Animal locomotion - Knowledge (XXG)

843: 2228: 2243: 496: 2183: 29: 631:, leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish. Smaller squids fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 m. Small fins towards the back of the mantle help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The 1099: 6284: 2295: 2271: 2198: 2042:. In pinnipeds, two types of porpoising have been identified. "High porpoising" is most often near (within 100 m) the shore and is often followed by minor course changes; this may help seals get their bearings on beaching or rafting sites. "Low porpoising" is typically observed relatively far (more than 100 m) from shore and often aborted in favour of anti-predator movements; this may be a way for seals to maximize sub-surface vigilance and thereby reduce their vulnerability to sharks 1768:, laying their eggs in host nests, where their larvae consume the host egg or larva while it is still young. Chrysidines are distinguished from the members of other subfamilies in that most have flattened or concave lower abdomens and can curl into a defensive ball when attacked by a potential host, a process known as conglobation. Protected by hard chitin in this position, they are expelled from the nest without injury and can search for a less hostile host. 879:. Kangaroo rats often leap 2 m and reportedly up to 2.75 m at speeds up to almost 3 m/s (6.7 mph). They can quickly change their direction between jumps. The rapid locomotion of the banner-tailed kangaroo rat may minimize energy cost and predation risk. Its use of a "move-freeze" mode may also make it less conspicuous to nocturnal predators. Frogs are, relative to their size, the best jumpers of all vertebrates. The Australian rocket frog, 1834: 2283: 1422: 1568:. The net cost of transport of swimming is lowest, followed by flight, with terrestrial limbed locomotion being the most expensive per unit distance. However, because of the speeds involved, flight requires the most energy per unit time. This does not mean that an animal that normally moves by running would be a more efficient swimmer; however, these comparisons assume an animal is specialized for that form of motion. Another consideration here is 2026: 759: 891: 1655:) lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore (sometimes called a "sail"), remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged. Because the Portuguese man o' war has no means of propulsion, it is moved by a combination of winds, currents, and tides. The sail is equipped with a siphon. In the event of a surface attack, the sail can be deflated, allowing the organism to briefly submerge. 612: 422: 2213: 1638: 588:; the term "volplaning" also refers to this mode of flight in animals. This mode of flight involves flying a greater distance horizontally than vertically and therefore can be distinguished from a simple descent like a parachute. Gliding has evolved on more occasions than active flight. There are examples of gliding animals in several major taxonomic classes such as the invertebrates (e.g., 246: 342: 1748:, the eastern beach tiger beetle, is notable for its ability to leap into the air, loop its body into a rotating wheel and roll along the sand at a high speed using wind to propel itself. If the wind is strong enough, the larva can cover up to 60 metres (200 ft) in this manner. This remarkable ability may have evolved to help the larva escape predators such as the 2065:, when being pursued by a predator, have been known to reach speeds over 70 km/h (43 mph), and can maintain a steady speed of 50 km/h (31 mph), which makes the ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal: Ostriches can also locomote by swimming. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called 6135: 918: 5166: 739: 1293: 623:, octopus and squid. The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 meters (160 ft), though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to 400 m (1,300 ft). To glide upward out of the water, a flying fish moves its tail up to 70 times per second. Several oceanic 763: 762: 2017:

50 m, though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to 400 m (1,300 ft). They can travel at speeds of more than 70 km/h (43 mph). Maximum altitude is 6 m (20 ft) above the surface of the sea. Some accounts have them landing on ships' decks.

2098: 764: 1868:

with slat-like structures that open and close to create suction and take a firm hold against the skin of larger marine animals. By sliding backward, the remora can increase the suction, or it can release itself by swimming forward. Remoras sometimes attach to small boats. They swim well on their own,

1241:

are arboreal lizards that usually use quadrupedalism in the trees. When frightened, they can drop to water below and run across the surface on their hind limbs at about 1.5 m/s for a distance of approximately 4.5 m (15 ft) before they sink to all fours and swim. They can also sustain

854:

Jumping (saltation) can be distinguished from running, galloping, and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch. Many terrestrial animals use jumping (including hopping or leaping) to escape predators

541:

on the animal's body. Flying animals must be very light to achieve flight, the largest living flying animals being birds of around 20 kilograms. Other structural adaptations of flying animals include reduced and redistributed body weight, fusiform shape and powerful flight muscles; there may also be

2033:

When swimming, several marine mammals such as dolphins, porpoises and pinnipeds, frequently leap above the water surface whilst maintaining horizontal locomotion. This is done for various reasons. When travelling, jumping can save dolphins and porpoises energy as there is less friction while in the

1298: 1297: 1294: 1196:

on the underside of their arms. Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance, the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction. Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate. The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move

937:

caterpillars move by looping or inching (measuring off a length with each movement), using their paired circular and longitudinal muscles (as for peristalsis) along with the ability to attach to a surface at both anterior and posterior ends. One end is attached, often the thicker end, and the other

1909:

that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. The male becomes dependent on the female host for survival by receiving nutrients via their shared circulatory system, and provides sperm to the female in return. After fusing, males increase in volume

1246:

m. When cockroaches run rapidly, they rear up on their two hind legs like bipedal humans; this allows them to run at speeds up to 50 body lengths per second, equivalent to a "couple hundred miles per hour, if you scale up to the size of humans." When grazing, kangaroos use a form of pentapedalism

1299: 1955:

There are a large number of semi-aquatic animals (animals that spend part of their life cycle in water, or generally have part of their anatomy underwater). These represent the major taxa of mammals (e.g., beaver, otter, polar bear), birds (e.g., penguins, ducks), reptiles (e.g., anaconda, bog

1556:

of locomotion involves the energy expenditure by animals in moving. Energy consumed in locomotion is not available for other efforts, so animals typically have evolved to use the minimum energy possible during movement. However, in the case of certain behaviors, such as locomotion to escape a

1429:

Arboreal locomotion is the locomotion of animals in trees. Some animals may only scale trees occasionally, while others are exclusively arboreal. These habitats pose numerous mechanical challenges to animals moving through them, leading to a variety of anatomical, behavioural and ecological

761: 2016:

can make powerful, self-propelled leaps out of water into air, where their long, wing-like fins enable gliding flight for considerable distances above the water's surface. This uncommon ability is a natural defence mechanism to evade predators. The flights of flying fish are typically around

321:

to travel fast, taking in water then squirting it back out in an explosive burst. Other swimming animals may rely predominantly on their limbs, much as humans do when swimming. Though life on land originated from the seas, terrestrial animals have returned to an aquatic lifestyle on several

1774:

can jump vertically up to 18 cm and horizontally up to 33 cm; however, although this form of locomotion is initiated by the flea, it has little control of the jump—they always jump in the same direction, with very little variation in the trajectory between individual jumps.

1557:

predator, performance (such as speed or maneuverability) is more crucial, and such movements may be energetically expensive. Furthermore, animals may use energetically expensive methods of locomotion when environmental conditions (such as being within a burrow) preclude other modes.

1205:) pull themselves along with some of their arms while letting others trail behind. Other starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving, which exposes the sensory tube feet and eyespot to external stimuli. Most starfish cannot move quickly, a typical speed being that of the 259:

In water, staying afloat is possible using buoyancy. If an animal's body is less dense than water, it can stay afloat. This requires little energy to maintain a vertical position, but requires more energy for locomotion in the horizontal plane compared to less buoyant animals. The

1564:) needed above baseline metabolic rate to move a given distance. For aerobic locomotion, most animals have a nearly constant cost of transport—moving a given distance requires the same caloric expenditure, regardless of speed. This constancy is usually accomplished by changes in 1296: 303:

oscillate their body in an up-and-down (dorso-ventral) direction. Other animals, e.g. penguins, diving ducks, move underwater in a manner which has been termed "aquatic flying". Some fish propel themselves without a wave motion of the body, as in the slow-moving seahorses and

1515:

environments, gravity must be overcome whereas the drag of air has little influence. In aqueous environments, friction (or drag) becomes the major energetic challenge with gravity being less of an influence. Remaining in the aqueous environment, animals with natural

938:

end, often thinner, is projected forward peristaltically until it touches down, as far as it can reach; then the first end is released, pulled forward, and reattached; and the cycle repeats. In the case of leeches, attachment is by a sucker at each end of the body.

1552:). The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement. The 919: 920: 2069:, which conserves energy while moving quickly. They also jump with both feet together if they want to move more quickly or cross steep or rocky terrain. To get onto land, penguins sometimes propel themselves upwards at a great speed to leap out the water. 1462:, Latin for "arm") is a form of arboreal locomotion in which primates swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms. During brachiation, the body is alternately supported under each forelimb. This is the primary means of locomotion for the small 1273: 1914:

ensures, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available. Multiple males can be incorporated into a single individual female with up to eight males in some species, though some taxa appear to have a one male per female rule.

743: 742: 744: 1312: 922: 643:

Soaring birds can maintain flight without wing flapping, using rising air currents. Many gliding birds are able to "lock" their extended wings by means of a specialized tendon. Soaring birds may alternate glides with periods of soaring in

1869:

with a sinuous, or curved, motion. When the remora reaches about 3 cm (1.2 in), the disc is fully formed and the remora can then attach to other animals. The remora's lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and the animal lacks a

1592:. In terrestrial animals, the cost of transport is typically measured while they walk or run on a motorized treadmill, either wearing a mask to capture gas exchange or with the entire treadmill enclosed in a metabolic chamber. For small 1721:

A spider (usually limited to individuals of a small species), or spiderling after hatching, climbs as high as it can, stands on raised legs with its abdomen pointed upwards ("tiptoeing"), and then releases several silk threads from its

1344:

movements of its legs similar to those used by gymnasts, to actively propel itself off the ground, allowing it to move both down and uphill, even at a 40 percent incline. This behaviour is different than other huntsman spiders, such as

1805:

is often stranded by its short rear legs, which are sufficient for locomotion when the body is supported by water, but not on dry land. The mantis shrimp then performs a forward flip in an attempt to roll towards the next tide pool.

1279: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1280: 741: 2104: 2103: 2100: 2099: 1482:

Pandas are known to swig their heads laterally as they ascend vertical surfaces astonishingly utilizing their head as a propulsive limb in a anatomical way that was thought to only be practiced by certain species of birds.

2105: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1318: 1539:

is widely used in the study of animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forwards an animal must push something backwards. Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground, swimming and flying animals must push against a

1532:

indicate how they have evolved to cope with this. Limbless organisms moving on land must energetically overcome surface friction, however, they do not usually need to expend significant energy to counteract gravity.

2604: 1951:

Some animals locomote between different media, e.g., from aquatic to aerial. This often requires different modes of locomotion in the different media and may require a distinct transitional locomotor behaviour.

1810:

has been observed to roll repeatedly for 2 m (6.6 ft), but they typically travel less than 1 m (3.3 ft). Again, the animal initiates the movement but has little control during its locomotion.

1277: 1470:

of southeast Asia. Some New World monkeys such as spider monkeys and muriquis are "semibrachiators" and move through the trees with a combination of leaping and brachiation. Some New World species also practice

1234:

Many animals temporarily change the number of legs they use for locomotion in different circumstances. For example, many quadrupedal animals switch to bipedalism to reach low-level browse on trees. The genus of

1122:

bird has claws on its thumb and first finger enabling it to dexterously climb tree branches until its wings are strong enough for sustained flight. These claws are gone by the time the bird reaches adulthood.

1430:

consequences as well as variations throughout different species. Furthermore, many of these same principles may be applied to climbing without trees, such as on rock piles or mountains. The earliest known

4027:

Heglund, N.C.; Cavagna, G.A.; Taylor, C.R. (1982). "Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. III. Energy changes of the centre of mass as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals".

1254: 1184:

walks by using two groups of legs (left 1, right 2, Left 3, Right 4 and Right 1, Left 2, Right 3, Left 4) in a reciprocating fashion. This alternating tetrapod coordination is used over all walking speeds.

2102: 1090:

There are no three-legged animals—though some macropods, such as kangaroos, that alternate between resting their weight on their muscular tails and their two hind legs could be looked at as an example of

1315: 760: 1910:

and become much larger relative to free-living males of the species. They live and remain reproductively functional as long as the female lives, and can take part in multiple spawnings. This extreme

946:

Due to its low coefficient of friction, ice provides the opportunity for other modes of locomotion. Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called

367:, provides adhesion. Waves of tube feet contractions and relaxations move along the adherent surface and the animal moves slowly along. Some sea urchins also use their spines for benthic locomotion. 1231:) can travel at a speed of 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) per minute. Sunflower starfish are quick, efficient hunters, moving at a speed of 1 m/min (3.3 ft/min) using 15,000 tube feet. 1009:, etc.), whose adaptations can include a soft rubbery pad between their hooves for grip, hooves with sharp keratin rims for lodging in small footholds, and prominent dew claws. Another case is the 1130:

quadrupeds may use their tail to assist in locomotion and when grazing, the kangaroos and other macropods use their tail to propel themselves forward with the four legs used to maintain balance.

