: 3156: 3153: 3149: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3135: 3134: 3130: 3129: 3126: 3123: 3120: 3117: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3106: 3102: 3101: 3098: 3094: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3085: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3072: 3071: 3068: 3064: 3063: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3041: 3040: 3037: 3034: 3031: 3028: 3025: 3022: 2979:amica – amiche 2969:"valley(s)".) 2965:"book(s)" vs. 2939:corp – corpuri 2909: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2886: 2883: 2880: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2867: 2864: 2861: 2858: 2855: 2851: 2850: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2828: 2823: 2819: 2818: 2815: 2812: 2809: 2805: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2795: 2779:femme – femmes 2763:hotel – hotéis 2759:nação – nações 2732: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2719: 2715: 2714: 2711: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2698: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2685: 2646: 2645: 2640: 2635: 2624: 2613: 2602: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2571: 2566: 2559: 2558: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2533: 2531:suyo; de ellas 2528: 2526:suyo; de ellos 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2483: 2478: 2473: 2469: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2419: 2418: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2358: 2353: 2348: 2343: 2339: 2338: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2273: 2270: 2220:, the pronoun 2177:"the egg" vs. 2132:elli/ella/ello 2124:Lo guapo ye... 2120:la sidra vueso 2110:"cold water", 2048: 2045: 2031:> Romanian 2012: 2009: 1992: 1989: 1973:entregándomelo 1791: 1790:Lexical stress 1788: 1785: 1784: 1782: 1775: 1773: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1738: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1731: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1697: 1691: 1690: 1688: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1671: 1664: 1662: 1660: 1658: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1644: 1643: 1636: 1634: 1627: 1625: 1623: 1616: 1609: 1602: 1595: 1593: 1586: 1579: 1572: 1570: 1568: 1562: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1544: 1537: 1530: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1505: 1504: 1502: 1495: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1480: 1473: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1451: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1431: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1411: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1394: 1392: 1386: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1352: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1337: 1336: 1331: 1321: 1316: 1309: 1299: 1294: 1287: 1282: 1274: 1273: 1254: 1215: 1214: 1203: 1180: 1137: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1093: 1079: 1076: 1075: 1074: 1039: 1020:open syllables 1016: 937: 925: 838: 797:(e.g. Spanish 783: 761:/aɑɛeiɔouœøyə/ 734: 731: 729: 726: 725: 724: 705: 686: 683:deponent verbs 679: 676: 673:perfect tenses 669: 666: 663:palatalization 659: 650: 647: 581:") along with 555:left-branching 553:and mixing of 487: 484: 482: 479: 478: 477: 458: 447: 424: 417: 398:perfect aspect 366: 323: 308: 214: 213:Basic features 211: 198: 197: 180: 179: 119: 117: 110: 103: 102: 82:the key points 72: 70: 63: 58: 32: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8820: 8819: 8808: 8805: 8804: 8802: 8792: 8788: 8787: 8786: 8785: 8784: 8775: 8770: 8766: 8761: 8757: 8752: 8751: 8750: 8749: 8748: 8739: 8734: 8730: 8725: 8721: 8716: 8712: 8707: 8706: 8705: 8704: 8703: 8694: 8689: 8685: 8680: 8679: 8678: 8677: 8676: 8667: 8662: 8658: 8653: 8649: 8644: 8643: 8642: 8641: 8640: 8631: 8626: 8625: 8624: 8623: 8622: 8614: 8610: 8607: 8603: 8600: 8596: 8593: 8589: 8586: 8582: 8578: 8573: 8572: 8571: 8570: 8569: 8560: 8555: 8551: 8546: 8543: 8539: 8536: 8532: 8528: 8524: 8520: 8515: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8486: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8473: 8472: 8471: 8470: 8462: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8444: 8440: 8433: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8415: 8412: 8406: 8403: 8399: 8395: 8389: 8386: 8381: 8380: 8375: 8368: 8365: 8359: 8358: 8353: 8346: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8322: 8319: 8314: 8313: 8308: 8301: 8298: 8294: 8290: 8286: 8277: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8253: 8250: 8246: 8240: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8228: 8223: 8222:Scott, Robert 8219: 8215: 8206: 8203: 8199: 8198:0-87352-293-1 8195: 8191: 8185: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8136: 8133: 8129: 8125: 8119: 8116: 8111: 8107: 8106:(in Italian)" 8105: 8097: 8095: 8091: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8075: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8025: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8010: 8006: 8003: 7999: 7994: 7991: 7985: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7968: 7961: 7958: 7954: 7941: 7936: 7931: 7928: 7923: 7916: 7913: 7908: 7901: 7898: 7893: 7886: 7884: 7882: 7880: 7876: 7872: 7866: 7863: 7854: 7851: 7847: 7841: 7838: 7826: 7820: 7813: 7812: 7804: 7801: 7797: 7791: 7788: 7782: 7777: 7773: 7769: 7765: 7758: 7756: 7752: 7746: 7744: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7669: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7602: 7601:, inherited. 