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starfish. Once the egg has been fertilized a blastula is formed. After the formation of the blastula cilia is produced on the cell allowing the cell to move through the water. When the cell later turns into larva, the starfish larva will start to produce its organs before turning into an adult starfish. The host starfish then regenerates the lost arm through unidirectional regeneration. This theory is challenged by two findings in
Lamarck starfish. The first being that very young Lamarck starfish with underdeveloped gonads exhibit autonomy, and the second being that in Hawaii, Lamarck starfish shed arms throughout the year irrespective of spawning season.
242:
205:
865:, starfish develop offspring identical to the parent. This can be achieved through arm autotomy or fission. In arm autotomy, starfish typically shed arms with part of the central disk attached. This arm regenerates into a full starfish identical to the original through disk-dependent bidirectional regeneration. In some species, disk independent bidirectional regeneration is utilized to produce new starfish. Several species also produce larvae that are capable of
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453:
92:
20:
163:. Star fish that exhibit unidirectional regeneration, or regeneration that is restricted to a single direction, are capable of regenerating multiple lost limbs from a disk containing half or more of the original starfish. Unidirectional regeneration is the simplest form of regeneration as the majority of the disk is intact, allowing the starfish to eat, move, and escape
766:
642:
854:
258:, the detached arm survives on nutrients stored in the arm until it can regenerate a disk. Without the ability to feed during recovery, disk independent bidirectional regeneration is difficult to execute and requires that the detached arm is in a relatively healthy form. This vigorous form of regeneration has been identified in
275:
can be appreciated. Throughout the regeneration process, the coelomic epithelium is vital. This is a tissue that plays a large role in the formation of new limbs and new organs. Note, the following section details the regrowth of a starfish's arm following amputation in a unidirectional manner of regeneration.
99:
Regenerative ability differs greatly among starfish species, but can generally be classified within three categories: unidirectional regeneration, disk-dependent bidirectional regeneration, and disk-independent bidirectional regeneration. In each case, regenerative capacity is enabled by the uniquely
806:
being eaten away by smaller prey. Large prey can eat the starfish whole, whereas smaller prey will turn over a starfish and eat at their soft flesh. Although it is unlikely for bidirectional regeneration, the original starfish can regenerate its lost arm or arms through unidirectional regeneration.
274:
species studied to date can be subdivided into three distinct phases: a repair phase, an early regenerative phase, and an advanced regenerative phase. Although diversity exists among starfish in terms of their physiology, morphology, and amputation susceptibility, a generalized regenerative process
904:
starfish maintain this ability into adulthood. Six-armed starfish capable of fission split their disk into two three-arm halves that both regenerate into a six-armed starfish. Starfish with seven arms are split into a three-arm and four-arm halves, which both regenerate into a seven arm starfish.
805:
can choose to shed its arm in order to evade danger. If the detached limb is eaten or extremely damaged, bidirectional regeneration is unlikely. There are two ways a starfish can lose its limbs from predators. The loss of limbs includes losing an entire limb or multiple from large prey, or flesh
838:
found that autotomized arms were swollen with mature eggs, suggesting that autotomy may be utilized for sexual propagation. Under this theory, starfish shed their arms in order to increase the range of egg dispersion and thus increase the possibility of eggs being fertilized by neighboring male
188:, are notable unidirectional regenerators. Starfish of this invasive species are extremely difficult to eradicate because of their ability to regrow when half or more of the original starfish is intact. Thus, initial population control efforts championed by fishermen and
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to organize the development of new structures in relation to old stump tissue. Subsequently, regenerated tissues manifest – or, more accordingly, intercalate – between the limb’s stump and the newly formed distal structure. As noted above, the terminal
78:
for studying how the regenerative process has evolved and diversified over time. While the overall morphological processes have been well documented in many starfish, little is known regarding the underlying molecular mechanisms that mediate their
131:. In addition to being able to replicate organs, starfish are also capable of regenerating neuron cells. Other cells that are left over from the injury are able to become neural cells and take up functions they would not normally do. Following
228:
are capable of regenerating a full starfish when less than half of the original starfish is intact, given that all or part of the central disk is present. The presence of the central disk gives the detached limb access to its original
249:
The most extensive form of regeneration exhibited by starfish species is disk-independent bidirectional regeneration. In this rare case, a detached starfish limb with no remnants of the central disk is capable of regenerating a full
773:
Though starfish are well understood to utilize their regenerative capabilities to regrow arms eaten or damaged by predators, they are also capable of regenerating arms they have intentionally shed through a process known as
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and completion of the main nervous components take place in the regenerate during this phase. For example, function is regained in the radial nerve cord as it finishes development. Additionally, a densely packed region of
127:. All organs connect to the digestive system in the central disk, which also contains the starfish mouth and stomach. This replication and delocalization of vital organs makes starfish especially resilient to the loss of
291:, to prevent fluid loss and the entrance of foreign pathogens. This is initially achieved by an emergency mechanism in which the entire arm wall contracts swiftly and powerfully to form a ‘hemostatic ring’ of sorts.