1295: 562:. Insects were the first taxon to evolve flight, approximately 400 million years ago (mya), followed by pterosaurs approximately 220 mya, birds approximately 160 mya, then bats about 60 mya. 363:

to move about. The tube feet typically have a tip shaped like a suction pad that can create a vacuum through contraction of muscles. This, along with some stickiness from the secretion of

460:

While larger animals such as ducks can move on water by floating, some small animals move across it without breaking through the surface. This surface locomotion takes advantage of the

3299:

Pascal Godefroit; Andrea Cau; Hu Dong-Yu; François Escuillié; Wu Wenhao; Gareth Dyke (2013). "A Jurassic avialan dinosaur from China resolves the early phylogenetic history of birds".

1259: 1258: 1255: 2089:(non-motile) suspension feeders. Frequently, adults are found attached to moving objects such as whales and ships, and are thereby transported (passive locomotion) around the oceans. 1260: 3791: 2721: 921: 5901: 5192: 413:, can escape by rolling itself into a self-propelled wheel and somersault backwards at a speed of 72 rpm. They can travel more than 2 m using this unusual method of locomotion. 5568: 2227: 3713: 842: 1520:

expend little energy to maintain a vertical position in a water column. Others naturally sink, and must spend energy to remain afloat. Drag is also an energetic influence in

5405: 2653: 264:

encountered in water is much greater than in air. Morphology is therefore important for efficient locomotion, which is in most cases essential for basic functions such as

1825:

Some animals change location because they are attached to, or reside on, another animal or moving structure. This is arguably more accurately termed "animal transport".

3559: 2877: 2505: 1276: 740: 6185: 1257: 4240:

Shultz, Jeffrey W (2005-02-06). "Evolution of locomotion in arachnida: The hydraulic pressure pump of the giant whipscorpion, Mastigoproctus Giganteus (Uropygi)".

2034:

air. This type of travel is known as "porpoising". Other reasons for dolphins and porpoises performing porpoising include orientation, social displays, fighting,

2101: 6837: 5009: 1726:

into the air. These form a triangle-shaped parachute that carries the spider on updrafts of winds, where even the slightest breeze transports it. The Earth's

295:) and batiform fish (electric rays, sawfishes, guitarfishes, skates and stingrays) use their pectoral fins as the primary means of locomotion, sometimes termed 5236: 1314: 3116: 2242: 2830:

A. G. Vidal-Gadea; M. D. Rinehart; J. H. Belanger (2008). "Skeletal adaptations for forwards and sideways walking in three species of decapod crustaceans".

1087:

walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, so they can use the remaining arms to camouflage themselves as a mat of algae or floating coconut.

131:) typically have a locomotion mechanism that costs very little energy per unit distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must frequently move quickly to 76:. There are also many animal species that depend on their environment for transportation, a type of mobility called passive locomotion, e.g., sailing (some 4596: 376:). This is because of the articulation of the legs, which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. However, some crabs walk forwards or backwards, including 1625:

Passive locomotion in animals is a type of mobility in which the animal depends on their environment for transportation; such animals are vagile but not

4187:

Sensenig, Andrew T; Jeffrey W Shultz (2003-02-15). "Mechanics of Cuticular Elastic Energy Storage in Leg Joints Lacking Extensor Muscles in Arachnids".

1560:

The most common metric of energy use during locomotion is the net (also termed "incremental") cost of transport, defined as the amount of energy (e.g.,

989:

move on steep or even near-vertical surfaces by careful balancing and leaping. Perhaps the most exceptional are the various types of mountain-dwelling

6541: 4515: 1225:

have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion, "gliding" across the ocean floor. The sand star (

1055:, mode of locomotion. A few modern mammalian species are habitual bipeds, i.e., whose normal method of locomotion is two-legged. These include the 5547: 4545: 3727: 2294: 472:, preventing them from interfering with the structure of water. Another form of locomotion (in which the surface layer is broken) is used by the 1603:

Energetics is important for explaining the evolution of foraging economic decisions in organisms; for example, a study of the African honey bee,

355:

locomotion is movement by animals that live on, in, or near the bottom of aquatic environments. In the sea, many animals walk over the seabed.

6794: 4450:

Cavey, Michael J.; Wood, Richard L. (1981). "Specializations for excitation-contraction coupling in the podial retractor cells of the starfish

3864: 3424: 1256: 435: 2270: 6678: 6546: 5861: 5681: 5654: 4664: 4434: 3991: 3652: 3619: 3594: 3156: 3043: 2980: 2182: 1711: 5698: 6584: 5379: 4497: 3803: 1935:

can move around on the body of their host, but are transported much longer distances by the host's locomotion. Some ectoparasites such as

4755:"Ontogenetic scaling of hydrostatic skeletons: geometric, static stress and dynamic stress scaling of the earthworm lumbricus terrestris" 3677: 3005: 2752: 1931:

live in the alimentary tracts of other animals, and depend on the host's ability to move to distribute their eggs. Ectoparasites such as

6178: 6158: 5915: 575: 5202: 5572: 4903: 2163:, used to understand how the movements of animal limbs relate to the motion of the whole animal, for instance when walking or flying. 1976:, are fish that are able to leave water for extended periods of time. These fish use a range of terrestrial locomotory modes, such as 226:—regularly move through more than one type of medium. In some cases, the surface they move on facilitates their method of locomotion. 4623: 635:

has been observed to glide for distances over 30 m (100 ft), at speeds of up to 11.2 m/s (37 ft/s; 25 mph).

6830: 6122: 4875: 2770: 2449: 2422: 1359:

as a form of locomotion. The flic-flac spider can reach speeds of up to 2 m/s using forward or back flips to evade threats.

1197:

in a wave, with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases. Some multi-armed, fast-moving starfish such as the

5409: 4189: 3459: 2412: 495: 6149: 5937: 4727: 3563: 2939: 2439: 808:

first before they are able to stand on two feet, which requires good coordination as well as physical development. Humans are

6933: 6171: 3460:"Predator-driven macroevolution in flyingfishes inferred from behavioural studies: historical controversies and a hypothesis" 1013:, which being a predator of such caprids also has spectacular balance and leaping abilities, such as ability to leap up to 17 5543: 4681: 6283: 2053:

Some semi-aquatic birds use terrestrial locomotion, surface swimming, underwater swimming and flying (e.g., ducks, swans).

784:

framework are required in most terrestrial animals for structural support. Each step also requires much energy to overcome

4704: 2113:

Animals locomote for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a suitable microhabitat, or to escape predators.

1617:

off for the energetic benefits of warmer, less concentrated nectar, which also reduces their consumption and flight time.

1175:

and some harvestmen have evolved muscles that extend two leg joints (the femur-patella and patella-tibia joints) at once.

3172:

Hedenstrom, A.; Moller, A.P. (1992). "Morphological adaptations to song flight in passerine birds: a comparative study".

1718:

at speeds of up to 44 turns per second. If the spider is on a sloped dune, its rolling speed may be 1 metre per second.

529:. Because it is impossible for any organism to have a density as low as that of air, flying animals must generate enough 6823: 5911: 5742: 3768: 2197: 6710: 6305: 3408: 1893:. The remora benefits by using the host as transport and protection, and also feeds on materials dropped by the host. 733: 5594:

Pietsch, T.W. (1975). "Precocious sexual parasitism in the deep sea ceratioid anglerfish, Cryptopsaras couesi Gill".

5013: 2865: 5317:"Wind-powered wheel locomotion, initiated by leaping Somersaults, in larvae of the Southeastern beach tiger beetle ( 2282: 28: 6991: 6804: 6397: 6233: 3799: 2486:

Gaston, K.A., Eft, J.A. and Lauer, T.E. (2016). "Morphology and its effect on habitat selection of stream fishes".

2357: 2156: 2150: 1536: 571: 520: 215: 5135: 3120: 2519:

Dewar, H.; Graham, J. (1994). "Studies of tropical tuna swimming performance in a large water tunnel-kinematics".

1801:, has been observed flipping itself into a crude wheel. The species lives in shallow, sandy areas. At low tides, 855:

or catch prey—however, relatively few animals use this as a primary mode of locomotion. Those that do include the

3739: 1797: 409: 4600: 1242:

themselves on all fours while "water-walking" to increase the distance travelled above the surface by about 1.3

1114:, walking or running on four legs. A few birds use quadrupedal movement in some circumstances. For example, the 6577: 6110: 5263:"Laboratory studies of the factors stimulating ballooning behavior by Linyphiid spiders (Araneae, Linyphiidae)" 2035: 1589: 1448:, about 260 million years ago. Some invertebrate animals are exclusively arboreal in habitat, for example, the 789: 1648: 3827:

Schroder, G.D. (August 1979). "Foraging behavior and home range utilization of the Bannertail Kangaroo Rat".

2212: 1144: 272:-like body form is seen in many aquatic animals, though the mechanisms they use for locomotion are diverse. 4107: 1873:. Some remoras associate primarily with specific host species. They are commonly found attached to sharks, 1098: 6744: 6688: 6673: 6593: 6536: 6480: 6475: 6460: 4523: 2627: 1347: 748: 727: 715: 37: 5830: 5262: 4376: 6668: 6551: 5706: 4242: 3891:"Explosive jumping: extreme morphological and physiological specializations of Australian rocket frogs ( 3707: 2499: 1336: 1247:(four legs plus the tail) but switch to hopping (bipedalism) when they wish to move at a greater speed. 6004:

DeAngelis, Brian D.; Zavatone-Veth, Jacob A.; Clark, Damon A (2019-06-28). Calabrese, Ronald L. (ed.).

4553: 2045:

Some whales raise their (entire) body vertically out of the water in a behaviour known as "breaching".

776:, dragging and crawling or slithering. Here friction and buoyancy are no longer an issue, but a strong 5523: 4754: 56:

use to move from one place to another. Some modes of locomotion are (initially) self-propelled, e.g.,

6490: 6402: 6139: 5603: 5485: 5332: 5099: 3308: 3266: 3181: 3072: 3031: 2619: 2362: 2086: 1384: 1180: 1051:, usually have only two functional legs, which some (e.g., ostrich, emu, kiwi) use as their primary, 543: 388: 5035:

Churchill, Celia K.C.; Ó Foighil, Diarmaid; Strong, Ellen E.; Gittenberger, Adriaan (October 2011).

3868: 3432: 2899:

A.G. Vidal-Gadea; Belanger, J.H. (2009). "Muscular anatomy of the legs of the forward walking crab,

2671: 2632: 1968:

may swim freely or at other times "walk" along the ocean or river floor, but not on land (e.g., the

1213:), which can manage just 15 cm (6 in) in a minute. Some burrowing species from the genera 6953: 6938: 6663: 6617: 6570: 6485: 6412: 3265:

Barett, Paul M.; Butler, Richard J.; Edwards, Nicholas P.; Milner, Andrew R. (September 26, 2007).

2350: 1472: 1416: 1387:, are able to move more rapidly, "swimming" through the loose substrate. Burrowing animals include 1006: 963: 707: 628: 593: 207: 81: 3890: 3528:"New observations on airborne jet propulsion (flight) in squid, with a review of previous reports" 2159:

is a branch of biology that investigates and quantifies how animals move. It is an application of

6928: 6923: 6500: 6465: 6218: 5852:

Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.).

5715: 5619: 5501: 5456: 5295: 5089: 4479: 4357: 4275: 4222: 4088: 4001: 3925: 3846: 3508: 3332: 3197: 3098: 2812: 2744: 2645: 2324: 1977: 1940: 1840: 1744: 1727: 1723: 1512: 1237: 1189: 1080: 950:, which conserves energy while moving quickly. Some pinnipeds perform a similar behaviour called 382: 318: 296: 235: 203: 5474:

Roy L. Caldwell (1979). "A unique form of locomotion in a stomatopod – backward somersaulting".

5383: 5076:

Rühs, Patrick A.; Bergfreund, Jotam; Bertsch, Pascal; Gstöhl, Stefan J.; Fischer, Peter (2021).

4501: 4063:

Huffard CL, Boneka F, Full RJ (2005). "Underwater bipedal locomotion by octopuses in disguise".

3243: 962:

Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such

1833: 6996: 6863: 6495: 6455: 6335: 6253: 6118: 6090: 6045: 6027: 5986: 5978: 5906: 5857: 5789: 5677: 5650: 5448: 5360: 5117: 5058: 4991: 4942: 4899: 4871: 4848: 4794:

Cartmill, M. (1985). "Climbing". In M. Hildebrand; D.M. Bramble; K.F. Liem; D.B. Wake (eds.).