7600: 7599: 7593: 7592: 7587: 7586: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7565: 7562:"vegetable" ( 7561: 7557: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7542: 7538: 7534: 7524: 7521: 7518: 7515: 7512: 7509: 7506: 7505: 7501: 7498: 7495: 7492: 7489: 7486: 7483: 7482: 7478: 7475: 7472: 7469: 7466: 7463: 7460: 7459: 7455: 7452: 7449: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7437: 7433: 7430: 7427: 7424: 7421: 7418: 7415: 7414: 7410: 7407: 7404: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7392: 7388: 7385: 7382: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7370: 7366: 7363: 7360: 7357: 7354: 7351: 7348: 7347: 7343: 7340: 7337: 7334: 7331: 7328: 7325: 7324: 7310: 7304: 7302: 7298: 7294: 7293:learned loans 7290: 7282: 7280: 7278: 7274: 7271:"grape" < 7270: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7102: 7096: 7094: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7059:, Portuguese 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7027:> Italian 7026: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7003:, Portuguese 7002: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6979:"out of" and 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6961: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6892:), elsewhere 6891: 6887: 6884:, Portuguese 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6852:, Portuguese 6851: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6808:"house" > 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6792:, Portuguese 6791: 6787: 6783: 6780:"horse" > 6779: 6774: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6761:, Portuguese 6760: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6733:> Italian 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6701:, Portuguese 6700: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6675:frequentative 6672: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6649:, Portuguese 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6593:, Neapolitan 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6572: 6569:, Portuguese 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6539: 6537: 6535: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6501: 6500:-ijāre/-izāre 6497: 6493: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6445:and Romanian 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6391: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6312:(but Romansh 6311: 6307: 6303: 6300:, especially 6299: 6295: 6291: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6261:> Italian 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6234: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6225: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6208:Note that in 6201: 6198: 6195: 6192: 6191: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6157: 6156: 6154: 6153:Romance verbs 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6029:verbs "to be" 6026: 6021: 6017: 6014: 6010: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5981: 5980:passive voice 5977: 5974: 5970: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5934: 5930: 5927: 5923: 5920: 5917: 5913: 5910: 5904: 5897: 5890: 5883: 5876: 5872: 5871: 5862: 5859: 5857:he was saying 5856: 5853: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5844:Basic meaning 5842: 5841: 5837: 5834: 5831: 5828: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5819: 5814: 5810: 5807: 5804: 5801: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5792: 5787: 5783: 5780: 5777: 5774: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5765: 5760: 5756: 5753: 5750: 5747: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5738: 5733: 5729: 5726: 5723: 5720: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5711: 5706: 5702: 5699: 5696: 5693: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5684: 5679: 5675: 5672: 5669: 5666: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5657: 5652: 5648: 5645: 5642: 5639: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5630: 5625: 5621: 5618: 5615: 5612: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5603: 5598: 5594: 5591: 5588: 5585: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5567: 5564: 5561: 5558: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5537: 5534: 5531: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5522: 5517: 5513: 5510: 5507: 5504: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5495: 5490: 5486: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5468: 5463: 5459: 5456: 5453: 5450: 5447: 5445:dezir דֵיזִיר 5444: 5442: 5441: 5436: 5432: 5429: 5426: 5423: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5414: 5409: 5405: 5402: 5399: 5396: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5387: 5382: 5378: 5375: 5372: 5369: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5360: 5355: 5351: 5348: 5344: 5341: 5338: 5335: 5332: 5328: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5310: 5307: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5298: 5293: 5289: 5286: 5283: 5280: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5271: 5266: 5262: 5259: 5256: 5253: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5244: 5239: 5235: 5232: 5229: 5226: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5212: 5208: 5205: 5203:deciba/diciba 5202: 5199: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5181: 5178: 5175: 5172: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5163: 5158: 5154: 5151: 5148: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5137: 5134: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5083: 5080: 5077: 5072: 5068: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5044:present tense 5041: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5027: 5024: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5001: 4997: 4994: 4991: 4988: 4985: 4980: 