1935:
Ferrario, Cinzia; Ben Khadra, Yousra; Czarkwiani, Anna; Zakrzewski, Anne; Martinez, Pedro; Colombo, Graziano; Bonasoro, Francesco; Candia
Carnevali, Maria Daniela; Oliveri, Paola; Sugni, Michela (2018).
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below the newly established epithelial layer. Overall, this provisional tissue matures over time, to ultimately provide a scaffold for regenerative growth. In many ways, the edematous area resembles the
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Importantly, and especially evident in the last phase, starfish re-growth follows a “distalization-intercalary” regenerative model after arm amputation. In this model, the organism first forms the most
1849:
Pastar, Irena; Stojadinovic, Olivera; Yin, Natalie C.; Ramirez, Horacio; Nusbaum, Aron G.; Sawaya, Andrew; Patel, Shailee B.; Khalid, Laiqua; Isseroff, Rivkah R.; Tomic-Canic, Marjana (2014).
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occurs within the first 48 hours post-amputation, in the middle of the repair phase. Interestingly, in contrast to most mammals, starfish accomplish re-epithelialization without any immediate
167:
during the regeneration period. Unidirectional regeneration is also the most common form of regeneration exhibited by starfish as single arms are often removed by predators or shed through
83:. Moreover, some researchers hope starfish may one day serve as inspiration for therapeutics aiming to expand the extent to which humans can repair and replace damaged cells or tissues.
340:. Rather, epidermal cells are stretched inwards from the wound edge, expanding centripetally until a continuous layer is formed. Of note, these stretched epidermal cells maintain their
638:
arm come 3–6 months post amputation. This miniaturized arm will resemble the non-regenerating arms of the starfish, and will continue growing throughout the organism’s lifetime.
645:
The underside view of a starfish, exemplifying its extensive network of tube feet. In starfish, the distal-most tube foot is the first structure to regenerate post-amputation.
674:(formation of muscular tissue) occurs throughout the advanced regenerative phase. Majority of the muscles regenerate via the same mechanism: dedifferentiated cells from the
1567:
Guatelli, Silvia; Ferrario, Cinzia; Bonasoro, Francesco; Anjo, Sandra I.; Manadas, Bruno; Candia
Carnevali, Maria Daniela; Varela Coelho, Ana; Sugni, Michela (2022-11-01).
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appearance in the regenerating tip of the coelomic cavities. This hypertrophic state, in turn, produces a pressure that supports the regrowth of canals, particularly the
63:
across species follows a common three-phase model and can take up to a year or longer to complete. Though regeneration is used to recover limbs eaten or removed by
472:
migration of cells supports the outgrowth of the radial nerve cord from any existing nerve cord remaining post amputation. Intriguingly, the radial nerve cord and
59:
require the central body to be intact in order to regenerate arms, a few tropical species can grow an entirely new starfish from just a portion of a severed limb.
2404:"Reproduction, Spawning and Development of the Starfish Patiriella exigua (Lamarck) (Asteroidea : Asterinidae) and Some Comparisons with P. Calcar (Lamarck)"
322:. These coelomocytes not only form clots at starfish amputation sites but also help clear the wound site of debris and foreign microorganisms via phagocytosis.
769:
During autotomy a starfish sheds an arm typically with part of the central disk attached. This arm regenerates into a full starfish identical to the original.