4776: 4660: 4471: 4430: 4399: 4316: 4267: 4259: 4214: 4206: 4080: 4045: 3987: 3964: 3944: 3917: 3829: 3658: 3648: 3615: 3590: 3324: 3281: 3224: 3152: 3090: 3039: 3009: 2986: 2976: 2940:"Systema Brachyurorum: Part I. An annotated checklist of extant Brachyuran crabs of the world" 2920: 2847: 2585: 2536: 2445: 2418: 2389: 2339: 2319: 2121:

Animals use locomotion in a wide variety of ways to procure food. Terrestrial methods include

1911: 1664: 1604: 1421: 1198: 824:

is on the ground at any one time at most, and both leave the ground briefly. At higher speeds

797: 632: 500: 120: 20: 5671: 5646: 4377:"Echinoderms don't suck: evidence against the involvement of suction in tube foot attachment" 4295:"Muscle Firing Patterns in Two Arachnids Using Different Methods of Propulsive Leg Extension" 2133:, grazing, ram feeding, suction feeding, protrusion and pivot feeding. Other methods include 7001: 6868: 6526: 6300: 6080: 6035: 6017: 5968: 5779: 5611: 5493: 5476: 5440: 5350: 5340: 5228: 5107: 5048: 4981: 4973: 4932: 4838: 4830: 4766: 4652: 4463: 4391: 4349: 4306: 4251: 4198: 4145: 4072: 4037: 3956: 3909: 3838: 3539: 3500: 3350: 3316: 3189: 3080: 2912: 2839: 2804: 2736: 2702: 2637: 2575: 2567: 2528: 2444:, Nato Science Series A, vol. 180, Springer Science & Business Media, p. 658, 2314: 1865: 1392: 1227: 1029: 805: 661: 581: 124: 4962:"Honeybees prefer warmer nectar and less viscous nectar, regardless of sugar concentration" 4574: 2025: 6799: 6637: 6470: 6374: 6357: 6228: 6153: 4810: 4163: 4013: 3760: 2122: 2009: 1973: 1703: 1695: 1476: 890: 665: 605: 504: 473: 461: 283:

is by oscillating the body from side-to-side, the resulting wave motion ending at a large

254: 116: 580:

Rather than active flight, some (semi-) arboreal animals reduce their rate of falling by

5733: 5673:

Ecology and Evolution of Transmission in Feather-feeding Lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera)

5607: 5489: 5336: 5103: 3312: 3185: 3076: 2623: 123:

has shaped the locomotion methods and mechanisms used by moving organisms. For example,

6755: 6531: 6422: 6345: 6292: 6263: 6223: 6198: 6040: 6005: 5355: 5316: 4986: 4961: 4921:"Voluntary running in deer mice: Speed, distance, energy costs and temperature effects" 4843: 4814: 4426: 4149: 3504: 2706: 2580: 2555: 2233: 2130: 1969: 1857: 1765: 1585: 1500: 1396: 1380: 1172: 1111: 885:, can leap over 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), more than fifty times its body length. 881: 645: 261: 199: 5955:

Darmohray, Dana M.; Jacobs, Jovin R.; Marques, Hugo G.; Carey, Megan R. (2019-04-03).

2464: 611: 404:

especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.

6985: 6905: 6715: 6352: 6268: 6258: 5639: 5519: 2248: 1886: 1553: 1388: 1044:

Species have different numbers of legs resulting in large differences in locomotion.

1024:

Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by

994: 990: 934: 872: 547: 465: 300: 288: 132: 108: 5808: 5460: 4483: 4361: 4279: 4226: 4129: 4092: 3929: 3512: 3474: 3201: 3102: 2816: 2748: 2649: 1992:), and jumping. Many of these locomotory modes incorporate multiple combinations of 421: 219: 119:. For many animals, the ability to move is essential for survival and, as a result, 6873: 6781: 6627: 6417: 6146: 5623: 5505: 4651:. Biosystems & Biorobotics. Vol. 2. Springer, Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. 3336: 2954: 2344: 2081:

are exclusively marine and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters. They have two

2054: 1993: 1965: 1870: 1860:. They grow to 30–90 cm (0.98–2.95 ft) long, and their distinctive first 1699: 1687: 1404: 1356: 1352: 1206: 1152: 1068: 1060: 1056: 1010: 876: 676: 601: 538: 530: 508: 485: 112: 33: 1637: 1167:

extend their knees by the use of highly elastic thickenings in the joint cuticle.

1118:

sometimes uses its wings to right itself after lunging at prey. The newly hatched

5973: 5956: 5345: 6910: 6771: 6750: 6735: 6725: 6720: 6683: 6621: 6429: 6379: 6320: 6315: 6310: 5878: 2218: 2013: 2005: 1761: 1707: 1672: 1525: 1455: 1376: 1368: 1215: 1134: 1092: 975: 911: 620: 597: 589: 555: 469: 453:

sails always align along the direction of the wind where the sail may act as an

445:, the by-the-wind sailor, is a cnidarian with no means of propulsion other than 356: 314: 287:. Finer control, such as for slow movements, is often achieved with thrust from 245: 223: 128: 5856:. Vol. 8 (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 99–101. 4395: 3945:"Ontogenetic scaling of burrowing forces in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris" 1600:, the cost of transport has also been measured during voluntary wheel running. 914:, the same rhythmic contractions that propel food through the digestive tract. 812:

animals, standing on two feet and keeping one on the ground at all times while

6966: 6776: 6740: 6330: 6273: 6243: 6238: 5053: 5036: 4656: 4419: 4294: 3544: 3527: 3400: 2916: 2843: 2740: 2160: 2138: 2134: 2077:

An animal's mode of locomotion may change considerably during its life-cycle.

1902: 1861: 1784: 1597: 1577: 1449: 1372: 1164: 1127: 1064: 1052: 653: 401: 393: 284: 6031: 5982: 4403: 4320: 4263: 4210: 3371: 3285: 2990: 6562: 6434: 6407: 5784: 5767: 5431:

Sutton G.P.; Burrows M. (2011). "The biomechanics of the jump of the flea".

5294:

Gorham, P. (2013). "Ballooning spiders: The case for electrostatic flight".

4819:

and the early evolution of arboreality in terrestrial vertebrate ecosystems"

4771: 4255: 4076: 3960: 3662: 2078: 1924: 1885:, and some small remoras travel in the mouths or gills of large manta rays, 1882: 1874: 1749: 1572:—heavier animals, though using more total energy, require less energy 1569: 1341: 1193: 1156: 907: 711: 696: 657: 551: 397: 377: 371: 360: 265: 211: 77: 6094: 6049: 5990: 5793: 5452: 5364: 5143: 5121: 5062: 4995: 4977: 4946: 4852: 4834: 4271: 4218: 4084: 3968: 3921: 3328: 3193: 3094: 2924: 2851: 2589: 2571: 1375:, or other methods. In loose solids such as sand some animals, such as the 6134: 4780: 4475: 4311: 4049: 2795:

Sleinis, S.; Silvey, G.E. (1980). "Locomotion in a forward walking crab".

2540: 1972:—which does not actually fly—and batfishes of the family Ogcocephalidae). 457:, so that the animals tend to sail downwind at a small angle to the wind. 341: 291:(or front limbs in marine mammals). Some fish, e.g. the spotted ratfish ( 6855: 6730: 6439: 6362: 6340: 6248: 5528: 4648:

BiLBIQ: A Biologically Inspired Robot with Walking and Rolling Locomotion

3642: 3228: 2532: 2039: 1956:

turtle, marine iguana) and amphibians (e.g., salamanders, frogs, newts).

1890: 1820: 1792: 1753: 1626: 1517: 1496: 1441: 1431: 1400: 1168: 1160: 1140: 1115: 1103: 1076: 1072: 1048: 1025: 986: 971: 856: 825: 781: 777: 454: 330: 323: 306: 104: 97: 61: 45: 6815: 6163: 6022: 3320: 3215:

Sacktor, B. (1975). "Biochemical adaptations for flight in the insect".

6702: 6647: 6642: 6632: 6367: 6085: 6065:"Wing and body kinematics of takeoff and landing flight in the pigeon ( 6064: 5444: 5232: 5197: 5112: 5077: 4467: 4353: 4041: 3850: 3526:

Maciá, S.; Robinson, M.P.; Craze, P.; Dalton, R.; Thomas, J.D. (2004).

3491:

Packard, A. (1972). "Cephalopods and fish: the limits of convergence".

2808: 2329: 2126: 2062: 2058: 1928: 1610: 1593: 1508: 1504: 1467: 1445: 1436: 1119: 1084: 837: 817: 813: 809: 785: 773: 680: 649: 446: 441: 426: 352: 345: 269: 89: 73: 65: 57: 4937: 4920: 4202: 2641: 1905:, when a male finds a female, he bites into her skin, and releases an 718:

for ballooning, sometimes traveling great distances at high altitude.

6847: 6325: 6159:

Unified Physics Theory Explains Animals' Running, Flying And Swimming

5615: 5497: 4919:

Chappell, M.A.; Garland, T.; Rezende, E.L. & Gomes, F.R. (2004).

4646: 3405:

Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals

2082: 2061:) have lost the primary locomotion of flight. The largest of these, 1997: 1981: 1906: 1878: 1849: 1788: 1675: 1614: 1581: 1561: 1521: 1492: 1463: 1221: 1148: 967: 868: 860: 828:

helps keep the body upright, so more energy can be used in movement.

801: 793: 585: 526: 516: 503:

in flight. The female, above, is in fast forward flight with a small

280: 93: 85: 69: 53: 5221:"Systematics and Evolution of the Californian Trapdoor Spider Genus 5220: 3842: 3085: 3060: 2722:"The structure and function of the tube feet in certain echinoderms" 2057:

also use diving locomotion (e.g., dippers, auks). Some birds (e.g.,

906:

Other animals move in terrestrial habitats without the aid of legs.

135:

are likely to have energetically costly, but very fast, locomotion.

6006:"The manifold structure of limb coordination in walking Drosophila" 5094: 3913: 1927:

are transported by their hosts. For example, endoparasites such as

1511:, although the influence of these depends on the circumstances. In 138:

The anatomical structures that animals use for movement, including

5300: 4705:"Cebrennus rechenbergi: Cartwheeling spider discovered in Morocco" 2729:

Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom

2367: 2334: 2188: 2024: 1832: 1739: 1636: 1545: 1541: 1420: 1097: 1033: 930: 916: 894: 889: 841: 757: 737: 710:

is a method of locomotion used by spiders. Certain silk-producing

624: 610: 494: 420: 370:

Crabs typically walk sideways (a behaviour that gives us the word

364: 340: 244: 139: 27: 4960:

Nicolson, S.; de Veer, L.; Kohler. A. & Pirk, C.W.W. (2013).

4340:

Bowerman, R.F. (1975). "The control of walking in the scorpion".

3174:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences

2560:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences

1367:

Some animals move through solids such as soil by burrowing using

1133:

Insects generally walk with six legs—though some insects such as

772:

Forms of locomotion on land include walking, running, hopping or

449:. A small rigid sail projects into the air and catches the wind. 6878: 6601: 6521: 6389: 6202: 3151:. San Francisco: Pearson - Benjamin Cummings. pp. 522–523. 2203: 1989: 1936: 1932: 1771: 1715: 1565: 1529: 1002: 864: 821: 768:

Pacific leaping blenny climbing up a vertical piece of Plexiglas

714:, mostly small or young spiders, secrete a special light-weight 686: 534: 507:; the male, below, is twisting his wings sharply upward to gain 276: 159: 147: 6819: 6566: 6167: 1032:. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as 533:

to ascend and remain airborne. One way to achieve this is with

6210: 6194: 4682:"The Moroccan flic-flac spider: A gymnast among the arachnids" 2001: 1985: 1549: 1188:

Centipedes and millipedes have many sets of legs that move in

998: 619:

Some aquatic animals also regularly use gliding, for example,

559: 155: 151: 143: 5957:"Spatial and Temporal Locomotor Learning in Mouse Cerebellum" 2438:

Lindsay, Everett H.; Fahlbusch, Volker; Mein, Pierre (2013),

1155:

extend their limbs hydraulically using the pressure of their

5831:"Anti-predatory strategies of Cape fur seals at Seal Island" 1434:

with specializations that adapted it for climbing trees was

3419: 3417: 2693:

Fish, F.E.; Hui, C.A. (1991). "Dolphin swimming–a review".

1787:

typically display the standard locomotion types as seen in

5571:. Natural History Museum. 28 January 2013. Archived from 4866:

Jurmain, Robert; Kilgore, Lynn; Trevathan, Wenda (2008).

4624:"Stealth behavior allows cockroaches to seemingly vanish" 2109:

Paddlefish ram suspension-feeding zooplankton in aquarium

2085:(active swimming) larval stages, but as adults, they are 1881:. Smaller remoras also fasten onto fish such as tuna and 584:. Gliding is heavier-than-air flight without the use of 2975:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 63–77. 2173:

Swimming in major groups of formerly terrestrial animals

1126:

A relatively few animals use five limbs for locomotion.

198:

Animals move through, or on, five types of environment:

5227:. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 4823:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

4599:. National Geographic. 16 November 2004. Archived from 3562:. National Geographic. 20 February 2013. Archived from 3695:: 185–190. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011 2605:"Review of Fish Swimming Modes for Aquatic Locomotion" 537:, which when moved through the air generate an upward 464:

of water. Animals that move in such a way include the

333:

created by boats or surf on naturally breaking waves.

326:, now very distinct from their terrestrial ancestors. 178:

The term "locomotion" is formed in English from Latin

4375:

Hennebert, E.; Santos, R. & Flammang, P. (2012).