4977: 4970: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4956:+infinitive / 4955: 4952: 4948: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4931: 4929: 4925: 4923: 4916: 4915: 4911: 4908: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4893: 4892: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4875: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4859: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4843: 4842: 4838: 4835: 4829: 4828: 4824: 4821: 4818: 4815: 4812: 4807: 4801: 4799: 4793: 4790: 4787: 4783: 4780: 4777: 4776: 4769: 4768: 4762: 4761:Old Sardinian 4758: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4742: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4724: 4721: 4718: 4714: 4708: 4707: 4703: 4700: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4686: 4683: 4680: 4677: 4674: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4661: 4658: 4655: 4652: 4649: 4646: 4643: 4640: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4626: 4625: 4618: 4617: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4602: 4599: 4596: 4593: 4590: 4587: 4584: 4581: 4578: 4577: 4570: 4569:Romance verbs 4562: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4529:ce/cet, cette 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4498: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4417:"(to) here" ( 4416: 4415:aqui, acá, cá 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4312:eccu-tē-istum 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4268: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4243: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4194: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4136: 4131: 4127: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4113: 4112: 4111: 4103: 4100: 4099: 4098: 4097: 4096: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4056:"a certain". 4055: 4051: 4047: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4003: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3956:and "polite" 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3907:dumneavoastră 3903: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3877: 3874:from earlier 3873: 3869: 3866:, reduced to 3865: 3864:vossas mercês 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3844: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3825: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3788: 3783: 3781: 3776: 3773: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3710:, Portuguese 3709: 3704: 3702: 3698: 3692: 3690: 3686: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3669:genitive case 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3613:"something"; 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3593: 3589: 3586: 3583: 3579: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3540: 3535: 3534: 3533:natsionalizaw 3529: 3526: 3525: 3520: 3519: 3518: 3516: 3512: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3498: 3494: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3473: 3467: 3465: 3460: 3458: 3453: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3431: 3429: 3424: 3420: 3418: 3412: 3410: 3405: 3401: 3399: 3393: 3391: 3386: 3382: 3380: 3374: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3361: 3355: 3353: 3348: 3342: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3284: 3283: 3276: 3275: 3271: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3255: 3254: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3224: 3223: 3219: 3218: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3194: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3166: 3159: 3158: 3154: 3151: 3150: 3140: 3137: 3136: 3132: 3131: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3103: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3088: 3087: 3077: 3074: 3073: 3069: 3066: 3065: 3049: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3036:Old Sursilvan 3035: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3020: 3016: 3010: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2975:amico – amici 2970: 2968: 2964: 2963:carte – cărţi 2960: 2959:frate – fraţi 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2923: 2921: 2917: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2892: 2891: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2852: 2848: 2843: 2842: 2835: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2806: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2766: 2765:"hotel(s)"). 2764: 2761:"nation(s)"; 2760: 2754: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2717: 2716: 2712: 2709: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2699: 2695: 2692: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2683: 2677: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2658: 2652: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2633: 2628: 2625: 2622: 2617: 2614: 2611: 2606: 2603: 2600: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2585: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2561: 2560: 2557: 2552: 2547: 2544: 2542: 2539: 2536: 2535: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2511:suyo; de ella 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2486: 2485: 2482: 2477: 2471: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2462: 2459: 2457: 2452: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2400: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2311: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2262:sortal plural 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2116:el dineru mío 2113: 2112:pensar escoso 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2056: 2054: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2035:, Old French 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1985:dávamos-vo-lo 