348:, Galileo reported his discovery of four objects that appeared to form a straight line of stars near Jupiter. On the first night he detected a line of three little stars close to Jupiter parallel to the ecliptic; the following nights brought different arrangements and another star into his view, totalling four stars around Jupiter. Throughout the text, Galileo gave illustrations of the relative positions of Jupiter and its apparent companion stars as they appeared nightly from late January through early March 1610. That they changed their positions relative to Jupiter from night to night and yet always appeared in the same straight line near it, persuaded Galileo that they were orbiting Jupiter. On January 11 after four nights of observation he wrote:
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see and verify what
Galileo had observed supported the supposition that the optical theory during this period "could not clearly demonstrate that the instrument was not deceiving the senses." By naming the four moons after the Medici brothers and convincing the Grand Duke Cosimo II of his discoveries, the defence of Galileo's reports became a matter of State. Moran notes, “the court itself became actively involved in pursuing the confirmation of Galileo’s observations by paying Galileo out of its treasury to manufacture spyglasses that could be sent through ambassadorial channels to the major courts of Europe."
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278:) was smooth where it crossed the darker regions of the Moon but quite irregular where it crossed the brighter areas. From this he deduced that the darker regions are flat, low-lying areas, and the brighter regions rough and mountainous. Basing his estimate on the distance of sunlit mountaintops from the terminator, he judged, quite accurately, that the lunar mountains were at least four miles high. Galileo's
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447:(1631). In addition, the discovery of the Medicean Stars fascinated other astronomers, and they wanted to view the moons for themselves. Their efforts "set the stage for the modern scientific requirement of experimental reproducibility by independent researchers. Verification versus falsifiability…saw their origins in the announcement of
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as strictly mathematical and hypothetical. However, once
Galileo began to speak of the Copernican system as fact rather than theory, it introduced "a more chaotic system, a less-than-godly lack of organization." In fact, the Copernican system that Galileo believed to be real challenged the Scripture,
509:. Therefore, the night Galileo first observed Jupiter's moons was January 7, 1610 on the Gregorian calendar—December 28, 1609 on the Julian calendar (Marius claimed to have first observed Jupiter's moons on December 29, 1609). Although Galileo did indeed discover Jupiter's four moons before Marius,
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I therefore concluded and decided unhesitatingly, that there are three stars in the heavens moving about
Jupiter, as Venus and Mercury round the Sun; which at length was established as clear as daylight by numerous subsequent observations. These observations also established that there are not only
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But many individuals and communities were sceptical. A common response to the
Medicean Stars was simply to say that the telescope had a lens defect and was producing illusory points of light and images; those saying this completely denied the existence of the moons. That only a few could initially
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Galileo reported that he saw at least ten times more stars through the telescope than are visible to the naked eye, and he published star charts of the belt of Orion and the star cluster
Pleiades showing some of the newly observed stars. With the naked eye observers could see only six stars in the
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star catalogue, he saw that rather than being cloudy, they were made of many small stars. From this he deduced that the nebulae and the Milky Way were "congeries of innumerable stars grouped together in clusters" too small and distant to be resolved into individual stars by the naked eye.
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In his drawings, Galileo used an open circle to represent
Jupiter and asterisks to represent the four stars. He made this distinction to show that there was in fact a difference between these two types of celestial bodies. It is important to note that Galileo used the terms
462:, who published an open letter in April 1610, enthusiastically endorsing Galileo's credibility. It was not until August 1610 that Kepler was able to publish his independent confirmation of Galileo's findings, due to the scarcity of sufficiently powerful telescopes.
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on March 13, 1610. It was the first published scientific work based on observations made through a telescope, and it contains the results of
Galileo's early observations of the imperfect and mountainous Moon, of hundreds of stars not visible to the naked eye in the
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cluster; through his telescope, however, Galileo was capable of seeing thirty-five – almost six times as many. When he turned his telescope on Orion, he was capable of seeing eighty stars, rather than the previously observed nine – almost nine times more. In
197:, many of Galileo's early drafts of the book and later related writings indicate that the intended purpose of the book was "simply to report the news about recent developments in astronomy, not to pass himself off solemnly as an ambassador from heaven."
485:(published in 1614) by insisting that he had found Jupiter's four moons before Galileo and had been observing them since 1609. Marius believed that he therefore had the right to name them, which he did: he named them after Jupiter's love conquests:
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The conflict ended in 1633 with
Galileo being sentenced to a form of house arrest by the Catholic Church. However, by 1633, Galileo had published other works in support of the Copernican view, and these were largely what caused his sentencing.