348:
over the wound. Subsequently, the wound epithelium becomes increasingly differentiated, thicker, and permanent. Moreover, in some starfish species, such as
1045:
Ben Khadra, Yousra; Sugni, Michela; Ferrario, Cinzia; Bonasoro, Francesco; Varela Coelho, Ana; Martinez, Pedro; Candia
Carnevali, Maria Daniela (2017).
1998:
Ben Khadra, Yousra; Ferrario, Cinzia; Benedetto, Cristiano Di; Said, Khaled; Bonasoro, Francesco; Candia
Carnevali, M. Daniela; Sugni, Michela (2015).
1629:
Ben Khadra, Yousra; Ferrario, Cinzia; Di
Benedetto, Cristiano; Said, Khaled; Bonasoro, Francesco; Candia Carnevali, M. Daniela; Sugni, Michela (2015).
2541:
1514:
Ben Khadra, Yousra; Sugni, Michela; Ferrario, Cinzia; Bonasoro, Francesco; Oliveri, Paola; Martinez, Pedro; Candia
Carnevali, Maria Daniela (2018).
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in the 1960s, which involved sectioning and releasing caught starfish, may have unknowingly exacerbated population outbreaks in the western
Pacific
159:
species show a great range of variation in regeneration capabilities, an overwhelming number of them have the ability to regenerate lost limbs and
449:. In addition, the pressure creates a turgidity that physically supports the regenerate’s shape until skeleton and muscle formation can occur.
1543:
139:, a star fish can survive with its remaining organ copies during the period of regeneration, which ranges from a few months to over a year.
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of numerous tissues across the regenerate. The small regenerate that emerges from the early regenerative phase will morph into a miniature
1727:"Patterns of bromodeoxyuridine incorporation and neuropeptide immunoreactivity during arm regeneration in the starfish Asterias rubens"
26:, known as the common sea star, is capable of extensive arm regeneration, but will perish if the central disk suffers serious damage.
1696:
Microscopic anatomy of arm-tip regeneration in the starfish
Marthasterias glacialis (Linneaus, 1758) following traumatic amputation
360:
transiently supports the migration of epithelial cells while protecting injured stump tissue from fluid loss and foreign entities.
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develop, leading to the full restoration of the optic cushion (collection of ocelli). Notwithstanding, the specific mechanisms of
862:
857:
In Disk-Independent
Bidirectional Regeneration, starfish can regenerate their full body without the presence of any central disk.
848:
245:
In Disk-Independent Bidirectional Regeneration, starfish can regenerate their full body without the presence of any central disk.
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is the first defined structure to appear, serving as the distal signaling center that coordinates subsequent regeneration in a
2583:
2545:
Carnegie Mellon University. The Future of Human Healing Lies in the Brain of a Starfish—News—Carnegie Mellon University.
778:. Researchers propose that autotomy mediated regeneration may play a role in predator evasion as well as both sexual and
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664:
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111:
The typical starfish has five or more arms, or “rays”, radiating from a central disk. Each arm contains a copy of vital
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The early regenerative phase begins once the injury has healed, and is characterized by an exodus of dedifferentiating
116:
519:-like region also appears during this phase composed of undifferentiated and barely differentiated cells amongst the
208:
In Disk-Dependent Bidirectional Regeneration, starfish can regenerate their full body given that the disk is intact.
476:(the only two structures that run continuously along the arm) occur in tandem and potentially include an inductive
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204:
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679:
631:
481:
174:
1146:
Zheng, Minyan; Zueva, Olga; Hinman, Veronica F (2022-01-14). Newmark, Phillip A; Bronner, Marianne E (eds.).
2355:
Ramsay, K.; Bergmann, M.; Veale, L. O.; Richardson, C. A.; Kaiser, M. J.; Vize, S. J.; Feist, S. W. (2001).
1148:"Regeneration of the larval sea star nervous system by wounding induced respecification to the Sox2 lineage"
2551:
Scientists Search Starfish For Key to Human Regeneration | WIRED. (n.d.). Retrieved October 26, 2020, from
924:
880:, reproduction via the division of the disk. This phenomenon is observed in various degrees in the genres
225:
213:
80:
52:
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from various anatomical structures towards the regenerating tip. Throughout this phase, the regenerating
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area. Importantly, near the end of the phase, a small regenerate appears. While less organized than the
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303:
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189:
403:. The area progressively matures over the span of about a week, ultimately containing a more organized
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from different locations (like the coelomic cavities) towards the edematous regenerating region. This
51:. Aside from their distinguishing shape, starfish are most recognized for their remarkable ability to
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and mouth, allowing the starfish to move to find food, eat, and hide from predators during recovery.