1982: 1980: 1974: 1970: 1968: 1962: 1958: 1953: 1951: 1947: 1940: 1939: 1933: 1931: 1923: 1919: 1917: 1912: 1910: 1902: 1901: 1895: 1893: 1887: 1885: 1880: 1877:, Portuguese 1876: 1874: 1869: 1865: 1864: 1858: 1856: 1850: 1848: 1844:, Portuguese 1843: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1789: 1783: 1781: 1776: 1774: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1732: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1693: 1692: 1689: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1676: 1674: 1672: 1670: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1645: 1637: 1635: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1617: 1615: 1610: 1608: 1603: 1601: 1596: 1594: 1587: 1585: 1580: 1578: 1573: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1545: 1543: 1538: 1531: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1489: 1487: 1485: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1474: 1472: 1467: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1452: 1450: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1432: 1430: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1417: 1412: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1404: 1402: 1400: 1395: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1383: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1286: 1281: 1280: 1267: 1255: 1220: 1219: 1218: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1181: 1138: 1111: 1110: 1109: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1086: 1083: 1077: 1072: 1068: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1014: 1010: 1007:"as if" < 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 958: 950: 938: 935: 926: 912: 905: 874: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 788: 784: 773: 766: 759: 751: 744: 740: 739: 738: 732: 727: 722: 718: 717:learned words 714: 710: 706: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 684: 680: 677: 674: 670: 667: 664: 660: 657: 653: 652: 649:Other changes 648: 646: 644: 639: 635: 631: 627: 622: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 594: 591: 586: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 547: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 528:Old Sursilvan 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 503: 501: 497: 496:Proto-Romance 493: 485: 480: 475: 471: 470:Ancient Greek 467: 463: 459: 456: 452: 448: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 422: 418: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 321: 317: 313: 309: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 269:Ancient Greek 266: 262: 258: 254: 253: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 219: 218: 212: 210: 208: 204: 194: 191: 176: 166: 161: 157: 150: 140: 130: 123: 118: 109: 108: 99: 96:February 2020 89: 83: 81: 76: 71: 67: 62: 61: 56: 54: 47: 46: 41: 40: 35: 30: 21: 20: 8790: 8782: 8781: 8780: 8773: 8764: 8755: 8746: 8745: 8744: 8737: 8728: 8719: 8710: 8701: 8700: 8699: 8692: 8683: 8674: 8673: 8672: 8665: 8656: 8647: 8638: 8637: 8636: 8629: 8620: 8619: 8618: 8612: 8605: 8598: 8591: 8584: 8576: 8567: 8566: 8565: 8558: 8549: 8541: 8534: 8530: 8526: 8518: 8510: 8502: 8492: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8468: 8467: 8466: 8432:vostra mercè 8431: 8427: 8423: 8419: 8414: 8405: 8397: 8393: 8388: 8377: 8367: 8355: 8345: 8321: 8310: 8300: 8276: 8252: 8239: 8225: 8205: 8189: 8184: 8176: 8172: 8168: 8164: 8160: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8144: 8140: 8135: 8127: 8123: 8118: 8110:the original 8103: 8085: 8081: 8077: 8073: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8038: 8034: 8026: 8023: 8015: 8014:"I myself". 8011: 8008: 8004: 8001: 7997: 7993: 7974: 7970: 7960: 7952: 7930: 7921: 7915: 7906: 7900: 7891: 7870: 7865: 7853: 7845: 7840: 7828:. Retrieved 7810: 7803: 7795: 7790: 7771: 7767: 7740: 7737:-scope/scopo 7736: 7732: 7728: 7724: 7720: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7670: 7665: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7609: 7605: 7603: 7595: 7589: 7583: 7579:sound change 7574: 7570: 7566: 7559: 7555: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7530: 7522: 7516: 7507: 7502:"to polish" 7499: 7493: 7484: 7476: 7470: 7461: 7453: 7447: 7439: 7431: 7425: 7416: 7408: 7402: 7394: 7386: 7380: 7372: 7364: 7358: 7349: 7341: 7335: 7326: 7296: 7292: 7286: 7276: 7272: 7268: 7264: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7216: 7215:(Dubrovnik) 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7159:, Sardinian 7156: 7152: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7116: 7115:, Sardinian 7112: 7108: 7104: 7100: 7097: 7093:vossa mercee 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7063:"size" < 7060: 7056: 7052: 7051:(adv.) < 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7019:> French 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6967:, Aromanian 6964: 6962: 6953: 6952:, Sardinian 6949: 6948:, Dalmatian 6945: 6941: 6937: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6893: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6816:"fire" > 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6796:, Sardinian 6793: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6777: 6775: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6745:, Aromanian 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6655:augmentative 6650: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6605:(Portuguese 6602: 6601:"head" > 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6577:"bird" > 6574: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6543: 6533: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6499: 6495: 6494:, replacing 6491: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6469:, replacing 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6429:, replacing 6426: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6316:, Dalmatian 6313: 6309: 6305: 6286: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6229:Vulgar Latin 6226: 6217: 6207: 6187: 6183: 6150: 6140: 6136: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6083:persists as 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 5984:periphrastic 5975:was created. 