2556:"Mechanical performance of aquatic rowing and flying" 4552:. Sea Stars of the Pacific Northwest. Archived from 4522:. Sea Stars of the Pacific Northwest. Archived from 3267:"Pterosaur distribution in time and space: an atlas" 3061:"Biophysics: water-repellent legs of water striders" 2771:"The Green Sea Urchin in Maine, Fishery and Biology" 2603:

Sfakiotakis, M.; Lane, D.M.; Davies, J.B.C. (1999).

671:

Examples of soaring flight by birds are the use of:

6894: 6854: 6764: 6701: 6656: 6610: 6600: 6509: 6448: 6388: 6291: 6209: 5735:

The Endeavour Journal of Sir Joseph Banks 1768–1771

4417:Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). 1698:approximately 20 mm in size and native to the 5638: 4418: 1760:Members of the largest subfamily of cuckoo wasps, 897:moving by looping using its front and back suckers 103:Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to 5645:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 5408:. Human Frontier Science Program. Archived from 5037:"Females floated first in bubble-rafting snails" 4138:Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 3712:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 3119:. National Geographic News. 2010. Archived from 2878:New South Wales Department of Primary Industries 348:in jumping motion; these bivalves can also swim. 6117:. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 5167:"Fog, wind and heat - life in the Namib desert" 4182: 4180: 3822: 3820: 3761:"Heteromyidae: Kangaroo Rats & Pocket Mice" 3467:Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology 2973:Walking sideways: the remarkable world of crabs 1609:, has shown that honey bees may trade the high 695:Dynamic effects near the surface of the sea by 5078:"Complex fluids in animal survival strategies" 3244:"Insects evolved flight as plants grew taller" 1730:may also provide lift in windless conditions. 1580:generally measure energy use by the amount of 6831: 6578: 6179: 6063:Berg Angela, M.; Biewener, Andrew A. (2010). 5225:Simon (Araneae: Mygalomorphae: Euctenizidae)" 5012:. National Geographic Society. Archived from 4870:(7 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 109. 4684:. Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung 3396: 3394: 3392: 3390: 2938:Ng, P.K.L.; Guinot, D; Davie, P.J.F. (2008). 2488:Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 1939:can opportunistically hitch a ride on a fly ( 800:is also required for movement on land. Human 542:physiological adaptations. Active flight has 8: 3786: 3784: 3560:"Scientists Unravel Mystery of Flying Squid" 2504:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1964:Some fish use multiple modes of locomotion. 5569:"Sharksucker fish's strange disc explained" 4798:. Belknap Press, Cambridge. pp. 73–88. 3647:. Minneapolis, Minn.: Compass Point Books. 3589:. City: New Holland Published. p. 20. 3142: 3140: 3138: 2038:, entertainment and attempting to dislodge 1192:. Some echinoderms locomote using the many 6898: 6838: 6824: 6816: 6607: 6585: 6571: 6563: 6186: 6172: 6164: 5768:"Dynamics of Dolphin Porpoising Revisited" 3453: 3451: 3449: 3147:Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2005). 2790: 2788: 6542:Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water 6084: 6039: 6021: 5972: 5783: 5761: 5759: 5354: 5344: 5299: 5111: 5093: 5052: 4985: 4936: 4842: 4770: 4680:Bröhl, I.; Jördens, J. (April 28, 2014). 4310: 3984:Hirudinoidea: Leeches and Their Relatives 3543: 3084: 2631: 2579: 1671:) uses a buoyant foam raft stabilized by 1079:apes. Bipedalism is rarely found outside 648:. Five principal types of lift are used: 4728:"A desert spider with astonishing moves" 4130:"On the morphology of a reptilian bird, 3986:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 591–597. 3736:U. S. Bureau of Land Management web site 3425:"Flying Fish | National Geographic" 3006:"Mantis Shrimp (Crustacea: Stomatopoda)" 2670:Young, R.E.; Katharina M. Mangold, K.M. 2417:. Oxford University Press. p. 307. 2096: 2000:and tail fin movement. Examples include 1844:, may attach themselves to scuba divers. 1151:joints of their appendages. Spiders and 218:(in the air). Many animals—for example 127:that travel vast distances (such as the 5548:Integrated Taxonomic Information System 4425:. Saunders College Publishing. p. 4164:"Butterflies in the Nymphalidae family" 3351:"Vertebrate flight: Chiropteran flight" 2378: 2266: 2178: 2029:Pacific white-sided dolphins porpoising 1479:, which acts as a fifth grasping hand. 1249: 1137:do not use the front legs for walking. 985:Others living on rock faces such as in 206:(on ground or other surface, including 6795:Animal locomotion on the water surface 4889: 4887: 4498:"Sea Star: Tube Feet & Locomotion" 4009: 3999: 3705: 2497: 2276:Australian Emperor dragonfly (Insecta) 436:Animal locomotion on the water surface 96:and spiders) or riding other animals ( 19:For the Eadweard Muybridge study, see 5833:. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research 5406:"Insect jumping: An ancient question" 3902:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 3765:Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum web site 2905:Arthropod Structure & Development 2832:Arthropod Structure & Development 2554:Walker, J.A.; Westneat, M.W. (2000). 2300:Townsend's big-eared bat (Chiroptera) 1495:to overcome various forces including 1143:have eight legs. Most arachnids lack 322:occasions, such as the fully aquatic 7: 5380:"What is the life cycle of the flea" 5315:Harvey, Alan; Zukoff, Sarah (2011). 3889:James, R. S.; Wilson, R. S. (2008). 3678:"Population structure in the spider 2384: 2382: 1340:) uses a series of rapid, acrobatic 546:evolved at least four times, in the 468:. Water striders have legs that are 400:, are also capable of swimming, the 52:is any of a variety of methods that 5772:Integrative and Comparative Biology 4868:Essentials of Physical Anthropology 4759:The Journal of Experimental Biology 4597:"How "Jesus Lizards" walk on water" 4577:. National Marine Fisheries Service 4500:. A Snail's Odyssey. Archived from 3117:"How "Jesus Lizards" walk on water" 2797:Journal of Comparative Physiology A 2612:IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 1047:Modern birds, though classified as 576:Aerial locomotion in marine animals 525:Gravity is the primary obstacle to 5854:Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia 4150:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1891.tb00045.x 3792:"Animal Guide: Giant Kangaroo Rat" 3505:10.1111/j.1469-185x.1972.tb00975.x 2903:(Decapoda, Brachyura, Majoidea)". 2707:10.1111/j.1365-2907.1991.tb00292.x 2441:European Neogene Mammal Chronology 2145:Quantifying body and limb movement 1943:) and attempt to find a new host. 1864:take the form of a modified oval, 14: 5936:Holladay, April (23 April 2007). 5242:from the original on June 8, 2011 5191:Mark Gardiner, ed. (April 2005). 4342:Journal of Comparative Physiology 3614:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 856–858. 3008:. Bioteaching.com. Archived from 6282: 6133: 4796:Functional Vertebrate Morphology 4293:Shultz, Jeffrey W (1992-01-01). 2293: 2281: 2269: 2241: 2226: 2211: 2196: 2181: 1528:efficient body shapes of flying 1310: 1305:Octopedal locomotion by a spider 1291: 1271: 1252: 1036:can also perform similar feats. 974:movement, travelling rapidly by 6115:Principles of Animal Locomotion 6073:Journal of Experimental Biology 5433:Journal of Experimental Biology 4925:Journal of Experimental Biology 4299:Journal of Experimental Biology 4190:Journal of Experimental Biology 4030:Journal of Experimental Biology 3949:Journal of Experimental Biology 3242:Salleh, A. (November 7, 2014). 3036:Principles of Animal Locomotion 2521:Journal of Experimental Biology 1706:. The spider escapes parasitic 1334:The Moroccan flic-flac spider ( 329:Dolphins sometimes ride on the 5165:Armstrong, S. (14 July 1990). 3612:Van Sickle's Modern Airmanship 3587:Sasol Birds - The Inside Story 3038:. Princeton University Press. 2414:Biology: A Modern Introduction 1710:by flipping onto its side and 1083:—though at least two types of 926:Leech moving on a flat surface 511:and fly up towards the female. 1: 3217:Biochemical Society Symposium 2467:. Online Etymology Dictionary 2073:Changes during the life-cycle 1678:to float at the sea surface. 979: 675:Thermals and convergences by 194:Locomotion in different media 162:are sometimes referred to as 5974:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.01.038 5912:National Wildlife Federation 5809:"How dolphins spin, and why" 5743:University of Sydney Library 5641:Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes 5346:10.1371/journal.pone.0017746 4815:"The Late Permian herbivore 4108:"B. rex! – Tetrapod Zoology" 4106:Naish, Darren (2008-12-03). 3867:. Scienceray. Archived from 3865:"Top 10 best jumper animals" 3769:Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum 3431:. 2010-04-11. Archived from 1984:-like walking (using paired 1537:Newton's third law of motion 964:climbing animals is in trees 692:Wave lift by migrating birds 182:"from a place" (ablative of 16:Self-propulsion by an animal 6711:Comparative foot morphology 5670:University of Utah (2008). 5637:Gould, Stephen Jay (1983). 5201:. p. 3. Archived from 4898:. Oxford University Press. 4703:Prostak, S. (May 6, 2014). 3059:Gao, X.; Jiang, L. (2004). 3004:Srour, M. (July 13, 2011). 2947:Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 2769:Chenoweth, Stanley (1994). 2672:"Cephalopod jet propulsion" 1838:Some remoras, such as this 1584:consumed, or the amount of 1491:Animal locomotion requires 734:Comparative foot morphology 275:The primary means by which 7018: 6398:Flying and gliding animals 6234:Fin and flipper locomotion 5900:Stewart, D. (2006-08-01). 5270:The Journal of Arachnology 4726:Bhanoo, S. (May 4, 2014). 4396:10.11646/zoosymposia.7.1.3 3800:Public Broadcasting System 2358:Role of skin in locomotion 2157:study of animal locomotion 2151:Study of animal locomotion 2148: 2129:. Aquatic methods include 1818: 1414: 1110:Many familiar animals are 835: 731: 725: 572:Flying and gliding animals 569: 521:Flying and gliding animals 514: 483: 433: 392:. Some crabs, notably the 252: 233: 18: 6962: 6949: 6919: 6901: 6790: 6594:Animal locomotion on land 6280: 6111:McNeill Alexander, Robert 5054:10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.011 4657:10.1007/978-3-642-34682-8 4626:. UC Berkeley News Center 3740:Bureau of Land Management 3680:Achaearranea Tepidariorum 2917:10.1016/j.asd.2008.12.002 2844:10.1016/j.asd.2007.06.002 2741:10.1017/S0025315400012042 2392:. Encyclopædia Britannica 1798:Nannosquilla decemspinosa 1588:produced, in an animal's 410:Nannosquilla decemspinosa 5714:(1): 4–7. Archived from 5522:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). 5319:Cicindela dorsalis media 5140:Living Desert Adventures 4894:Biewener, A. A. (2003). 4456:Cell and Tissue Research 3982:Brusca, Richard (2016). 3728:"Merriam's Kangaroo Rat 2036:non-verbal communication 1203:Pycnopodia helianthoides 790:elastic potential energy 788:, and animals can store 5699:"On a fin and a prayer" 5010:"Portuguese Man-of-War" 4772:10.1242/jeb.201.12.1871 4753:Quillin KJ (May 1998). 4256:10.1002/jmor.1052100103 4077:10.1126/science.1109616 3961:10.1242/jeb.203.18.2757 3641:Heinrichs, Ann (2004). 3545:10.1093/mollus/70.3.297 3473:: 59–77. Archived from 2953:: 1–286. Archived from 2874:Fishing and Aquaculture 2411:Beckett, B. S. (1986). 2125:, social predation and 1877:, whales, turtles, and 1095:locomotion in animals. 902:Peristalsis and looping 796:to help overcome this. 313:Other animals, such as 72:, hopping, soaring and 6674:Rectilinear locomotion 6537:Terrestrial locomotion 6481:Evolution of cetaceans 6476:Origin of avian flight 6461:Evolution of tetrapods 5902:"A Bird Like No Other" 5142:. 2008. Archived from 4978:10.1098/rspb.2013.1597 4835:10.1098/rspb.2009.0911 4518:Dermasterias imbricata 4128:Parker, W. K. (1891). 3943:Quillan, K.J. (2000). 3802:. 