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After the loss of 2 arms, starfish capable of unidirectional regeneration can regenerate both limbs.
2588:
2573:
959:
Synopsis of the species of starfish in the British Museum (with figures of some of the new species)
654:(far away from the stump) structure during regeneration. This new structure, in turn, behaves as a
477:
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bundles, nerve elements, early pigment cells, and other differentiated or undifferentiated cells.
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cavities serve as a physical driving force of regrowth. Notably, excess fluid secretion from the
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that swell with eggs and sperm in female and male starfish, respectively. Early observations of
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also begins during the early regenerative phase as plates of calcium carbonite deposit into the
147:
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in starfish, whereas in mammals, junctional complexes are disrupted to allow the migration of
124:
119:, an eye-like structure that helps the starfish differentiate between light and darkness, and
1569:"More than a simple epithelial layer: multifunctional role of echinoderm coelomic epithelium"
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2019:
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of existing structure as well as the differentiation of supporting cells that create cell ‘
91:
2558:
2454:"Larval budding, metamorphosis, and the evolution of life-history patterns in echinoderms"
2357:"Damage, autotomy and arm regeneration in starfish caught by towed demersal fishing gears"
901:
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815:
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587:
489:
333:
112:
45:
34:
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1437:"Restorative regeneration in nature of the starfish Linckia diplax (Müller and troschel)"
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1731:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
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of the other. Furthermore, initial regeneration of the radial nerve cord results from
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relationship. However, it is not currently known which structure induces regrowth and
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clear the edematous area of foreign material and degrade leftover debris. Meanwhile,
341:
325:
2388:
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2169:
2146:"Growth zones and extraxial-axial skeletal homologies in Asteroidea (Echinodermata)"
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182:
2433:
Hirota, S. (1895). "Anatomical notes on the comet of Linckia multifora, Lamarck".
1835:
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The last phase – known as the advanced regenerative phase – consists of extensive
606:. This is the first defined structure to regenerate, as cells flow from the inner
559:
process of regrowth, the regenerative mechanisms fall somewhere in between a true
95:
The starfish body plan consists of five to six arms radiating from a central disk.
2552:
1527:
2000:"Re-growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation during starfish arm regeneration"
1953:
1704:
1522:. Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation. Vol. 65. pp. 285–320.
438:
299:
2557:
All About Starfish. (2017, September 5). Smithsonian Science Education Center.
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1802:
Mladenov, Philip V.; Bisgrove, Brent; Asotra, Satish; Burke, Robert D. (1989).
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Finally, the end of the repair phase is marked by the formation of a temporary
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help prevent the loss of body fluid by forming a clot of cells at the injured
193:
185:
156:
136:
48:
41:
19:
2330:
1592:
1568:
1516:"Regeneration in Stellate Echinoderms: Crinoidea, Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea"
1287:"The 27-year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes"
1173:
2057:"Bridging the regeneration gap: Genetic insights from diverse animal models"
1866:
1515:
1303:
1046:
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gradually develops around the forming muscle tissue to separate it from the
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2540:
Starfish (Sea Stars) | National Geographic. (2010, September 10). Animals.
2308:
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2210:
2080:
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1971:
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1827:
1804:"Mechanisms of arm-tip regeneration in the sea star, Leptasterias hexactis"
1742:
1668:
1610:
1553:
1460:
1413:
1322:
1228:"Capacity for regeneration in crown of thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci"
1191:
1070:
1047:"An integrated view of asteroid regeneration: Tissues, cells and molecules"
74:
Due to their wide range of regenerative capabilities, starfish have become
2380:
1920:
1899:
1005:
Edmondson, C. (1935). "Autotomy and regeneration of Hawaiian starfishes".
464:
The early regenerative phase is marked by a large mobilization of various
2234:"Echinoderms: Potential Model Systems for Studies on Muscle Regeneration"
2185:"Unifying principles of regeneration I: Epimorphosis versus morphallaxis"
1436:
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68:
30:
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1659:
1388:"Cnidarians: An evolutionarily conserved model system for regeneration?"