5966:future tense 5957: 5939: 5932: 5925: 5915: 5902: 5895: 5888: 5881: 5874: 5843: 5816: 5789: 5762: 5735: 5708: 5681: 5654: 5627: 5600: 5573: 5546: 5519: 5492: 5465: 5438: 5411: 5384: 5357: 5346: 5330: 5322: 5308:l'à détt/dgé 5295: 5268: 5241: 5214: 5187: 5160: 5116: 5114: 5103: 5099: 5075: 5060:future tense 5036:conjugations 5033: 4983: 4968:(in speech) 4961:+infinitive 4958: 4953: 4946: 4938: 4933: 4927: 4921: 4912:+infinitive 4909: 4903: 4898: 4785: 4675: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4537:celui, celle 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4356: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4195: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4109: 4101:I want milk. 4085: 4080: 4076: 4060: 4058: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4043: 4033: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3982:(and plural 3979: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3939: 3934: 3931:World War II 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3904: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3882: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3858:and finally 3855: 3851: 3847: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3820: 3800:and in some 3791: 3784: 3777: 3769: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3726: 3724: 3719: 3711: 3707: 3705: 3700: 3699:(masc.) vs. 3696: 3693: 3688: 3684: 3682: 3661:oblique case 3649: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3551: 3544: 3532: 3530: 3523: 3521: 3513:(one of the 3508: 3501: 3500: 3499:"wife" < 3496: 3490: 3489: 3485: 3471: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3442: 3435: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3422: 3416: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3397: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3378: 3376: 3370: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3346: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3290: 3014: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2924: 2912: 2794:Definiteness 2778: 2773: 2769: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2755: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2735: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2642: 2637: 2631: 2627:con vosotras 2626: 2620: 2616:con vosotros 2615: 2609: 2605:con nosotras 2604: 2598: 2594:con nosotros 2593: 2588: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2490: 2480: 2475: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2415: 2410: 2405: 2402:Disjunctive 2395: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2301: 2275: 2265: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2230: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2207: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2191:(tri) hotele 2190: 2186: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2156: 2151: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2118:"my money", 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2095: 2094:"the eggs", 2091: 2087: 2083: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2057: 2050: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2014: 1994: 1984: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1966: 1964: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1937: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1921: 1920:> French 1915: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1899: 1897: 1896:> French 1891: 1889: 1883: 1882: 1878: 1872: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1860: 1854: 1852: 1846: 1845: 1839: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1829: 1827:" limited". 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1793: 1777: 1768: 1713: 1666: 1618: 1611: 1604: 1597: 1581: 1574: 1539: 1497: 1490: 1475: 1468: 1453: 1446: 1426: 1413: 1396: 1216: 1210: 1206: 1120:merged with 1107: 1095: 1089: 1084: 1081: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 984: 983:"tribe" and 980: 976: 972: 971:words, e.g. 969:onomatopoeic 916:"very"; and 910: 903: 872: 865: 861: 857: 849: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 765:nasal vowels 743:monophthongs 736: 720: 716: 701: 693: 656:vowel length 623: 618: 610: 606: 602: 595: 587: 578: 574: 548: 540:Old Venetian 532:Old Friulian 511: 507: 504: 489: 451:nasal vowels 413: 409: 405: 402:periphrastic 307:indicative". 300: 296: 292: 250: 216: 202: 201: 186: 170: 156:ISO 639 code 152:}} 146:{{ 142:}} 136:{{ 132:}} 126:{{ 121: 93: 77: 75:lead section 50: 43: 37: 36:Please help 33: 8675:Portuguese: 8057:"self" and 8031:superlative 7971:Linguistica 7768:Linguistica 7725:poli-/poly- 7553:Old Spanish 7513:Portuguese 7487:"to polish" 7243:"big" < 7235:"yes" < 7227:"yes" < 7211:"to weep"; 7197:ogni giorno 7167:, Romanian 7119:, Romanian 7083:"you" < 7039:"now" < 6888:; Romanian 6868:, Romanian 6800:, Romanian 6641:(Dalmatian 6633:"old" > 6589:, Friulian 6561:(Sardinian 6553:"ear" > 6547:diminutives 6513:-oyer/-iser 6320:, Romanian 6188:I have done 6161:Renaissance 6159:During the 6035:< Latin 5997:in Spanish. 