2014. Archived from 3796:Nature on PBS web site 3689:Journal of Arachnology 3682:(Aranae, Theridiidae)" 3676:Valerio, C.E. (1977). 3458:Kutschera, U. (2005). 3194:10.1098/rspb.1992.0026 2572:10.1098/rspb.2000.1224 2261:Flight in major groups 2110: 2030: 1846: 1692:Carparachne aureoflava 1644: 1426: 1348:Carparachne aureoflava 1324:Multi-legged millipede 1286:Hexapedal stick-insect 1211:Dermasterias imbricata 1107: 1061:kangaroo rats and mice 927: 898: 851: 769: 755: 749:Pacific leaping blenny 728:Terrestrial locomotion 616: 615:Flying fish taking off 512: 431: 349: 250: 41: 38:rectilinear locomotion 6669:Undulatory locomotion 6552:Undulatory locomotion 6501:Homologous structures 6142:at Wikimedia Commons 5785:10.1093/icb/42.5.1071 5732:Joseph Banks (1997). 5532:. April 2013 version. 5386:on September 19, 2005 5261:Weyman, G.S. (1995). 5136:"The Desert is alive" 4312:10.1242/jeb.162.1.313 4243:Journal of Morphology 3032:McNeill Alexander, R. 2720:Smith, J. E. (1937). 2108: 2028: 1947:Changes between media 1836: 1728:static electric field 1649:Portuguese man o' war 1640: 1424: 1355:, which uses passive 1337:Cebrennus rechenbergi 1135:nymphalid butterflies 1101: 925: 893: 859:and other macropods, 845: 767: 747: 614: 596:), amphibians (e.g., 501:brimstone butterflies 498: 424: 344: 253:Further information: 248: 210:, or tree-dwelling), 168:locomotory structures 31: 6496:Analogous structures 6491:Convergent evolution 5881:. Digital West Media 5412:on December 16, 2014 5016:on November 10, 2007 4734:. The New York Times 4622:Sanders, R. (2012). 4603:on November 19, 2004 4575:"Sunflower sea star" 4452:Stylasterias forreri 3955:(Pt 18): 2757–2770. 3610:Welch, John (1999). 3566:on December 15, 2014 3435:on February 28, 2021 3149:Biology, 7th Edition 3012:on December 29, 2019 2533:10.1242/jeb.192.1.45 1473:suspensory behaviors 1425:A brachiating gibbon 1385:pink fairy armadillo 1330:Powered cartwheeling 1181:Hadrurus arizonensis 848:Sciurus carolinensis 629:Pacific flying squid 389:Mictyris platycheles 359:primarily use their 190:"motion, a moving". 6954:End-plate potential 6939:Uterine contraction 6664:Concertina movement 6618:Arboreal locomotion 6547:Rotating locomotion 6486:Comparative anatomy 6023:10.7554/eLife.46409 5877:Desert USA (1996). 5608:1975Natur.256...38P 5524:"Family Echeneidae" 5490:1979Natur.282...71C 5337:2011PLoSO...617746H 5219:Bond, J.E. (1999). 5104:2021SMat...17.3022R 4829:(1673): 3611–3618. 4645:King, R.S. (2013). 4132:Opisthocomus hoazin 3759:Merlin, P. (2014). 3585:Loon, Rael (2005). 3376:The Free Dictionary 3321:10.1038/nature12168 3313:2013Natur.498..359G 3186:1992RSPSB.247..183H 3123:on January 27, 2006 3077:2004Natur.432...36G 2971:Weis, J.S. (2012). 2624:1999IJOE...24..237S 2566:(1455): 1875–1881. 2390:"Animal locomotion" 2351:Movement of Animals 2288:Magpie goose (Aves) 1901:In some species of 1613:content of viscous 1417:arboreal locomotion 1411:Arboreal locomotion 1081:terrestrial animals 1040:Walking and running 1007:rocky mountain goat 970:is specialized for 966:; for example, the 594:banded flying snake 592:), reptiles (e.g., 214:(underground), and 6924:Muscle contraction 6466:Evolution of birds 6219:Aquatic locomotion 6152:2012-03-10 at the 6147:Beetle Orientation 6086:10.1242/jeb.038109 5807:Binns, C. (2006). 5766:Weihs, D. (2002). 5676:. pp. 83–87. 5575:on 1 February 2013 5445:10.1242/jeb.052399 5193:"Feature creature" 5113:10.1039/D1SM00142F 4809:Fröbisch J. & 4732:The New York Times 4544:McDaniel, Daniel. 4468:10.1007/BF00210108 4354:10.1007/bf00614529 4110:. Scienceblogs.com 4042:10.1242/jeb.97.1.1 3730:Dipodomys merriami 2901:Libinia emarginata 2809:10.1007/BF00657350 2325:Bird feet and legs 2111: 2031: 1978:lateral undulation 1847: 1841:Echeneis naucrates 1745:Cicindela dorsalis 1645: 1621:Passive locomotion 1427: 1190:metachronal rhythm 1108: 928: 899: 852: 770: 756: 752:Alticus arnoldorum 617: 600:), mammals (e.g., 513: 432: 383:Libinia emarginata 350: 297:labriform swimming 293:Hydrolagus colliei 251: 236:Aquatic locomotion 202:(in or on water), 42: 6992:Animal locomotion 6979: 6978: 6975: 6974: 6813: 6812: 6697: 6696: 6560: 6559: 6517:Animal locomotion 6456:Evolution of fish 6336:facultative biped 6140:Animal locomotion 6138:Media related to 6079:(10): 1651–1658. 5967:(1): 217–231.e4. 5938:"Ostriches swim!" 5907:National Wildlife 5863:978-0-7876-5784-0 5697:Fish, F. (1991). 5683:978-0-549-46429-7 5656:978-0-393-01716-8 5088:(11): 3022–3036. 5047:(19): R802–R803. 4938:10.1242/jeb.01213 4931:(22): 3839–3854. 4896:Animal Locomotion 4666:978-3-642-34681-1 4436:978-0-03-030504-7 4203:10.1242/jeb.00182 3993:978-1-60535-375-3 3654:978-0-7565-0590-5 3621:978-0-07-069633-4 3596:978-1-77007-151-3 3532:J. Molluscan Stud 3180:(1320): 183–187. 3158:978-0-8053-7171-0 3045:978-0-691-08678-1 2982:978-0-8014-5050-1 2642:10.1109/48.757275 2340:Kinesis (biology) 2320:Animal navigation 2106: 1912:sexual dimorphism 1889:, swordfish, and 1866:sucker-like organ 1669:Janthina janthina 1653:Physalia physalis 1642:Physalia physalis 1319: 1300: 1281: 1261: 1199:sunflower seastar 923: 765: 745: 633:neon flying squid 430:moves by sailing. 164:locomotory organs 125:migratory animals 121:natural selection 50:animal locomotion 22:Animal Locomotion 7009: 6899: 6840: 6833: 6826: 6817: 6608: 6587: 6580: 6573: 6564: 6527:Robot locomotion 6301:Limb development 6286: 6259:Lobe-finned fish 6188: 6181: 6174: 6165: 6137: 6099: 6098: 6088: 6060: 6054: 6053: 6043: 6025: 6001: 5995: 5994: 5976: 5952: 5946: 5945: 5933: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5923: 5914:. Archived from 5897: 5891: 5890: 5888: 5886: 5874: 5868: 5867: 5849: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5838: 5827: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5816: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5787: 5778:(5): 1071–1078. 5763: 5754: 5753: 5751: 5749: 5740: 5729: 5723: 5722: 5720: 5703: 5694: 5688: 5687: 5667: 5661: 5660: 5644: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5616:10.1038/256038a0 5591: 5585: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5565: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5554: 5540: 5534: 5533: 5516: 5510: 5509: 5498:10.1038/282071a0 5471: 5465: 5464: 5428: 5422: 5421: 5419: 5417: 5402: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5391: 5382:. Archived from 5375: 5369: 5368: 5358: 5348: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5303: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5282: 5281: 5267: 5258: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5247: 5241: 5216: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5178: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5151: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5115: 5097: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5056: 5032: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5021: 5006: 5000: 4999: 4989: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4940: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4891: 4882: 4881: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4846: 4806: 4800: 4799: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4774: 4750: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4739: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4712: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4689: 4677: 4671: 4670: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4619: 4613: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4593: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4571: 4565: 4564: 4562: 4561: 4548:Luidia foliolata 4541: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4531: 4516:"Leather star - 4512: 4506: 4505: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4424: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4381: 4372: 4366: 4365: 4337: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4327: 4314: 4290: 4284: 4283: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4184: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4170: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4125: 4119: 4118: 4116: 4115: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4024: 4018: 4017: 4011: 4007: 4005: 3997: 3979: 3973: 3972: 3940: 3934: 3933: 3899: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3876: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3824: 3815: 3814: 3812: 3811: 3788: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3775: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3746: 3724: 3718: 3717: 3711: 3703: 3701: 3700: 3686: 3673: 3667: 3666: 3638: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3479: 3464: 3455: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3440: 3421: 3412: 3398: 3385: 3384: 3383: 3382: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3307:(7454): 359–62. 3296: 3290: 3289: 3271: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3169: 3163: 3162: 3144: 3133: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3088: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3028: 3022: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2959: 2944: 2935: 2929: 2928: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2792: 2783: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2773:. State of Maine 2766: 2760: 2759: 2757: 2751:. Archived from 2726: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2690: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2667: 2661: 2660: 2658: 2652:. Archived from 2635: 2609: 2600: 2594: 2593: 2583: 2551: 2545: 2544: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2503: 2495: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2461: 2455: 2454: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2408: 2402: 2401: 2399: 2397: 2386: 2315:Animal migration 2297: 2285: 2273: 2245: 2230: 2215: 2200: 2185: 2123:ambush predation 2117:Food procurement 2107: 1815:Animal transport 1764:, are generally 1665:violet sea-snail 1606:A. m. scutellata 1393:ground squirrels 1321: 1320: 1302: 1301: 1283: 1282: 1263: 1262: 1245: 1228:Luidia foliolata 1020: 1016: 924: 766: 746: 249:Dolphins surfing 133:escape predators 117:escape predators 7017: 7016: 7012: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7007: 7006: 6982: 6981: 6980: 6971: 6958: 6945: 6915: 6890: 6850: 6844: 6814: 6809: 6800:Fish locomotion 6786: 6760: 6693: 6652: 6638:Knuckle-walking 6596: 6591: 6561: 6556: 6505: 6471:Origin of birds 6444: 6384: 6306:Limb morphology 6287: 6278: 6264:Ray-finned fish 6229:Fish locomotion 6205: 6192: 6154:Wayback Machine 6131: 6107: 6105:Further reading 6102: 6062: 6061: 6057: 6003: 6002: 5998: 5954: 5953: 5949: 5935: 5934: 5930: 5921: 5919: 5899: 5898: 5894: 5884: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5871: 5864: 5851: 5850: 5846: 5836: 5834: 5829: 5828: 5824: 5814: 5812: 5806: 5805: 5801: 5765: 5764: 5757: 5747: 5745: 5738: 5731: 5730: 5726: 5718: 5701: 5696: 5695: 5691: 5684: 5669: 5668: 5664: 5657: 5636: 5635: 5631: 5602:(5512): 38–40. 5593: 5592: 5588: 5578: 5576: 5567: 5566: 5562: 5552: 5550: 5542: 5541: 5537: 5518: 5517: 5513: 5484:(5734): 71–73. 5473: 5472: 5468: 5430: 5429: 5425: 5415: 5413: 5404: 5403: 5399: 5389: 5387: 5377: 5376: 5372: 5314: 5313: 5309: 5293: 5292: 5288: 5279: 5277: 5265: 5260: 5259: 5255: 5245: 5243: 5239: 5218: 5217: 5213: 5205: 5190: 5189: 5185: 5176: 5174: 5164: 5163: 5159: 5149: 5147: 5146:on May 16, 2017 5134: 5133: 5129: 5075: 5074: 5070: 5041:Current Biology 5034: 5033: 5029: 5019: 5017: 5008: 5007: 5003: 4966:Proc. R. Soc. B 4959: 4958: 4954: 4918: 4917: 4913: 4906: 4893: 4892: 4885: 4878: 4865: 4864: 4860: 4808: 4807: 4803: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4765:(12): 1871–83. 