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stump, the regenerate houses the beginnings of a transverse meshwork of
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1404:
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56:
2547:
http://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2020/march/dahl-starfish.html
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2299:
2282:
2015:
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1803:
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687:
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outgrowths (radial water canal and radial nerve cord). Moreover, the
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bundles. Niches result from these extensions and house interspersed
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307:
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132:
38:
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1999:
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throughout this phase remain relatively unknown: the exact role of
2499:
2145:
2107:"Arm stumps and regeneration models in Asteroidea (Echinodermata)"
2106:
2056:
1938:"Fundamental aspects of arm repair phase in two echinoderm models"
1898:
Grand, Alexandra; Pratchett, Morgan; Rivera-Posada, Jairo (2014).
852:
831:
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579:
451:
364:
240:
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146:
90:
18:
1285:
De'ath, G.; Fabricius, K. E.; Sweatman, H.; Puotinen, M. (2012).
726:
718:
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body cavity travel towards the regenerating starfish tip before
497:
55:, or regrow, arms and, in some cases, entire bodies. While most
1725:
Moss, Claire; Jackie Hunter, A.; Thorndyke, Michael C. (1998).
283:
Immediately following amputation, all starfish must seal their
1766:
Ramírez-Gómez, F.; García-Arrarás, J. E. (27 September 2010).
1480:
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
819:
298:
clot formation, a morphologically heterogenous population of
1851:"Epithelialization in Wound Healing: A Comprehensive Review"
254:, referred to as a comet form. In the absence of a mouth or
2055:
Alvarado, Alejandro Sánchez; Tsonis, Panagiotis A. (2006).
306:. Coelomocytes are free-wandering cells that circulate the
2183:
Agata, Kiyokazu; Saito, Yumi; Nakajima, Elizabeth (2007).
1631:"Wound repair during arm regeneration in the red starfish
896:
starfish, fission is restricted to young organisms, while
1520:
Marine Organisms as Model Systems in Biology and Medicine
71:
and regenerating limbs to evade predators and reproduce.
618:, where they differentiate amongst rearranging muscles.
2559:
https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/all-about-starfish
2283:"Autotomy as a prelude to regeneration in echinoderms"
1112:
Australian Echinoderms: Biology, Ecology and Evolution
2500:"Asexual Reproduction in the Starfish, Sclerasterias"
1203:
1201:
876:
A less commonly used form of asexual reproduction is
496:. Specifically, the supporting cells (believed to be
1904:
plancito Oxbile Injections and Antibiotic Treatment"
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1226:
Messmer, V.; Pratchett, M. S.; Clark, T. D. (2013).
543:-like area lacks localization, contains an abundant
460:) undergoes regeneration after losing numerous arms.
2150:
Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington
2111:
Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington
1386:Holstein, T.W.; Hobmayer, E.; Technau, U. (2003).
694:formation is followed by the growth of additional
294:Additionally, in a process analogous to mammalian
2100:
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1103:
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998:
996:
1797:
1795:
1793:
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1789:
1787:
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1381:
1379:
1291:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1094:Starfish: biology and ecology of the Asteroidea
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
793:is understood to serve a defensive function in
500:) acquire a bipolar shape, implanting opposing
216:defined by the ability to regrow the main body
212:Bidirectional regeneration is a robust form of
2553:https://www.wired.com/2007/04/scientists-sear/
1993:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1688:
1686:
1624:
1622:
1620:
555:. As such, while starfish generally follows a
2232:Garcia-Arraras, Jose; Dolmatov, Igor (2010).
1221:
1219:
1040:
531:coelom funnels undifferentiated cells to the
372:of mammals, possessing a disorganized mix of
8:
1699:(Thesis). Università degli Studi di Milano.
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
706:, and other musculoskeletal structures in a
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
710:direction until regeneration is completed.