5995:subjunctive 5991:conditional 5950:homophonous 5629:Piedmontese 5451:dixo דִישוֹ 5448:dize דִיזֵי 5281:disse/dissi 5179:dīcat/dīcet 5138:Imperative 5135:Subjunctive 5071:subjunctive 5012:in Sardinia 4945:infinitive+ 4941:+infinitive 4932:infinitive+ 4926:infinitive+ 4920:infinitive+ 4906:+infinitive 4897:infinitive+ 4894:New future 4882:Old Italian 4866:Old Occitan 4798:Old Occitan 4731:Preterite ( 4678:("you are") 4533:cest, ceste 4385:"that" vs. 4373:"this" vs. 4225:"this" vs. 4145:"healthy"; 4119:I hate men. 4069:Old Occitan 3848:vossa mercê 3787:disjunctive 3734:"she" < 3609:"someone", 3547:Determiners 3488:"man" < 3482:Old Occitan 3297:Old Occitan 3261:Accusative 3236:Nominative 3201:Accusative 3176:Nominative 3138:Accusative 3113:Nominative 3075:Accusative 3047:Nominative 2983:cane – cani 2957:"moon(s)"; 2955:lună – luni 2951:casă – case 2927:om – oameni 2876:Accusative 2863:fato (fată) 2827:Accusative 2822:Indefinite 2657:disjunctive 2537:Possessive 2506:suyo; de él 2422:Accusative 2342:Nominative 2260:can take a 2187:(një) hotel 2108:l'agua frío 2068:două degete 1811:"Pope" vs. 1800:penultimate 1742:Approximant 1297:Interdental 1159:. (Spanish 1061:pronounced 991:), Italian 842:nasal vowel 776:/aɐɛeiɔouɨ/ 758:oral vowels 690:periphrasis 536:Old Catalan 524:Old Occitan 500:case system 410:io ho amato 349:marking of 327:determiners 229:(primarily 8568:Phonology: 8533:, Vol. 2: 8531:Structures 8529:. Vol. 1: 8483:, Vol. 2: 8479:. Vol. 1: 8469:Overviews: 8463:References 8426:, Catalan 8049:, Italian 8035:metipsimum 7830:20 October 7717:hellenisms 7564:Old French 7558:); French 7490:Portuguese 7411:"factory" 7389:"factory" 7367:"factory" 7344:"fragile" 7318:Inherited 7199:, Spanish 7191:, Catalan 7163:alongside 7145:(com)edere 7135:, Italian 7125:formāticum 7111:, Romansh 7107:, Spanish 7065:tam magnum 7035:, Spanish 6999:, Italian 6973:astradziri 6932:, Italian 6922:parabolāre 6765:, Romansh 6721:, Spanish 6705:, Spanish 6645:, Italian 6609:, Spanish 6567:orecchia/o 6565:, Italian 6519:, Italian 6517:-ear/-izar 6515:, Spanish 6441:, Italian 6437:, Spanish 6342:septentriō 6222:Portuguese 6133:Old French 6127:, Italian 6061:Old French 6020:infinitive 5962:reanalysed 5954:infinitive 5694:zise/a zis 5656:Portuguese 5580:díser/dire 5548:Neapolitan 5457:diga דִיגה 5287:dica/dichi 5260:digui/diga 5132:Indicative 5129:Infinitive 5100:categories 5056:pluperfect 4854:(moribund) 4806:Old French 4781:Pluperfect 4691:Old French 4606:Sardinian 4582:Portuguese 4567:See also: 4547:"here" or 4517:Old French 4473:) "this", 4409:, Italian 4153:"breast"; 4092:mass nouns 4046:is, ea, id 4034:usted/você 3841:vous-mêmes 3621:"no one"; 3478:Old French 3387:"priest" ( 3368:"sister" ( 3311:li voisins 3293:Old French 3033:Old French 2967:vale – văi 2874:Nominative 2825:Nominative 2651:pronouns. 2286:accusative 2278:nominative 2150:, such as 2096:le braccia 2088:il braccio 2086:"an egg", 2039:, Italian 1384:Voiceless 1078:Consonants 898:(of which 880:/ɑ̃ɛ̃ɔ̃œ̃/ 811:caoutchouc 801:"twenty", 768:/ɑ̃ɛ̃ɔ̃œ̃/ 563:Old French 520:Old French 432:indefinite 223:inflecting 39:improve it 8396:, vol 7: 8332: in 8287: in 8263: in 8153:voluerant 8045:, French 8039:medisimum 7533:articulus 7508:locālis " 7462:advōcātus 7329:"fragile" 7321:Latinism 7289:Latinisms 7283:Latinisms 7169:mânca(re) 7161:mandicare 7153:mandūcāre 7137:formaggio 7089:vossemecê 7073:cotevesto 7023:"as of", 6942:fābellāre 6928:, French 6900:, French 6773:, etc.). 6769:, French 6725:, French 6717:(Italian 6709:, etc.); 6697:(Italian 6613:, French 6597:, etc.); 6585:(Occitan 6579:avicellus 6573:, etc.); 6523:, etc.), 6511:, French 6477:, French 6378:cerevisia 6376:"shirt", 6372:"birch", 6302:Bulgarian 6283:Loanwords 6271:ciò fatto 6267:hoc facto 6214:Valencian 6180:preterite 6169:imperfect 5964:as a new 5521:Mirandese 5370:dit/a dit 5349:sse/dzéze 5278:dice/dici 5189:Aragonese 5149:Imperfect 5146:Preterite 5052:imperfect 5048:preterite 4928:habuisset 4722:Preterite 4719:dialects) 4717:Valencian 4712:Preterite 4521:cist/cest 4491:a-(i)llum 4479:a-(i)psum 4459:a-(i)llīc 4389:"there", 4278:arose as 4135:homophony 4083:("one"). 4065:Sardinian 4030:Valencian 4000:a senhora 3872:usted(es) 3852:vossemecê 3837:vous-même 3720:seu carro 3625:"every"; 3531:il hotel 3511:Sursilvan 3425:"child" ( 3349:"baron" ( 3285:Ablative 3269:Genitive 3256:Vocative 3225:Ablative 3209:Genitive 3196:Vocative 3168:Ablative 3152:Genitive 3133:Vocative 3105:Ablative 3089:Genitive 3067:Vocative 3039:Romanian 2997:(Spanish 2901:băieților 2898:băiatului 2871:Definite 2860:băietilor 2854:Vocative 2701:Singular 2643:con ellas 2638:con ellos 2630:(archaic 2619:(archaic 2608:(archaic 2597:(archaic 2487:Genitive 2322:"oneself" 1566:Fricative 1509:Affricate 1378:Voiceless 1372:Voiceless 1366:Voiceless 1360:Voiceless 1354:Voiceless 1348:Voiceless 1342:Voiceless 1065:(compare 809:"straw", 754:/aɛeiɔou/ 728:Phonology 634:gerundive 444:homophony 305:preterite 252:synthesis 173:June 2020 80:summarize 45:talk page 8801:Category 8747:Italian: 8702:Spanish: 8621:Lexicon: 8535:Contexts 8441:See also 8149:voldrent 8145:habuĕrat 8051:medésimo 7537:artículo 7525:"place" 7519:"place" 7456:"legal" 7434:"legal" 7399:Romanian 7365:fabrique 7327:fragilis 7315:Romance 7301:doublets 7217:otijemna 7201:cada día 7133:formatge 7113:caschiel 7053:apud hoc 7041:hāc hōrā 7009:cōnsuere 6993:tradziri 6965:estrarre 6958:parables 6954:faeddare 6938:fabulārī 6914:avvenire 6910:aveindre 6906:advenīre 6898:arrivare 6894:arripāre 6874:advenīre 6866:acchiare 6842:invenīre 6782:caballus 6767:catschar 6759:cacciare 6751:captiāre 6715:adiūtāre 6603:capitium 6595:auciello 6555:auricula 6527:(Greek: 6502:(Greek: 6467:kólaphos 6390:cambiāre 6364:.) Some 6358:occidens 6346:merīdiēs 6338:cognates 6336:, where 6269:> I. 6101:il était 6057:sto bene 6013:Galician 5942:compound 5811:dì/disi 5791:Venetian 5737:Sicilian 5724:discheva 5683:Romanian 5418:di(ce)re 5386:Galician 5270:Corsican 5216:Asturian 5155:Present 4756:dialect) 4754:Oltenian 4603:Romanian 4401:(French 4377:"here", 4298:"that" ( 4286:"this" ( 4251:, where 4204:'this', 4189:/s/ and 4040:Articles 3996:o senhor 3958:o senhor 3942:o senhor 3902:system. 