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using one. One of
Galileo's first telescopes had 8x to 10x linear magnification and was made out of lenses that he had ground himself. This was increased to 20x linear magnification in the improved telescope he used to make the observations in
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tried to obtain a patent on one. By 1609 Galileo had heard about it and built his own improved version. He probably was not the first person to aim the new invention at the night sky but his was the first systematic (and published) study of
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brothers. This helped him receive the position of Chief
Mathematician and Philosopher to the Medici at the University of Pisa. Ultimately, his effort at naming the moons failed, for they are now referred to as the
319:, Galileo revised and reproduced these two star groups by distinguishing between the stars seen without the telescope and those seen with it. Also, when he observed some of the "nebulous" stars in the
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By 1626 knowledge of the telescope had spread to China when German Jesuit and astronomer Johann Adam Schall von Bell published Yuan jing shuo, (Explanation of the Telescope) in Chinese and Latin.
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three, but four, erratic sidereal bodies performing their revolutions round Jupiter...the revolutions are so swift that an observer may generally get differences of position every hour.
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413:, ranging from appraisal and hostility to disbelief, soon spread throughout Italy and England. Many poems and texts were published expressing love for the new form of
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477:, published their confirmation of the Medicean Stars after Jupiter became visible again in the autumn of 1610. Marius, a German astronomer who had studied with
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Telescopes, Tides, and Tactics: A Galilean Dialogue about The Starry Messenger and Systems of the World, including translation of Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius
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and had recently received a lifetime contract for his work in building more powerful telescopes. He desired to return to Florence, and in hopes of gaining
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William R. Shea and Tiziana Bascelli; translated from the Latin by William R. Shea, introduction and notes by William R. Shea and Tiziana Bascelli.
797:. Isis, Vol. 101, No. 3 (September 2010), pp. 644-645. Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society.
846:. Isis, Vol. 41, No. 3/4 (Dec., 1950), pp. 287-289. Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society.
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Mendillo, M. "The Appearance of the Medicean Moons in 17th Century Charts and Books—How Long Did It Take?", 2010.
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501:. But Galileo was not confounded; he pointed out that being outside the Church, Marius had not yet accepted the
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392:. In addition, he named his discovered four moons of Jupiter the "Medicean Stars," in honor of the four royal
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was described as pointing an early reflector/refractor device at the sky to see "myriads of stars" and
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of Jupiter. Galileo's text also includes descriptions, explanations, and theories of his observations.
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interchangeably, and "both words were correct usage within the prevailing Aristotelian terminology."
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of the lunar surface provided a new form of visual representation, besides shaping the field of
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Howard, Deborah (1992). "Elsheimer's Flight into Egypt and the Night Sky in the Renaissance".
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contains more than seventy drawings and diagrams of the Moon, certain constellations such as
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Image courtesy of the History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries.
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Image courtesy of the History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries.
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In observing the Moon, Galileo saw that the line separating lunar day from night (the
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901:, Astrophysics and Space Science Library book series (ASSL, volume 220), pages 1-6
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481:, was the first to publish a book of his observations. Marius attacked Galileo in
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544:'s cosmological descriptions of perfect and unchanging heavenly bodies made of
657:. Sagamore Beach, MA: Science History Publications/USA, 2009. viii + 115 pp.
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science. Three works of art were even created in response to Galileo's book:
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Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1989. xiii + 127 pp.
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The telescope in the making, the Galileo first telescopic observations
589:. Waterloo Place, London: Oxford and Cambridge, January 1880. 148 pp.
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857:"Museo della Specola, Bologna - Catalogue, telescopes, introduction"
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Galileo's Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love
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Edward Stafford Carlos; translations with introduction and notes.
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The first astronomer to publicly support Galileo's findings was
34:"Starry Messenger" redirects here. For the Peter SĂs book, see
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560:"which referred to the sun 'rising' and the earth as 'unmoving.
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Galileo's drawings of an imperfect Moon directly contradicted
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Galileo Galilei, Sidereus Nuncius, or The Sidereal Messenger.
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made moon observations several months before Galileo's. See
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Sidereus nuncius; or, A Sidereal Message, by Galileo Galilei
185:; however, it was also (though less frequently) rendered as
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The Three Galileos: The Man, the Spacecraft, the Telescope
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Galileo's drawings of Jupiter and its Medicean Stars from
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Sidereus-Nuncius, or the Sidereal Messenger - Galilei, G
638:); translation with introduction, conclusion and notes.
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623:. London: University Of Chicago Press, 1983. 256 pp.