237:Disk-independent bidirectional regeneration
952:
950:
733:zone reappears. Over time, pigment-cupped
224:that exhibit disk-dependent bidirectional
2298:
2257:
2200:
2189:Development, Growth & Differentiation
2023:
1961:
1919:
1874:
1750:
1658:
1600:
1403:
1312:
1302:
1261:
1251:
1181:
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200:Disk-dependent bidirectional regeneration
1808:Roux's Archives of Developmental Biology
869:prior to adulthood through autotomy and
384:, and undifferentiated cells. Early on,
1346:"Regeneration and Budding in Tunicates"
946:
830:outside of the body. Each arm contains
2402:Lawson-Kerr, C.; Anderson, DT (1978).
1476:"Variability and Autotomy of Phataria"
1126:"SEA STAR: TUBE FEET & LOCOMOTION"
2441:. Zoological Society of Tokyo: 67–76.
1208:Rosenthal, N.; Harvey, R. P. (2010).
682:into muscle components. Meanwhile, a
7:
2483:Emson, R. H.; Wilkie, I. C. (1980).
1141:
1139:
814:Starfish sexually reproduce through
380:, nervous elements, differentiating
270:The arm regenerative process of all
2485:Fission and autotomy in echinoderms
2144:Hotchkiss, Frederick H. C. (2012).
2105:Hotchkiss, Frederick H. C. (2009).
797:. While arms can be pulled off the
690:cavities. In this manner, terminal
504:extensions containing regenerative
2470:10.1111/j.1744-7410.2000.tb00010.x
1362:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1951.tb01207.x
1210:Heart Development and Regeneration
826:) are released into the water and
14:
2287:Microscopy Research and Technique
1128:. 21 October 2013. Archived from
1096:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
602:starts regenerating the terminal
578:network developing in the former
181:), which feed on large swaths of
2202:10.1111/j.1440-169X.2007.00919.x
849:Asexual reproduction in starfish
1441:Journal of Experimental Zoology
1007:Bishop Museum Occasional Papers
535:-like formation. Unlike a true
262:species to a very high degree.
67:, starfish are also capable of
37:, star-shaped organisms of the
2408:Marine and Freshwater Research
1110:O’Hara, T.; Byrne, M. (2017).
757:requires further exploration.
1:
2452:Lacalli, Thurston C. (2005).
2238:Current Pharmaceutical Design
2004:Wound Repair and Regeneration
1772:Invertebrate Survival Journal
1639:Wound Repair and Regeneration
863:asexual starfish reproduction
2487:. Aberdeen University Press.
1528:10.1007/978-3-319-92486-1_14
598:. Moreover, the pressurized
220:after whole body severance.
1954:10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.09.035
1705:10.13140/RG.2.2.34764.10885
1435:Kellogg, Vernon L. (1904).
961:. London: John van Voorst.
622:Advanced regenerative phase
336:at the wound edge or wound
304:perivisceral coelomic canal
289:perivisceral coelomic canal
287:cavities, particularly the
143:Unidirectional regeneration
2605:
2250:10.2174/138161210790883426
1585:10.1007/s00441-022-03678-x
846:
818:, meaning that sex cells (
1908:Journal of Marine Biology
1693:Daviddi, Arianna (2015).
1253:10.1007/s00338-013-1017-1
1063:10.1007/s00441-017-2589-9
761:Autotomy and regeneration
1900:"The Immune Response of
1573:Cell and Tissue Research
1474:Monks, Sarah P. (1904).
1051:Cell and Tissue Research
755:cellular differentiation
714:Cellular differentiation
458:Pycnopodia helianthoides
418:Early regenerative phase
175:Crown-of-thorns starfish
2504:The Biological Bulletin
2435:The Zoological Magazine
2061:Nature Reviews Genetics
1867:10.1089/wound.2013.0473
1344:Berrill, N. J. (1951).
1304:10.1073/pnas.1208909109
1092:Lawrence, John (2013).
967:2027/hvd.32044072199128
801:body by predators, the
547:, and houses organized
87:Degrees of regeneration
2498:Fisher, W. K. (1925).
1855:Advances in Wound Care
1743:10.1098/rstb.1998.0220
1461:10.1002/jez.1400010208
1392:Developmental Dynamics
925:Regeneration (biology)
858:
770:
646:
461:
456:A Sunflower Starfish (
246:
209:
152:
96:
27:
2584:Developmental biology
2381:10.1007/s002270000487
2281:Wilkie, I.C. (2001).