3798:Friulian 3629:"each"; 3605:"some", 3597:Various 3571:articles 3406:"lord" ( 3319:la riens 3272:bonārum 3155:bonōrum 3017:"good") 2907:fetelor 2893:Genitive 2866:fetelor 2844:Genitive 2814:Singular 2808:Singular 2730:mujeres 2696:"woman" 2674:nōbīscum 2632:convosco 2621:convosco 2610:connosco 2599:connosco 2589:con ella 2386:vosotras 2381:vosotros 2376:nosotras 2371:nosotros 2298:ablative 2294:genitive 2282:vocative 2183:Albanian 2154:("it"). 2100:Asturian 2064:un deget 2060:Romanian 1957:syllable 1942:/fabʀik/ 1906:; Latin 1851:; Latin 1314:alveolar 1307:Alveolar 1285:Bilabial 1266:lenition 1043:iotation 985:espíritu 975:"guru", 907:/mũj̃tu/ 892:/ɐ̃ẽĩõũ/ 825:, where 780:/ɐ̃ẽĩõũ/ 681:Loss of 428:definite 363:Romanian 320:Romanian 289:Japanese 283:such as 277:fusional 273:Sanskrit 231:suffixes 8639:French: 8334:Liddell 8289:Liddell 8283:κόλαφος 8265:Liddell 8230:at the 8063:metipse 8033:) form 7743:, etc. 7733:pseudo- 7658:-tūdine 7654:-dumbre 7642:-miento 7622:-ificar 7598:vouivre 7596:guivre/ 7545:artelho 7510:place" 7450:"loyal" 7444:Spanish 7440:lēgālis 7428:"loyal" 7419:"legal" 7417:lēgālis 7409:fabrică 7395:fabrica 7387:fábrica 7383:"forge" 7377:Spanish 7373:fabrica 7361:"forge" 7350:fabrica 7342:fragile 7338:"frail" 7253:narrāre 7249:nàrrere 7221:antenna 7165:pappare 7129:fromage 7085:vosmecê 7069:codesto 7061:tamanho 7025:ab ante 6981:trahere 6969:astragu 6934:parlare 6902:arriver 6878:plicāre 6862:asciare 6846:afflāre 6771:chasser 6747:avinari 6735:giovare 6719:aiutare 6699:gettare 6695:iectāre 6691:iactāre 6683:cantāre 6671:poisson 6667:peisson 6647:vecchio 6635:vetulus 6583:aucellu 6549:, e.g. 6496:quisque 6431:gladius 6414:frustum 6382:gladius 6374:camisia 6370:betulla 6360:. (See 6306:blancus 6292:, from 6278:Lexicon 6210:Catalan 6002:Romansh 5933:dicissi 5860:he says 5854:he said 5851:he says 5832:dijheut 5818:Walloon 5764:Spanish 5721:ha ditg 5710:Romansh 5616:disoait 5575:Occitan 5559:dicette 5494:Lombard 5467:Leonese 5413:Italian 5297:Emilian 5263:digues 5251:diu/dit 5243:Catalan 5176:dicēbat 5152:Present 5143:Present 4959:habēbam 4954:debēbam 4922:habēbam 4600:Italian 4591:Occitan 4588:Catalan 4585:Spanish 4525:cil/cel 4451:a-(i)bi 4346:, from 4326:, from 4308:codesto 4267:"and". 4235:aquella 4200:value: 4020:Central 4006:Catalan 3927:fascist 3896:ustedes 3856:vosmecê 3667:), and 3607:alguien 3447:"man" ( 3345:forms: 3327:vicīnus 3323:la fame 3315:li pere 3277:Dative 3220:Dative 3160:Dative 3097:Dative 3030:Spanish 2947:corpora 2935:homines 2895:Dative 2888:fetele 2882:băieții 2879:băiatul 2846:Dative 2817:Plural 2803:"girl" 2727:hombres 2718:Plural 2579:consigo 2574:contigo 2569:conmigo 2521:vuestro 2516:nuestro 2472:Dative 2337:"they" 2266:li vini 2258:lu vinu 2254:lo vinu 2250:lu vinu 2246:lo vinu 2242:lu pane 2238:lo pane 2234:Umbrian 2218:aquello 2179:le uova 2171:le dita 2167:il dito 2148:Spanish 2092:le uova 2084:un uovo 2080:Italian 2072:digitus 1961:clitics 1950:fauriga 1904:/etjɛn/ 1868:fábrica 1695:Lateral 1442:Plosive 1381:Voiced 1375:Voiced 1369:Voiced 1363:Voiced 1357:Voiced 1351:Voiced 1345:Voiced 1334:Glottal 1319:Palatal 1067:Spanish 1032:Friulan 1009:quam sī 930:/aeiou/ 860:"bed", 746:/aeiou/ 468:(as in 353:or the 285:Turkish 257:English 227:affixes 165:See why 8374:"-ist" 8352:"-ize" 8307:"coup" 8245:spatha 8196: 8177:fuerat 8167:) vs. 8078:stesso 8067:mateix 8009:egomet 7947: 7821: 7662:-ículo 7652:) vs. 7638:-mento 7626:-iguar 7591:vipère 7585:vipera 7560:légume 7541:artigo 7485:polīre 7477:avocat 7467:French 7422:French 7381:fragua 7355:French 7332:French 7312:Latin 7277:ràcina 7273:acinam 7269:àchina 7245:magnus 7193:tothom 7189:ognuno 7157:manger 7105:queijo 7101:caseum 7057:tamaño 7029:avanti 7001:cucire 6997:coudre 6985:trarre 6950:favlur 6946:hablar 6930:parler 6926:parlar 6886:chegar 6882:llegar 6858:anflar 6850:hallar 6838:strada 6834:strāta 6830:callis 6822:strāta 6755:capere 6739:vēnārī 6731:iuvāre 6723:ayudar 6711:iuvāre 6703:jeitar 6693:> * 6687:iacere 6679:canere 6659:piscis 6643:vieklo 6639:veclus 6615:chevet 6611:cabeza 6607:cabeça 6571:orelha 6563:origra 6559:oricla 6534:-istes 6530:-ιστής 6509:-izein 6505:-ίζειν 6459:faciēs 6443:spada 6439:espada 6427:spáthē 6418:spatha 6406:pettia 6402:currus 6398:carrus 6394:mūtāre 6366:Celtic 6356:, and 6354:oriens 6350:meriză 6330:bellum 6326:guerra 6143:. See 6137:(i)ert 6121:essere 6117:sedēre 6099:(e.g. 6065:essere 6041:sedēre 6033:essere 5958:habēre 5926:scheva 5892:/dizɛ/ 5889:disait 5848:to say 5742:dìciri 5602:Picard 5586:diguèt 5562:diceva 5553:dicere 5508:diseva 5505:ha dii 5472:dicire 5427:diceva 5373:disait 5359:French 5167:dīcere 5117:dīcere 5084:Three 5062:and a 4998:both ( 4934:habuit 4594:French 4511:aquest 4507:aquest 4453:) and 4340:ce/cet 4296:quello 4294:) and 4284:questo 4233:(fem. 4198:distal 4071:, and 4054:certus 3990:(from 3900:tú/vos 3772:clitic 3617:"no", 3615:ningún 3497:moglie 3335:fēmina 3280:bonīs 3264:bonās 3245:buenes 3242:buenas 3204:bonam 3163:bonīs 3119:buenos 2943:corpus 2920:clitic 2833:băieți 2811:Plural 2724:chicas 2721:chicos 2713:mujer 2710:hombre 2690:"girl" 2584:con él 2319:"thou" 2296:, and 2290:dative 2199:délice 2175:l'uovo 2076:digiti 2074:, pl. 2047:Gender 2011:Number 2001:number 1997:gender 1981:mocene 1969:fonano 1938:brique 1900:tienne 1886:phanum 1879:frágua 1825:limité 1821:limite 1817:límite 1796:stress 1648:Rhotic 1329:Uvular 1302:Dental 1292:dental 1290:Labio- 1264:(from 1096:italic 997:baubau 947:. The 941:/aeio/ 914:/mũj̃/ 835:/awɛw/ 819:neutro 807:paille 799:veinte 763:and 4 733:Vowels 