4752: 4751: 4747: 4737: 4735: 4725: 4724: 4720: 4710: 4708: 4702: 4701: 4697: 4687: 4685: 4679: 4678: 4674: 4667: 4644: 4643: 4639: 4629: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4616: 4606: 4604: 4595: 4594: 4590: 4580: 4578: 4573: 4572: 4568: 4559: 4557: 4543: 4542: 4538: 4529: 4527: 4514: 4513: 4509: 4496: 4495: 4491: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4437: 4416: 4415: 4411: 4379: 4374: 4373: 4369: 4339: 4338: 4334: 4325: 4323: 4292: 4291: 4287: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4186: 4185: 4178: 4168: 4166: 4162: 4161: 4157: 4127: 4126: 4122: 4113: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4062: 4061: 4057: 4026: 4025: 4021: 4008: 3998: 3994: 3981: 3980: 3976: 3942: 3941: 3937: 3897: 3888: 3887: 3883: 3874: 3872: 3863: 3862: 3858: 3843:10.2307/1936601 3826: 3825: 3818: 3809: 3807: 3790: 3789: 3782: 3773: 3771: 3758: 3757: 3753: 3744: 3742: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3704: 3698: 3696: 3684: 3675: 3674: 3670: 3655: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3629: 3622: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3584: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3525: 3524: 3520: 3490: 3489: 3485: 3477: 3462: 3457: 3456: 3447: 3438: 3436: 3423: 3422: 3415: 3409:Greenwood Press 3399: 3388: 3380: 3378: 3370: 3369: 3365: 3355: 3353: 3349: 3348: 3344: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3269: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3249: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3223:(41): 111–131. 3214: 3213: 3209: 3171: 3170: 3166: 3159: 3146: 3145: 3136: 3126: 3124: 3115: 3114: 3110: 3086:10.1038/432036a 3058: 3057: 3053: 3046: 3030: 3029: 3025: 3015: 3013: 3003: 3002: 2998: 2983: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2957: 2942: 2937: 2936: 2932: 2898: 2897: 2893: 2883: 2881: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2829: 2828: 2824: 2794: 2793: 2786: 2776: 2774: 2768: 2767: 2763: 2755: 2724: 2719: 2718: 2714: 2692: 2691: 2687: 2677: 2675: 2669: 2668: 2664: 2656: 2633:10.1.1.459.8614 2607: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2553: 2552: 2548: 2518: 2517: 2513: 2496: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2468: 2463: 2462: 2458: 2452: 2437: 2436: 2432: 2425: 2410: 2409: 2405: 2395: 2393: 2388: 2387: 2380: 2376: 2311: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2301: 2298: 2289: 2286: 2277: 2274: 2263: 2262: 2257: 2256: 2255: 2252: 2246: 2237: 2231: 2222: 2216: 2207: 2201: 2192: 2186: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2153: 2147: 2119: 2097: 2095: 2075: 2051: 2023: 2010:walking catfish 1974:Amphibious fish 1962: 1949: 1921: 1899: 1858:ray-finned fish 1845: 1831: 1823: 1817: 1808:N. decemspinosa 1803:N. decemspinosa 1795:, one species, 1781: 1766:kleptoparasites 1736: 1704:Southern Africa 1696:huntsman spider 1684: 1661: 1635: 1623: 1526:aerodynamically 1489: 1477:prehensile tail 1475:by using their 1419: 1413: 1397:naked mole-rats 1365: 1332: 1325: 1322: 1311: 1306: 1303: 1292: 1287: 1284: 1272: 1267: 1266:Bipedal ostrich 1264: 1253: 1243: 1173:pseudoscorpions 1147:muscles in the 1102:Animation of a 1042: 1018: 1014: 960: 944: 917: 904: 846:Gray squirrel ( 840: 834: 758: 738: 736: 730: 724: 705: 666:dynamic soaring 641: 606:squirrel glider 578: 570:Main articles: 568: 523: 515:Main articles: 505:angle of attack 493: 488: 482: 474:basilisk lizard 462:surface tension 438: 419: 417:Aquatic Surface 339: 257: 255:Fish locomotion 243: 238: 232: 196: 176: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7015: 7013: 7005: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6984: 6983: 6977: 6976: 6973: 6972: 6970: 6969: 6963: 6960: 6959: 6957: 6956: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6943: 6942: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6920: 6917: 6916: 6914: 6913: 6908: 6902: 6896: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6888: 6887: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6866: 6860: 6858: 6852: 6851: 6846:Physiology of 6845: 6843: 6842: 6835: 6828: 6820: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6807: 6805:Volant animals 6802: 6797: 6791: 6788: 6787: 6785: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6768: 6766: 6762: 6761: 6759: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6707: 6705: 6699: 6698: 6695: 6694: 6692: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6660: 6658: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6614: 6612: 6605: 6598: 6597: 6592: 6590: 6589: 6582: 6575: 6567: 6558: 6557: 6555: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6513: 6511: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6452: 6450: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6442: 6437: 6435:Pterosaur wing 6432: 6427: 6426: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6405: 6400: 6394: 6392: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6371: 6370: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6303: 6297: 6295: 6289: 6288: 6281: 6279: 6277: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6224:Cephalopod fin 6221: 6215: 6213: 6207: 6206: 6193: 6191: 6190: 6183: 6176: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6156: 6130: 6129:External links 6127: 6126: 6125: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6100: 6055: 5996: 5947: 5928: 5892: 5869: 5862: 5844: 5822: 5799: 5755: 5724: 5721:on 2013-11-02. 5689: 5682: 5662: 5655: 5629: 5586: 5560: 5535: 5520:Froese, Rainer 5511: 5466: 5439:(5): 836–847. 5423: 5397: 5370: 5307: 5286: 5253: 5211: 5208:on 2012-02-20. 5183: 5157: 5127: 5068: 5027: 5001: 4952: 4911: 4905:978-0198500223 4904: 4883: 4876: 4858: 4801: 4786: 4745: 4718: 4707:. Sci-News.com 4695: 4672: 4665: 4637: 4614: 4588: 4566: 4536: 4507: 4504:on 2013-10-21. 4489: 4462:(3): 475–485. 4442: 4435: 4409: 4367: 4348:(3): 183–196. 4332: 4305:(1): 313–329. 4285: 4232: 4197:(4): 771–784. 4176: 4155: 4120: 4098: 4071:(5717): 1927. 4055: 4019: 3992: 3974: 3935: 3914:10.1086/525290 3908:(2): 176–185. 3893:Litoria nasuta 3881: 3856: 3837:(4): 657–665. 3816: 3780: 3751: 3719: 3668: 3653: 3633: 3627: 3620: 3602: 3595: 3577: 3551: 3538:(3): 297–299. 3518: 3499:(2): 241–307. 3483: 3480:on 2007-08-20. 3445: 3413: 3386: 3363: 3342: 3291: 3257: 3234: 3207: 3164: 3157: 3134: 3108: 3051: 3044: 3023: 2996: 2981: 2963: 2960:on 2011-06-06. 2930: 2911:(3): 179–194. 2891: 2866:"Spanner crab 2857: 2838:(2): 179–194. 2822: 2803:(4): 301–312. 2784: 2761: 2758:on 2013-11-15. 2735:(1): 345–357. 2712: 2701:(4): 181–195. 2685: 2674:. Tree of Life 2662: 2659:on 2013-12-24. 2618:(2): 237–252. 2595: 2546: 2511: 2478: 2456: 2450: 2430: 2423: 2403: 2377: 2375: 2372: 2371: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2310: 2307: 2303: 2302: 2299: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2280: 2278: 2275: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2259: 2258: 2254: 2253: 2247: 2240: 2238: 2234:Gentoo penguin 2232: 2225: 2223: 2217: 2210: 2208: 2202: 2195: 2193: 2187: 2180: 2177: 2176: 2172: 2171: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2149:Main article: 2146: 2143: 2118: 2115: 2094: 2091: 2074: 2071: 2050: 2047: 2022: 2021:Marine mammals 2019: 1970:flying gurnard 1961: 1958: 1948: 1945: 1920: 1917: 1898: 1895: 1852:are a family ( 1837: 1830: 1827: 1819:Main article: 1816: 1813: 1780: 1777: 1735: 1732: 1708:pompilid wasps 1683: 1680: 1660: 1657: 1634: 1631: 1622: 1619: 1586:carbon dioxide 1488: 1485: 1415:Main article: 1412: 1409: 1381:marsupial mole 1364: 1361: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1326: 1323: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1251: 1041: 1038: 959: 956: 943: 940: 903: 900: 882:Litoria nasuta 836:Main article: 833: 830: 726:Main article: 723: 720: 704: 701: 700: 699: 693: 690: 685:Ridge lift by 683: 640: 637: 627:, such as the 567: 564: 492: 489: 481: 478: 434:Main article: 418: 415: 407:A stomatopod, 338: 335: 319:jet propulsion 301:Marine mammals 268:. A fusiform, 242: 239: 234:Main article: 231: 228: 195: 192: 175: 172: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7014: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6987: 6968: 6965: 6964: 6961: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6948: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6926: 6925: 6922: 6921: 6918: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6906:Hand strength 6904: 6903: 6900: 6897: 6893: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6871: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6841: 6836: 6834: 6829: 6827: 6822: 6821: 6818: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6792: 6789: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6767: 6763: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6746: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6716:Arthropod leg 6714: 6712: 6709: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6700: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6661: 6659: 6655: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6623: 6619: 6616: 6615: 6613: 6609: 6606: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6588: 6583: 6581: 6576: 6574: 6569: 6568: 6565: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6508: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6447: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6410: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6395: 6393: 6391: 6387: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6369: 6366: 6365: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6308: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6294: 6290: 6285: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6269:Pectoral fins 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6216: 6214: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6189: 6184: 6182: 6177: 6175: 6170: 6169: 6166: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6151: 6148: 6145: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6136: 6128: 6124: 6123:0-691-08678-8 6120: 6116: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6104: 6096: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6068: 6067:Columba livia 6059: 6056: 6051: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6000: 5997: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5951: 5948: 5943: 5939: 5932: 5929: 5918:on 2012-02-09 5917: 5913: 5909: 5908: 5903: 5896: 5893: 5880: 5873: 5870: 5865: 5859: 5855: 5848: 5845: 5832: 5826: 5823: 5811:. LiveScience 5810: 5803: 5800: 5795: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5762: 5760: 5756: 5744: 5737: 5736: 5728: 5725: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5708: 5700: 5693: 5690: 5685: 5679: 5675: 5674: 5666: 5663: 5658: 5652: 5648: 5643: 5642: 5633: 5630: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5590: 5587: 5574: 5570: 5564: 5561: 5549: 5545: 5539: 5536: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5478: 5470: 5467: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5427: 5424: 5411: 5407: 5401: 5398: 5385: 5381: 5378:Crosby, J.T. 5374: 5371: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5331:(3): e17746. 5330: 5326: 5322: 5320: 5311: 5308: 5302: 5297: 5290: 5287: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5257: 5254: 5246:September 26, 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5224: 5215: 5212: 5204: 5200: 5199: 5198:Gobabeb Times 5194: 5187: 5184: 5172: 5171:New Scientist 5168: 5161: 5158: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5131: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5072: 5069: 5064: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5031: 5028: 5015: 5011: 5005: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4972:(1767): 1–8. 