1942:Developmental Biology
1768:"Echinoderm immunity"
1263:10536/DRO/DU:30105083
930:Water vascular system
856:
768:
644:
506:intermediate filament
455:
396:(ECM) and pockets of
244:
207:
155:Though the different
150:
115:and is equipped with
94:
61:Starfish regeneration
22:
16:Star-shaped organisms
2458:Invertebrate Biology
957:Gray, J. E. (1866).
867:asexual reproduction
843:Asexual reproduction
836:Labidiaster starfish
780:asexual reproduction
405:extracellular matrix
394:extracellular matrix
350:Echinaster sepositus
326:Re-epithelialization
35:radially symmetrical
33:, or sea stars, are
2373:2001MarBi.138..527R
1921:10.1155/2014/769356
1453:1904JEZ.....1..353K
1297:(44): 17995–17999.
1244:2013CorRe..32..461M
1165:10.7554/eLife.72983
1114:. Csiro Publishing.
810:Sexual reproduction
443:perivisceral coelom
342:cell-cell junctions
266:Regeneration phases
1820:10.1007/BF00376366
1405:10.1002/dvdy.10227
1350:Biological Reviews
859:
771:
708:proximal to distal
680:re-differentiating
665:proximal to distal
647:
600:radial water canal
474:radial water canal
470:proximal to distal
462:
447:radial water canal
370:granulation tissue
354:Acanthaster planci
318:functions in most
247:
210:
179:Acanthaster planci
153:
97:
28:
2420:10.1071/mf9780045
2335:National Aquarium
2300:10.1002/jemt.1185
2016:10.1111/wrr.12336
1737:(1367): 421–436.
1651:10.1111/wrr.12333
1545:978-3-319-92485-4
1212:. Academic Press.
751:dedifferentiation
590:, differentiated
2596:
2528:
2527:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2399:
2393:
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2352:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2327:
2321:
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2278:
2272:
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2261:
2229:
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2222:
2204:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2102:
2093:
2092:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2027:
1995:
1976:
1975:
1965:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1878:
1846:
1840:
1839:
1799:
1780:
1779:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1722:
1709:
1708:
1690:
1681:
1680:
1662:
1626:
1615:
1614:
1604:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1511:
1496:
1495:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1407:
1383:
1374:
1373:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1316:
1306:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1265:
1255:
1223:
1214:
1213:
1205:
1196:
1195:
1185:
1167:
1143:
1134:
1133:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1107:
1098:
1097:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1042:
1015:
1014:
1002:
971:
970:
954:
786:Predator evasion
656:signaling center
565:epimorphic model
334:progenitor cells
314:, clotting, and
256:digestive system
231:digestive system
190:conservationists
2604:
2603:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2564:
2563:
2537:
2535:Further reading
2532:
2531:
2516:10.2307/1536659
2497:
2496:
2492:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2451:
2450:
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2231:
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2226:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2162:10.2988/11-37.1
2143:
2142:
2138:
2123:10.2988/08-48.1
2104:
2103:
2096:
2073:10.1038/nrg1923
2067:(11): 873–884.
2054:
2053:
2049:
1997:
1996:
1979:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1848:
1847:
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1801:
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1199:
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1123:
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1101:
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1090:
1086:
1044:
1043:
1018:
1004:
1003:
974:
956:
955:
948:
943:
911:
902:Stephanasterian
886:Stephanasterias
851:
845:
812:
788:
763:
632:differentiation
624:
588:collagen fibers
494:neuronal growth
482:differentiation
420:
356:, a phagocytic
281:
268:
239:
202:
183:western Pacific
145:
123:, which enable
89:
76:model organisms
24:Asterias rubens
17:
12:
11:
5:
2602:
2600:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2566:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2555:
2549:
2543:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2510:(3): 171–175.
2490:
2475:
2464:(2): 234–241.
2444:
2425:
2394:
2367:(3): 527–536.
2361:Marine Biology
2347:
2322:
2293:(6): 369–396.
2273:
2244:(8): 942–955.
2224:
2175:
2156:(2): 106–121.
2136:
2117:(3): 342–354.
2094:
2047:
2010:(4): 623–634.
1977:
1948:(2): 297–309.
1927:
1890:
1861:(7): 445–464.