702:habēre 694:habēre 599:German 462:stress 440:French 390:gender 386:aspect 374:number 370:person 351:Basque 267:(e.g. 243:person 239:gender 235:number 8430:< 8428:vostè 8422:< 8420:usted 8338:Scott 8293:Scott 8269:Scott 8212:σπάθη 8173:furet 8141:auret 8086:ipsum 8082:istum 8074:medês 8043:mismo 7943:(PDF) 7815:(PDF) 7747:Notes 7729:meta- 7721:tele- 7711:< 7703:< 7695:< 7685:trans 7681:post- 7650:-tūdō 7630:-izar 7606:-ción 7549:crudo 7523:local 7517:lugar 7500:polir 7471:avoué 7454:legal 7432:légal 7426:loyal 7403:făură 7359:forge 7336:frêle 7241:mannu 7229:etiam 7209:flere 7181:tōtum 7177:omnes 7149:comer 7141:cacio 7109:queso 7087:< 7075:< 7049:avuec 7037:ahora 7033:agora 7017:de ex 7013:suere 7005:coser 6989:tragu 6936:) or 6918:loquī 6890:pleca 6854:achar 6818:focus 6814:ignis 6806:domus 6790:yegua 6778:equus 6763:caçar 6727:aider 6713:> 6707:echar 6665:> 6651:velho 6637:> 6631:vetus 6627:testa 6619:caput 6599:caput 6587:aucèl 6551:auris 6525:-ista 6475:golpe 6471:ictus 6463:colpe 6447:spată 6423:σπάθη 6386:ensis 6318:jualb 6310:albus 6265:; L. 6184:I did 6113:stato 6107:< 6093:ester 6089:ester 6081:estre 6077:ester 6073:estre 6071:were 6069:stāre 6053:stare 6049:stāre 6045:stāre 5899:/diz/ 5878:/diʁ/ 5863:say 5835:dixhe 5829:a dit 5805:disea 5778:decía 5769:decir 5757:dici 5751:dicìa 5748:dissi 5697:zicea 5670:dizia 5667:disse 5661:dizer 5643:disìa 5619:diche 5595:diga 5589:disiá 5568:dije 5565:diche 5535:dgiva 5532:à dit 5481:dicía 5424:disse 5400:dicía 5391:dicir 5352:dète 5342:djéve 5314:dégga 5311:dgeva 5284:dicia 5230:dicía 5221:dicir 5200:dició 5194:dicir 5173:dīxit 5170:dīcit 5162:Latin 5104:forms 5050:, an 4978:both 4947:habĕo 4939:habĕo 4910:habĕo 4899:habĕo 4788:form) 4579:Latin 4539:< 4531:< 4399:eccum 4391:illāc 4387:illīc 4367:there 4352:istum 4304:illum 4292:istum 4265:atque 4261:Ecco! 4257:eccum 4253:accu- 4231:aquel 4179:ceint 4171:saint 4163:ceint 4159:ceint 4155:ceins 4147:saint 4139:/sɛ̃/ 4025:vosté 4022:) or 4015:vostè 3984:vocês 3868:vocês 3760:illud 3758:< 3746:< 3631:mucho 3619:nadie 3603:algún 3459:minem 3400:terem 3392:byter 3331:pater 3251:bune 3248:bunas 3239:bonae 3228:bonā 3215:bune 3212:bonae 3191:bună 3185:buene 3182:buena 3147:buns 3144:buens 3141:bonōs 3128:buni 3125:biVni 3100:bonō 3092:bonī 3084:biVn 3078:bonum 3070:bone 3056:buens 3053:bueno 3050:bonus 3027:Latin 3015:bonus 2987:amici 2904:fetei 2849:fete 2839:fete 2830:băiat 2800:"boy" 2783:/fam/ 2707:chica 2704:chico 2693:"man" 2687:"boy" 2670:tēcum 2666:mēcum 2562:With 2396:ellas 2391:ellos 2328:"she" 2302:bonus 2264:form 2203:orgue 2195:amour 2033:ambii 2025:ambos 1946:forge 1932:brica 1925:/ʒœn/ 1922:jeune 1911:venis 1835:decim 1794:Word 1390:Nasal 1324:Velar 1312:Post- 1198:into 1114:/bdɡ/ 1085:Key: 1015:"if". 1005:quasi 993:babau 981:tribu 945:/aeo/ 918:/ẽj̃/ 904:muito 900:/ũj̃/ 876:/bɔn/ 873:bonne 869:/bɔ̃/ 862:menos 803:deuda 466:pitch 378:tense 359:Hindi 247:tense 8336:and 8328:κατά 8291:and 8267:and 8259:κάρα 8194:ISBN 8165:fuit 8139:Cf. 8059:idem 8055:ipse 8047:même 8027:ipse 8024:-met 8016:ipse 8012:ipse 8005:ipse 7998:ipse 7832:2019 7819:ISBN 7705:dis- 7697:dis- 7693:des- 7673:dis- 7666:-ejo 7664:vs. 7646:-tud 7640:vs. 7634:-ear 7632:vs. 7624:vs. 7616:vs. 7614:-cia 7610:-zon 7608:vs. 7575:chor 7571:flor 7567:leüm 7556:cruo 7494:puir 7448:leal 7265:domō 7261:abl. 7257:domo 7237:immo 7233:emmo 7185:κατά 7173:ogni 7117:càsu 7081:você 7045:avec 6870:afla 6826:rūga 6810:casa 6802:iapă 6798:ebba 6794:égua 6786:equa 6743:vâna 6663:peis 6623:capo 6591:ucel 6575:avis 6492:katá 6488:κατά 6483:cata 6479:coup 6455:kára 6451:cara 6435:épée 6410:pars 6324:); * 6218:vadō 6186:vs. 6141:erit 6129:sar- 6125:ser- 6109:erat 6097:être 6085:être 6075:and 6067:and 6037:esse 5916:dize 5906:/di/ 5896:dise 5885:/di/ 5875:dire 5823:dire 5808:diga 5799:dise 5781:diga 5775:dijo 5772:dice 5754:dica 5745:dici 5700:zică 5691:zice 5676:diz 5673:diga 5649:dis 5646:disa 5607:dire 5592:diga 5583:ditz 5556:dice 5538:diga 5511:disa 5484:diga 5478:dixu 5433:di' 5430:dica 5421:dice 5403:diga 5397:dixo 5379:dis 5376:dise 5364:dire 5257:deia 5233:diga 5227:dixo 5209:diz 5206:diga 5182:dīc 5058:, a 5054:, a 5046:, a 5010:and 4984:vado 4904:volo 4676:eres 4523:vs. 4487:allò 4475:això 4467:acce 4435:eccu 4427:accu 4419:accu 4407:aquí 4395:ecce 4383:ille 4365:and 4363:here 4348:ecce 4344:cest 4328:ecce 4316:ecce 4300:eccu 4288:eccu 4280:ille 4276:ille 4272:accu 4249:ille 4245:accu 4242:ipse 4239:iste 4223:este 4214:iste 4210:ille 4206:iste 4175:sein 4151:sein 4143:sain 4081:ūnus 4077:ipse 4061:ille 3980:você 3968:and 3954:você 3946:você 3915:Ella 3860:você 3833:vous 3748:illa 3738:vs. 3736:illa 3732:ella 3727:ille 3689:ecce 3685:ille 3639:otro 3635:poco 3627:cada 3623:todo 3611:algo 3590:and 3504:lier 3486:uomo 3430:fāns 3417:niōr 3411:nior 3396:pres 3390:pres 3337:vs. 3329:vs. 3188:buna 3179:bona 3122:buen 3116:bonī 3081:buen 3062:bun 3059:buns 3024:Case 3005:and 2931:homo 2916:here 2885:fata 2836:fată 2797:Case 2772:and 2501:suyo 2496:tuyo 2366:ella 2334:"ye" 2331:"we" 2325:"he" 2313:Case 2272:Case 2222:ello 2210:esto 2152:ello 2037:ambe 2029:îmbi 2021:ambō 2017:dual 2005:case 2003:and 1916:juev 1892:tiev 1813:papà 1809:Papa 1270:/ts/ 1262:/dz/ 1258:/dz/ 1251:/tʃ/ 1247:/tʃ/ 1243:/tʃ/ 1239:/tʃ/ 1235:/ts/ 1231:/tʃ/ 1227:/tʃ/ 1223:/tʃ/ 1211:lupi 1209:and 1207:pomi 1194:and 1173:/dz/ 1161:/ts/ 1157:/tʃ/ 1153:/dʒ/ 1149:/tʃ/ 1145:/dz/ 1141:/ts/ 1090:bold 1059:este 1001:casi 977:taxi 973:guru 961:/iu/ 888:/ɛ̃/ 884:/œ̃/ 858:cama 831:/ej/ 827:/ow/ 711:and 611:ūnus 607:ille 603:ipse 557:and 544:Case 538:and 530:and 494:and 430:and 382:mood 293:amei 129:lang 8161:fut 8007:or 8002:ego 7979:doi 7858:/ə/ 7776:doi 7713:ex- 7701:dé- 7689:re- 7677:ex- 7660:); 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