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Galileo's drawings of the Pleiades star cluster from
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was typically used during this time period to denote
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Albert Van Helden (Professor Emeritus of History at
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to his former pupil, now the Grand Duke of Tuscany,
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Proceedings Of The International Astronomical Union
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Proceedings Of The International Astronomical Union
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1092:. Great Britain: Penguin Books. pp. 375–383.
587:, and a part of the preface to Kepler's Dioptrics
376:publication, Galileo was a mathematician at the
1396:Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
679:. Paris: Belles Lettres, 1992. ASIN B0028S7JLK.
655:Galileo’s Sidereus Nuncius or Sidereal Message
286:, the study of physical features on the Moon.
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1078:, n.d. Annals Of Science, 47(5), pp. 525-526.
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193:is usually translated into English as
174:that appeared to be circling Jupiter.
1366:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
938:A New Heaven: Galileo and the Artists
677:Sidereus Nuncius: Le Messager Celeste
205:The first telescopes appeared in the
172:Medicean Stars (later Galilean moons)
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745:Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio
604:, includes translation of Galileo's
532:Controversy with the Catholic Church
239:Galileo's sketches of the Moon from
822:LARB Quarterly Journal: Spring 2014
608:. Doubleday: Anchor, 1957. 320 pp.
602:Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo
555:, the Catholic Church accepted the
816:Mazzotti, Massimo (25 June 2014).
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1163:in HTML format, or in Italian in
940:, 1988. History Today, 38(2), 30.
469:, Joseph Gaultier de la Vatelle,
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29:The Sidereal Messenger (magazine)
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920:, Volume 6 Issue 269, pp. 27-32.
56:Title page of the first edition.
41:Astronomical treatise of Galileo
1185:from Frankfurt, also from 1610.
1042:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Kunstgeschichte
471:Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc
36:Starry Messenger (picture book)
950:Spiller, Elizabeth A. (2000).
557:Copernican heliocentric system
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1205:of Galileo Galilei in English
1153:. Photographed first edition.
824:. Los Angeles Review of Books
465:Several astronomers, such as
1358:Letter to Benedetto Castelli
1219:Full digital edition in the
1765:17th-century books in Latin
1106:, Dec. 2012. Museo Galileo.
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551:Before the publication of
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1196:Cambridge Digital Library
1088:Koestler, Arthur (1964).
711:. Firenze: Sansoni, 1948.
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1745:Books by Galileo Galilei
1495:Galileo's objective lens
1194:Full digital edition in
686:. France: Points, 1992.
505:and was still using the
437:Assumption of the Virgin
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1297:Galilean transformation
1272:Observational astronomy
1183:scanned pirated edition
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684:Le messager des Ă©toiles
1373:Discourse on the Tides
1203:The Sidereal Messenger
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424:The Flight into Egypt
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1282:Galileo's escapement
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384:there, he dedicated
344:In the last part of
1507:Galileo thermometer
1380:Discourse on Comets
1350:Letters on Sunspots
1287:Galilean invariance
730:Letters on Sunspots
723:Discourse on Comets
378:University of Padua
189:. Though the title
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1547:In popular culture
1502:Tribune of Galileo
1334:De motu antiquiora
1221:Stanford Libraries
1175:Linda Hall Library
1171:. From LiberLiber.
887:The Three Galileos
766:"A Very Rare Book"
503:Gregorian calendar
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1265:Scientific career
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1102:Gattei, Stefano.
675:Isabelle Pantin.
663:978-0-88135-375-4
449:Sidereus Nuncius.
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1688:Spaceflight
1597:(1999 book)
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1581:(1975 film)
1573:(1968 film)
1565:(1947 play)
1557:(1943 play)
1388:The Assayer
1337:(1589–1592)
1317:Thermoscope
1149:1610. From
1120:Sparknotes.
479:Tycho Brahe
207:Netherlands
116:(now Italy)
1740:1610 books
1734:Categories
1519:spacecraft
1448:(mistress)
1442:(daughter)
1169:odt format
1165:pdf format
1074:Moran, B.
775:2016-01-11
752:References
280:engravings
276:terminator
262:, and the
211:Middelburg
1664:Astronomy
1430:(brother)
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542:Aristotle
405:Reception
382:patronage
321:Ptolemaic
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183:messenger
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1161:in Latin
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716:See also
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495:Ganymede
256:Pleiades
151:pamphlet
72:Language
1724:Science
1652:History
1626:Portals
1579:Galileo
1571:Galileo
1456:Related
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737:Nuncius
699:Italian
577:English
540:'s and
538:Ptolemy
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