1841:
1781:
1758:
1710:
1682:
1645:(4): 611–622.
1616:
1579:(2): 207–227.
1559:
1544:
1497:
1486:(2): 596–600.
1466:
1447:(2): 353–356.
1427:
1398:(2): 257–267.
1375:
1356:(4): 456–475.
1336:
1277:
1215:
1197:
1135:
1132:on 2013-10-21.
1117:
1099:
1084:
1016:
972:
945:
944:
942:
939:
938:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
910:
907:
898:Coscinasterian
882:Coscinasterias
847:Main article:
844:
841:
811:
808:
787:
784:
762:
759:
735:photoreceptors
623:
620:
572:skeletogenesis
567:, in reality.
419:
416:
365:edematous area
308:coelomic fluid
280:
277:
267:
264:
238:
235:
201:
198:
144:
141:
88:
85:
15:
13:
10:
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2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1994:
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1990:
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1978:
1973:
1969:
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1951:
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1778:(2): 211–220.
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935:Wound healing
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894:Sclerasterian
891:
890:Sclerasterias
887:
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629:
628:morphogenesis
621:
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610:walls to the
609:
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581:
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566:
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561:morphallactic
558:
557:morphallactic
554:
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549:fiber bundles
546:
542:
538:
534:
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526:
522:
518:
513:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
492:’ for future
491:
487:
486:proliferation
483:
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347:
346:keratinocytes
343:
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332:of epidermal
331:
330:proliferation
327:
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54:
50:
47:
43:
42:Echinodermata
40:
36:
32:
25:
21:
2507:
2503:
2493:
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2447:
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2407:
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2360:
2350:
2339:. Retrieved
2337:. 2024-04-23
2334:
2325:
2290:
2286:
2276:
2241:
2237:
2227:
2195:(2): 73–78.
2192:
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2139:
2114:
2110:
2064:
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2050:
2025:10754/558682
2007:
2003:
1945:
1941:
1930:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1893:
1858:
1854:
1844:
1814:(1): 19–28.
1811:
1807:
1775:
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1761:
1734:
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1695:
1660:10754/558700
1642:
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1209:
1155:
1151:
1130:the original
1120:
1111:
1093:
1087:
1057:(1): 13–28.
1054:
1050:
1010:
1006:
958:
875:
860:
813:
789:
772:
743:neurogenesis
712:
684:basal lamina
669:
648:
625:
569:
529:perivisceral
514:
463:
457:
439:hypertrophic
421:
407:, dispersed
392:develop the
362:
353:
349:
324:
300:coelomocytes
293:
282:
279:Repair phase
269:
248:
226:regeneration
214:regeneration
211:
178:
173:
154:
110:
98:
81:regeneration
73:
69:autotomizing
60:
29:
23:
2331:"Sea Stars"
1902:Acanthaster
1536:2434/595722
1232:Coral Reefs
878:fissiparity
729:called the
719:glial cells
667:direction.
523:tissue and
512:over time.
502:cytoplasmic
498:glial cells
437:produces a
390:fibroblasts
374:fibroblasts
320:echinoderms
194:coral reefs
186:coral reefs
2589:Senescence
2574:Asteroidea
2568:Categories
2341:2024-04-23
1635:sepositus"
1633:Echinaster
1238:(2): 461.
1158:: e72983.
941:References
920:Echinoderm
828:fertilized
672:myogenesis
478:cross-talk
386:phagocytes
378:phagocytes
338:epithelium
312:phagocytic
157:Asteroidea
137:amputation
129:appendages
125:locomotion
53:regenerate
49:Asteroidea
1593:1432-0878
1174:2050-084X
747:stem cell
723:dendrites
702:, aboral
696:tube feet
692:tube foot
661:tube foot
616:tube feet
604:tube foot
580:edematous
521:epidermal
466:cytotypes
435:epithelia
358:syncytium
316:cytotoxic
165:predators
161:tube feet
121:tube feet
102:body plan
65:predators
2389:84916167
2317:20291486
2309:11782069
2268:20041824
2219:29433846
2211:17335428
2170:86301770
2131:86542605
2081:17047686
2042:12969107
2034:26111806
1972:29291979
1914:: 1–11.
1885:25032064
1828:28305779
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