4971: 4967: 4963: 4956: 4953: 4948: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4915: 4912: 4907: 4901: 4897: 4890: 4888: 4884: 4879: 4877:9780495509394 4873: 4869: 4862: 4859: 4854: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4818: 4812: 4805: 4802: 4797: 4790: 4787: 4782: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4749: 4746: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4719: 4706: 4699: 4696: 4683: 4676: 4673: 4668: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4649: 4641: 4638: 4625: 4618: 4615: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4589: 4576: 4570: 4567: 4556:on 2012-09-09 4555: 4551: 4549: 4546:"Sand star - 4540: 4537: 4526:on 2012-09-09 4525: 4521: 4519: 4511: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4493: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4446: 4443: 4438: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4422: 4413: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4378: 4371: 4368: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4336: 4333: 4322: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4289: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4244: 4236: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4191: 4183: 4181: 4177: 4165: 4159: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4133: 4124: 4121: 4109: 4102: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4059: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4020: 4015: 4003: 3995: 3989: 3985: 3978: 3975: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3939: 3936: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3896: 3894: 3885: 3882: 3871:on 2009-09-07 3870: 3866: 3860: 3857: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3831: 3823: 3821: 3817: 3806:on 2014-03-26 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3755: 3752: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3731: 3723: 3720: 3715: 3709: 3694: 3690: 3683: 3681: 3672: 3669: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3650: 3646: 3645: 3637: 3634: 3631: 3628: 3623: 3617: 3613: 3606: 3603: 3598: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3578: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3552: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3519: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3484: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3461: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3446: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3420: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3387: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3364: 3352: 3346: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3295: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3261: 3258: 3245: 3238: 3235: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3208: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3165: 3160: 3154: 3150: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3135: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3087: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3052: 3047: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3027: 3024: 3011: 3007: 3000: 2997: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2978: 2974: 2967: 2964: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2934: 2931: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2895: 2892: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2869: 2868:Ranina ranina 2861: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2823: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2772: 2765: 2762: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2723: 2716: 2713: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2695:Mammal Review 2689: 2686: 2673: 2666: 2663: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2606: 2599: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2550: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2512: 2507: 2501: 2493: 2489: 2482: 2479: 2466: 2460: 2457: 2453: 2451:9781489925138 2447: 2443: 2442: 2434: 2431: 2426: 2424:9780199142606 2420: 2416: 2415: 2407: 2404: 2391: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2373: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2352: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2321: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2312: 2308: 2296: 2291: 2284: 2279: 2272: 2267: 2250: 2249:Marine iguana 2244: 2239: 2235: 2229: 2224: 2220: 2214: 2209: 2205: 2199: 2194: 2190: 2184: 2179: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2158: 2152: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2139:parasitoidism 2136: 2132: 2131:filterfeeding 2128: 2124: 2116: 2114: 2092: 2090: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2072: 2070: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2048: 2046: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2027: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1959: 1957: 1953: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1918: 1916: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1887:ocean sunfish 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1843: 1842: 1835: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1769: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1756: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1746: 1741: 1733: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1658: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1643: 1639: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1607: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1578:Physiologists 1575: 1574:per unit mass 1571: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1433: 1423: 1418: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1405:mole crickets 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1362: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1349: 1343: 1339: 1338: 1329: 1308: 1289: 1269: 1250: 1248: 1240: 1239: 1232: 1230: 1229: 1224: 1223: 1218: 1217: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1183: 1182: 1178:The scorpion 1176: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1153:whipscorpions 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1136: 1131: 1129: 1124: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1105: 1100: 1096: 1094: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1039: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1022: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 995:Barbary sheep 992: 988: 983: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 957: 955: 953: 949: 941: 939: 936: 935:geometer moth 932: 915: 913: 909: 901: 896: 892: 888: 886: 884: 883: 878: 874: 873:hopping mouse 870: 866: 862: 858: 850:) in mid-leap 849: 844: 839: 831: 829: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 753: 750: 735: 729: 721: 719: 717: 716:gossamer silk 713: 709: 702: 698: 694: 691: 688: 684: 682: 678: 674: 673: 672: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 638: 636: 634: 630: 626: 622: 613: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 577: 573: 565: 563: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 544:independently 540: 536: 532: 528: 522: 518: 510: 506: 502: 497: 491:Active flight 490: 487: 479: 477: 475: 471: 467: 466:water strider 463: 458: 456: 452: 448: 444: 443: 437: 429: 428: 423: 416: 414: 412: 411: 405: 403: 399: 395: 391: 390: 385: 384: 379: 375: 374: 368: 366: 362: 358: 354: 347: 343: 336: 334: 332: 327: 325: 320: 316: 311: 309: 308: 302: 298: 294: 290: 289:pectoral fins 286: 282: 278: 273: 271: 267: 266:catching prey 263: 256: 247: 240: 237: 229: 227: 225: 222:animals, and 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 193: 191: 189: 185: 181: 173: 171: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 136: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 111:, a suitable 110: 106: 101: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 39: 36:performing a 35: 30: 24: 23: 6883: 6874:Eye movement 6628:Hand-walking 6516: 6132: 6114: 6076: 6072: 6066: 6058: 6013: 6009: 5999: 5964: 5960: 5950: 5941: 5931: 5920:. Retrieved 5916:the original 5905: 5895: 5883:. Retrieved 5872: 5853: 5847: 5837:December 20, 5835:. Retrieved 5825: 5815:December 20, 5813:. Retrieved 5802: 5775: 5771: 5746:. Retrieved 5734: 5727: 5716:the original 5711: 5705: 5692: 5672: 5665: 5640: 5632: 5599: 5595: 5589: 5577:. Retrieved 5573:the original 5563: 5551:. Retrieved 5544:"Echeneidae" 5538: 5527: 5514: 5481: 5475: 5469: 5436: 5432: 5426: 5416:December 15, 5414:. Retrieved 5410:the original 5400: 5388:. Retrieved 5384:the original 5373: 5328: 5324: 5318: 5310: 5289: 5278:. Retrieved 5273: 5269: 5256: 5244:. Retrieved 5222: 5214: 5203:the original 5196: 5186: 5175:. Retrieved 5170: 5160: 5150:December 16, 5148:. Retrieved 5144:the original 5139: 5130: 5085: 5081: 5071: 5044: 5040: 5030: 5020:December 16, 5018:. Retrieved 5014:the original 5004: 4969: 4965: 4955: 4928: 4924: 4914: 4895: 4867: 4861: 4826: 4822: 4816: 4804: 4795: 4789: 4762: 4758: 4748: 4736:. Retrieved 4731: 4721: 4709:. Retrieved 4698: 4686:. Retrieved 4675: 4647: 4640: 4630:December 22, 4628:. Retrieved 4617: 4607:December 22, 4605:. Retrieved 4601:the original 4591: 4581:December 27, 4579:. Retrieved 4569: 4558:. Retrieved 4554:the original 4547: 4539: 4528:. Retrieved 4524:the original 4517: 4510: 4502:the original 4492: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4445: 4420: 4412: 4387: 4383: 4370: 4345: 4341: 4335: 4324:. Retrieved 4302: 4298: 4288: 4250:(1): 13–31. 4247: 4241: 4235: 4194: 4188: 4167:. Retrieved 4158: 4144:(2): 43–89. 4141: 4137: 4131: 4123: 4112:. Retrieved 4101: 4068: 4064: 4058: 4033: 4029: 4022: 3983: 3977: 3952: 3948: 3938: 3905: 3901: 3892: 3884: 3873:. Retrieved 3869:the original 3859: 3834: 3828: 3808:. Retrieved 3804:the original 3795: 3772:. Retrieved 3764: 3754: 3743:. Retrieved 3735: 3729: 3722: 3708:cite journal 3697:. Retrieved 3692: 3688: 3679: 3671: 3643: 3636: 3630: 3611: 3605: 3586: 3580: 3568:. Retrieved 3564:the original 3554: 3535: 3531: 3521: 3496: 3492: 3486: 3475:the original 3470: 3466: 3437:. Retrieved 3433:the original 3428: 3404: 3379:, retrieved 3375: 3366: 3354:. Retrieved 3345: 3304: 3300: 3294: 3277: 3273: 3260: 3248:. Retrieved 3237: 3220: 3216: 3210: 3177: 3173: 3167: 3148: 3127:February 20, 3125:. Retrieved 3121:the original 3111: 3071:(7013): 36. 3068: 3064: 3054: 3035: 3026: 3014:. Retrieved 3010:the original 2999: 2972: 2966: 2955:the original 2950: 2946: 2933: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2894: 2882:. Retrieved 2873: 2867: 2860: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2800: 2796: 2775:. Retrieved 2764: 2753:the original 2732: 2728: 2715: 2698: 2694: 2688: 2676:. Retrieved 2665: 2654:the original 2615: 2611: 2598: 2563: 2559: 2549: 2527:(1): 45–59. 2524: 2520: 2514: 2500:cite journal 2491: 2487: 2481: 2471:December 16, 2469:. Retrieved 2465:"Locomotion" 2459: 2440: 2433: 2413: 2406: 2396:December 16, 2394:. Retrieved 2349: 2345:Microswimmer 2219:Sperm whales 2154: 2120: 2112: 2076: 2066: 2055:Diving birds 2052: 2044: 2032: 1966:Walking fish 1963: 1954: 1950: 1922: 1900: 1871:swim bladder 1853: 1848: 1839: 1824: 1807: 1802: 1796: 1782: 1770: 1759: 1752: 1750:thynnid wasp 1743: 1737: 1720: 1712:cartwheeling 1700:Namib Desert 1691: 1688:wheel spider 1685: 1668: 1662: 1652: 1646: 1641: 1624: 1605: 1602: 1573: 1559: 1535: 1490: 1481: 1459: 1454: 1444:of the late 1435: 1428: 1366: 1363:Subterranean 1357:cartwheeling 1353:Namib Desert 1346: 1335: 1333: 1236: 1233: 1226: 1220: 1214: 1210: 1207:leather star 1202: 1187: 1179: 1177: 1139: 1132: 1125: 1109: 1089: 1069:hopping mice 1046: 1043: 1023: 1011:snow leopard 984: 961: 951: 947: 945: 929: 905: 887: 880: 877:kangaroo rat 853: 847: 771: 751: 706: 670: 662:convergences 642: 618: 602:sugar glider 590:gliding ants 579: 524: 486:Aeroplankton 459: 450: 440: 439: 425: 408: 406: 387: 381: 372: 369: 351: 328: 312: 305: 292: 274: 258: 224:diving birds 220:semi-aquatic 197: 187: 183: 179: 177: 167: 163: 137: 113:microhabitat 102: 49: 43: 34:beetle larva 21: 6911:Muscle tone 6772:Canine gait 6745:Facultative 6731:Unguligrade 6726:Plantigrade 6721:Digitigrade 6689:Other modes 6684:Sidewinding 6622:Brachiation 6430:Insect wing 6380:Webbed foot 6321:unguligrade 6316:plantigrade 6311:digitigrade 5885:17 February 5233:10919/29114 5223:Aptostichus 5082:Soft Matter 4811:Reisz, R.R. 4738:October 20, 4711:October 20, 4384:Zoosymposia 4010:|work= 3356:October 14, 3250:October 14, 3016:October 29, 2678:October 16, 2494:(1): 71–78. 2067:tobogganing 2014:Flying fish 2006:mudskippers 1897:Angler fish 1862:dorsal fins 1789:true shrimp 1785:stomatopods 1779:Crustaceans 1762:Chrysidinae 1673:amphiphilic 1590:respiration 1513:terrestrial 1456:Brachiation 1377:golden mole 1369:peristalsis 1216:Astropecten 1112:quadrupedal 976:brachiation 948:tobogganing 912:peristalsis 910:crawl by a 820:, only one 722:Terrestrial 697:albatrosses 689:near cliffs 621:flying fish 598:flying frog 470:hydrophobic 357:Echinoderms 315:cephalopods 204:terrestrial 186:"place") + 129:Arctic tern 6986:Categories 6967:Myogenesis 6884:Locomotion 6782:Human gait 6777:Horse gait 6358:Cephalopod 6274:Pelvic fin 6244:Dorsal fin 6239:Caudal fin 6016:: e46409. 5922:2014-05-30 5579:5 February 5280:2009-07-18 5177:2008-10-11 5095:2005.00773 4560:2012-09-26 4530:2012-09-27 4326:2012-05-19 4114:2014-06-10 3875:2012-06-11 3810:2014-03-26 3774:2014-03-26 3745:2014-03-26 3699:2009-07-18 3439:2022-01-06 3401:Ross Piper 3381:2022-01-06 3372:"volplane" 3280:: 61–107. 3274:Zitteliana 2884:January 4, 2374:References 2251:(Reptilia) 2191:(Rodentia) 2161:kinematics 2135:parasitism 1903:anglerfish 1875:manta rays 1854:Echeneidae 1724:spinnerets 1714:down sand 1633:Hydrozoans 1596:, such as 1554:energetics 1524:, and the 1487:Energetics 1450:tree snail 1383:, and the 1373:earthworms 1238:Basiliscus 1165:harvestmen 1128:Prehensile 1065:springhare 908:Earthworms 732:See also: 712:arthropods 708:Ballooning 703:Ballooning 654:ridge lift 646:rising air 552:pterosaurs 539:lift force 499:A pair of 484:See also: 402:Portunidae 394:Portunidae 6929:Isometric 6756:Quadruped 6449:Evolution 6408:Bird wing 6353:Arthropod 6346:quadruped 6113:. (2003) 6032:2050-084X 5983:0896-6273 5942:USA Today 5879:"Ostrich" 5390:August 6, 5301:1309.4731 4404:1178-9913 4390:: 25–32. 4321:1477-9145 4264:1097-4687 4211:1477-9145 4169:4 October 4036:: 41–56. 4012:ignored ( 4002:cite book 3570:4 October 3493:Biol. Rev 3286:1612-4138 2991:794640315 2777:4 October 2628:CiteSeerX 2221:(Cetacea) 2167:Galleries 2079:Barnacles 2063:ostriches 2040:parasites 1929:tapeworms 1925:parasites 1919:Parasites 1883:swordfish 1783:Although 1682:Arachnids 1598:deer mice 1576:to move. 1570:body mass 1351:from the 1342:flic-flac 1194:tube feet 1169:Scorpions 1163:and some 1161:Solifuges 1157:hemolymph 1141:Arachnids 1077:homininan 1073:pangolins 1057:macropods 1049:tetrapods 987:mountains 804:learn to 792:in their 658:lee waves 398:Matutidae 361:tube feet 331:bow waves 324:cetaceans 279:generate 212:fossorial 174:Etymology 105:find food 78:jellyfish 6997:Ethology 6934:Isotonic 6869:Movement 6864:Exercise 6856:Exertion 6765:Specific 6440:Wingspan 6423:feathers 6418:skeleton 6403:Bat wing 6363:Tetrapod 6249:Fish fin 6150:Archived 6095:20435815 6050:31250807 5991:30795901 5794:21680390 5748:July 16, 5707:Scholars 5553:20 March 5529:FishBase 5461:14966793 5453:21307071 5365:21448275 5325:PLOS ONE 5237:Archived 5122:33729256 5063:21996498 4996:23902913 4947:15472015 4853:19640883 4813:(2009). 4484:21844282 4362:26035077 4280:46935000 4272:29865543 4227:40503319 4219:12517993 4093:21030132 4085:15790846 3969:10952876 3930:12643425 3922:18190283 3663:54027960 3513:85088231 3403:(2007), 3329:23719374 3202:84788761 3103:32845070 3095:15525973 3034:(2002). 2925:19166968 2852:18089130 2817:33455459 2749:55933156 2650:17226211 2590:11052539 2309:See also 2093:Function 2083:nektonic 2008:and the 1994:pectoral 1941:phoresis 1891:sailfish 1821:Phoresis 1793:lobsters 1754:Methocha 1659:Mollusca 1544:(either 1518:buoyancy 1497:friction 1468:siamangs 1460:brachium 1442:synapsid 1432:tetrapod 1401:tilefish 1371:, as in 1145:extensor 1116:shoebill 1106:tetrapod 1104:Devonian 1093:tripedal 1026:adhesion 972:arboreal 958:Climbing 952:sledding 857:kangaroo 826:momentum 782:muscular 778:skeletal 681:vultures 679:such as 650:thermals 455:aerofoil 378:raninids 373:crabwise 307:Gymnotus 285:tail fin 241:Swimming 208:arboreal 115:, or to 98:phoresis 62:swimming 46:ethology 7002:Zoology 6848:muscles 6703:Anatomy 6679:Rolling 6657:Legless 6648:Walking 6643:Running 6633:Jumping 6510:Related 6368:dactyly 6254:Flipper 6041:6598772 5624:4226567 5604:Bibcode 5506:4311328 5486:Bibcode 5356:3063164 5333:Bibcode 5276:: 75–84 5100:Bibcode 4987:3735266 4844:2817304 4817:Suminia 4781:9600869 4476:7196288 4421:Zoology 4065:Science 4050:7086349 3851:1936601 3830:Ecology 3644:Spiders 3429:Animals 3337:4364892 3309:Bibcode 3182:Bibcode 3073:Bibcode 2620:Bibcode 2581:1690750 2541:9317308 2363:Sessile 2330:Feather 2206:(Anura) 2127:grazing 2087:sessile 2059:ratites 1879:dugongs 1850:Remoras 1829:Remoras 1734:Insects 1694:) is a 1611:sucrose 1594:rodents 1509:gravity 1505:inertia 1464:gibbons 1446:Permian 1437:Suminia 1120:hoatzin 1085:octopus 1053:Bipedal 1030:suckers 993:(e.g., 991:caprids 942:Sliding 931:Leeches 838:Jumping 832:Jumping 818:running 816:. When 814:walking 810:bipedal 802:infants 798:Balance 794:tendons 786:inertia 774:jumping 754:hopping 677:raptors 639:Soaring 582:gliding 566:Gliding 548:insects 451:Velella 447:sailing 442:Velella 427:Velella 353:Benthic 346:Scallop 337:Benthic 270:torpedo 230:Aquatic 200:aquatic 94:beetles 90:rolling 86:spiders 74:gliding 66:jumping 58:running 54:animals 6751:Triped 6736:Uniped 6611:Legged 6532:Samara 6341:triped 6326:uniped 6121: 6093: 6048: 6038: 6030: 5989: 5981: 5961:Neuron 5860: 5792: 5680: 5653: 5622: 5596:Nature 5504: 5477:Nature 5459: 5451: 5363: 5353: 5173:(1725) 5120: 5061: 4994: 4984: 4945: 4902: 4874: 4851: 4841: 4779: 4688:23 May 4663: 4482: 4474: 4433: 4402: 4360: 4319: 4278: 4270: 4262: 4225: 4217: 4209: 4091: 4083: 4048: 3990: 3967: 3928: 3920: 3849: 3661: 3651: 3618: 3593: 3511: 3335: 3327: 3301:Nature 3284: 3229:788715 3227: 3200: 3155: 3101: 3093: 3065:Nature 3042: 2989: 2979: 2923: 2880:. 2005 2850: 2815: 2747: 2648: 2630: 2588: 2578: 2539: 2448: 2421: 2354:(book) 2236:(Aves) 1998:pelvic 1982:tripod 1907:enzyme 1676:mucins 1627:motile 1615:nectar 1582:oxygen 1562:Joules 1522:flight 1493:energy 1458:(from 1403:, and 1244: 1222:Luidia 1149:distal 1034:geckos 1028:using 1019: 1015: 968:gibbon 875:, and 869:jerboa 861:rabbit 586:thrust 558:, and 527:flight 517:Flight 480:Aerial 317:, use 281:thrust 216:aerial 92:(some 82:kiting 70:flying 6895:Other 6741:Biped 6604:class 6390:Wings 6375:Digit 6331:biped 6293:Limbs 6203:wings 6199:limbs 6010:eLife 5739:(PDF) 5719:(PDF) 5702:(PDF) 5620:S2CID 5502:S2CID 5457:S2CID 5296:arXiv 5266:(PDF) 5240:(PDF) 5206:(PDF) 5090:arXiv 4480:S2CID 4380:(PDF) 4358:S2CID 4276:S2CID 4223:S2CID 4089:S2CID 3926:S2CID 3898:(PDF) 3847:JSTOR 3685:(PDF) 3509:S2CID 3478:(PDF) 3463:(PDF) 3333:S2CID 3270:(PDF) 3246:. ABC 3198:S2CID 3099:S2CID 2958:(PDF) 2943:(PDF) 2813:S2CID 2756:(PDF) 2745:S2CID 2725:(PDF) 2657:(PDF) 2646:S2CID 2608:(PDF) 2368:Taxis 2335:Joint 2189:Coypu 2049:Birds 1933:fleas 1923:Many 1856:) of 1772:Fleas 1740:larva 1716:dunes 1546:water 1542:fluid 1530:birds 1389:moles 1021:ft). 1017:m (50 980:below 978:(see 895:Leech 806:crawl 687:gulls 625:squid 556:birds 535:wings 365:mucus 188:motio 184:locus 160:tails 158:, or 148:wings 140:cilia 6879:Gait 6602:Gait 6522:Gait 6413:keel 6211:Fins 6201:and 6195:Fins 6119:ISBN 6091:PMID 6046:PMID 6028:ISSN 5987:PMID 5979:ISSN 5887:2011 5858:ISBN 5839:2014 5817:2014 5790:PMID 5750:2009 5678:ISBN 5651:ISBN 5581:2013 5555:2006 5449:PMID 5418:2014 5392:2012 5361:PMID 5248:2020 5152:2014 5118:PMID 5059:PMID 5022:2014 4992:PMID 4943:PMID 4900:ISBN 4872:ISBN 4849:PMID 4777:PMID 4740:2016 4713:2016 4690:2015 4661:ISBN 4632:2014 4609:2014 4583:2014 4472:PMID 4431:ISBN 4400:ISSN 4317:ISSN 4268:PMID 4260:ISSN 4215:PMID 4207:ISSN 4171:2016 4081:PMID 4046:PMID 4014:help 3988:ISBN 3965:PMID 3918:PMID 3714:link 3659:OCLC 3649:ISBN 3616:ISBN 3591:ISBN 3572:2016 3358:2016 3325:PMID 3282:ISSN 3252:2016 3225:PMID 3153:ISBN 3129:2016 3091:PMID 3040:ISBN 3018:2016 2987:OCLC 2977:ISBN 2921:PMID 2886:2009 2848:PMID 2779:2016 2680:2016 2586:PMID 2537:PMID 2506:link 2473:2014 2446:ISBN 2419:ISBN 2398:2014 2204:Frog 2155:The 2137:and 2002:eels 1990:tail 1988:and 1986:fins 1960:Fish 1937:lice 1791:and 1738:The 1686:The 1663:The 1647:The 1566:gait 1507:and 1501:drag 1466:and 1440:, a 1219:and 1075:and 1003:ibex 933:and 865:hare 822:foot 780:and 664:and 574:and 560:bats 531:lift 519:and 509:lift 396:and 386:and 277:fish 262:drag 180:loco 156:fins 152:arms 144:legs 109:mate 107:, a 6081:doi 6077:213 6036:PMC 6018:doi 5969:doi 5965:102 5780:doi 5612:doi 5600:256 5494:doi 5482:282 5441:doi 5437:214 5351:PMC 5341:doi 5229:hdl 5108:doi 5049:doi 4982:PMC 4974:doi 4970:280 4933:doi 4929:207 4839:PMC 4831:doi 4827:276 4767:doi 4763:201 4653:doi 4464:doi 4460:218 4454:". 4427:782 4392:doi 4350:doi 4346:100 4307:doi 4303:162 4252:doi 4248:210 4199:doi 4195:206 4146:doi 4073:doi 4069:307 4038:doi 3957:doi 3953:203 3910:doi 3839:doi 3540:doi 3501:doi 3317:doi 3305:498 3278:B28 3190:doi 3178:247 3081:doi 3069:432 2913:doi 2840:doi 2805:doi 2801:136 2737:doi 2703:doi 2638:doi 2576:PMC 2568:doi 2564:267 2529:doi 2525:192 2492:121 1742:of 1702:of 1550:air 1548:or 999:yak 982:). 608:). 299:. 166:or 100:). 88:), 80:), 44:In 6988:: 6197:, 6089:. 6075:. 6071:. 6069:)" 6044:. 6034:. 6026:. 6012:. 6008:. 5985:. 5977:. 5963:. 5959:. 5940:. 5910:. 5904:. 5788:. 5776:42 5774:. 5770:. 5758:^ 5741:. 5710:. 5704:. 5649:. 5647:30 5618:. 5610:. 5598:. 5546:. 5526:. 5500:. 5492:. 5480:. 5455:. 5447:. 5435:. 5359:. 5349:. 5339:. 5327:. 5323:. 5321:)" 5274:23 5272:. 5268:. 5235:. 5195:. 5169:. 5138:. 5116:. 5106:. 5098:. 5086:17 5084:. 5080:. 5057:. 5045:21 5043:. 5039:. 4990:. 4980:. 4968:. 4964:. 4941:. 4927:. 4923:. 4886:^ 4847:. 4837:. 4825:. 4821:. 4775:. 4761:. 4757:. 4730:. 4659:. 4478:. 4470:. 4458:. 4429:. 4398:. 4386:. 4382:. 4356:. 4344:. 4315:. 4301:. 4297:. 4274:. 4266:. 4258:. 4246:. 4221:. 4213:. 4205:. 4193:. 4179:^ 4142:13 4140:. 4136:. 4087:. 4079:. 4067:. 4044:. 4034:97 4032:. 4006:: 4004:}} 4000:{{ 3963:. 3951:. 3947:. 3924:. 3916:. 3906:81 3904:. 3900:. 3895:)" 3845:. 3835:60 3833:. 3819:^ 3798:. 3794:. 3783:^ 3767:. 3763:. 3738:. 3734:. 3710:}} 3706:{{ 3691:. 3687:. 3657:. 3536:70 3534:. 3530:. 3507:. 3497:47 3495:. 3471:10 3469:. 3465:. 3448:^ 3427:. 3416:^ 3407:, 3389:^ 3374:, 3331:. 3323:. 3315:. 3303:. 3276:. 3272:. 3221:41 3219:. 3196:. 3188:. 3176:. 3137:^ 3097:. 3089:. 3079:. 3067:. 3063:. 2985:. 2951:17 2949:. 2945:. 2919:. 2909:38 2907:. 2876:. 2872:. 2846:. 2836:37 2834:. 2811:. 2799:. 2787:^ 2743:. 2733:22 2731:. 2727:. 2699:21 2697:. 2644:. 2636:. 2626:. 2616:24 2614:. 2610:. 2584:. 2574:. 2562:. 2558:. 2535:. 2523:. 2502:}} 2498:{{ 2490:. 2381:^ 2141:. 2012:. 2004:, 1996:, 1980:, 1757:. 1629:. 1503:, 1499:, 1452:. 1407:. 1399:, 1395:, 1391:, 1379:, 1171:, 1159:. 1071:, 1067:, 1063:, 1059:, 1005:, 1001:, 997:, 954:. 871:, 867:, 863:, 668:. 660:, 656:, 652:, 604:, 554:, 550:, 476:. 380:, 310:. 170:. 154:, 150:, 146:, 142:, 68:, 64:, 60:, 48:, 32:A 6839:e 6832:t 6825:v 6747:) 6743:( 6624:) 6620:( 6586:e 6579:t 6572:v 6187:e 6180:t 6173:v 6097:. 6083:: 6052:. 6020:: 6014:8 5993:. 5971:: 5944:. 5925:. 5889:. 5866:. 5841:. 5819:. 5796:. 5782:: 5752:. 5712:3 5686:. 5659:. 5626:. 5614:: 5606:: 5583:. 5557:. 5508:. 5496:: 5488:: 5463:. 5443:: 5420:. 5394:. 5367:. 5343:: 5335:: 5329:6 5304:. 5298:: 5283:. 5250:. 5231:: 5180:. 5154:. 5124:. 5110:: 5102:: 5092:: 5065:. 5051:: 5024:. 4998:. 4976:: 4949:. 4935:: 4908:. 4880:. 4855:. 4833:: 4783:. 4769:: 4742:. 4715:. 4692:. 4669:. 4655:: 4634:. 4611:. 4585:. 4563:. 4550:" 4533:. 4520:" 4486:. 4466:: 4439:. 4406:. 4394:: 4388:1 4364:. 4352:: 4329:. 4309:: 4282:. 4254:: 4229:. 4201:: 4173:. 4152:. 4148:: 4134:" 4117:. 4095:. 4075:: 4052:. 4040:: 4016:) 3996:. 3971:. 3959:: 3932:. 3912:: 3878:. 3853:. 3841:: 3813:. 3777:. 3748:. 3732:" 3716:) 3702:. 3693:3 3665:. 3624:. 3599:. 3574:. 3548:. 3542:: 3515:. 3503:: 3442:. 3411:. 3360:. 3339:. 3319:: 3311:: 3288:. 3254:. 3231:. 3204:. 3192:: 3184:: 3161:. 3131:. 3105:. 3083:: 3075:: 3048:. 3020:. 2993:. 2927:. 2915:: 2888:. 2870:" 2854:. 2842:: 2819:. 2807:: 2781:. 2739:: 2709:. 2705:: 2682:. 2640:: 2622:: 2592:. 2570:: 2543:. 2531:: 2508:) 2475:. 2427:. 2400:. 1690:( 1667:( 1651:( 1209:( 1201:( 84:( 40:. 25:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index