3539:
633:
577:
54:
3575:
3599:
3551:
589:
3587:
3563:
948:
The CMB dipole is hinted at through a number of other observations. First, even within the CMB, there are curious directional alignments and an anomalous parity asymmetry that may have an origin in the CMB dipole. Separately, the CMB dipole direction has emerged as a preferred direction in studies
816:
radiation in 1964, which was predicted by the Big Bang theory. The steady-state model explained microwave background radiation as the result of light from ancient stars that has been scattered by galactic dust. However, the cosmic microwave background level is very even in all directions, making it
782:
on astronomy), not in closer galaxies. Whereas the Big Bang theory predicted as much, the steady-state model predicted that such objects would be found throughout the universe, including close to our own galaxy. By 1961, statistical tests based on radio-source surveys had ruled out the steady-state
932:
predicted that the CMB has a significant dipole anisotropy. In recent years the CMB dipole has been tested and current results suggest our motion with respect to distant radio galaxies and quasars differs from our motion with respect to the CMB. The same conclusion has been reached in recent
848:
even with the limited observational evidence at our disposal. The steady state model is so attractive that many of its adherents still retain hope that the evidence against it will eventually disappear as observations improve. However, if the cosmic microwave radiation ... is really black-body
795:
Gold and Hoyle (1959) considered that matter that is newly created exists in a region that is denser than the average density of the universe. This matter then may radiate and cool faster than the surrounding regions, resulting in a pressure gradient. This gradient would push matter into an
817:
difficult to explain how it could be generated by numerous point sources, and the microwave background radiation shows no evidence of characteristics such as polarization that are normally associated with scattering. Furthermore, its spectrum is so close to that of an ideal
1295:
the
Chicago astronomer William MacMillan not only assumed that stars and galaxies were distributed uniformly throughout infinite space, he also denied 'that the universe as a whole has ever been or ever will be essentially different from what it is
1077:
has pointed out flaws in the model. These first comments were soon rebutted by the proponents. Wright and other mainstream cosmologists reviewing QSS have pointed out new flaws and discrepancies with observations left unexplained by proponents.
731:). E.g., the universe has no beginning and no end. This required that matter be continually created in order to keep the universe's density from decreasing. Influential papers on the topic of a steady-state cosmology were published by
1039:
as a new incarnation of the steady-state ideas meant to explain additional features unaccounted for in the initial proposal. The model suggests pockets of creation occurring over time within the universe, sometimes referred to as
2674:
Migkas, K.; Pacaud, F.; Schellenberger, G.; Erler, J.; Nguyen-Dang, N. T.; Reiprich, T. H.; Ramos-Ceja, M. E.; Lovisari, L. (May 2021). "Cosmological implications of the anisotropy of ten galaxy cluster scaling relations".
1556:
Elcio
Abdalla; Guillermo Franco Abellán; et al. (11 Mar 2022), "Cosmology Intertwined: A Review of the Particle Physics, Astrophysics, and Cosmology Associated with the Cosmological Tensions and Anomalies",
750:
It is now known that Albert
Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe, as indicated in a 1931 manuscript, many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein abandoned the idea.
972:
Many large-scale structures have been discovered, and some authors have reported some of the structures to be in conflict with the homogeneity condition required for the cosmological principle, including
677:
From the 1940s to the 1960s, the astrophysical community was divided between supporters of the Big Bang theory and supporters of the steady-state theory. The steady-state model is now rejected by most
961:. The fact that all these independent observables, based on different physics, are tracking the CMB dipole direction suggests that the Universe is anisotropic in the direction of the CMB dipole.
921:(CMB) in two respects: one with respect to average temperature (i.e. temperature fluctuations), the second with respect to larger variations in the degree of perturbations (i.e. densities). The
890:). However, recent findings suggest that violations of the cosmological principle, especially of isotropy, exist, with some authors suggesting that the cosmological principle is now obsolete.
178:
2580:
Migkas, K.; Schellenberger, G.; Reiprich, T. H.; Pacaud, F.; Ramos-Ceja, M. E.; Lovisari, L. (April 2020). "Probing cosmic isotropy with a new X-ray galaxy cluster sample through the
705:
state that the universe has no beginning or end but the things within go through recycling. The Vedic cause-effect theory states that the effect is caused in a different form.
2611:
642:, the expanding Universe causes matter to dilute over time, while in the Steady-State Theory, continued matter creation ensures that the density remains constant over time.
549:
770:
Problems with the steady-state model began to emerge in the 1950s and 60s – observations supported the idea that the universe was in fact changing. Bright radio sources (
3136:
3092:
964:
Nevertheless, some authors have stated that the universe around Earth is isotropic at high significance by studies of the cosmic microwave background temperature maps.
724:, is one in which the universe has a finite age and has evolved over time through cooling, expansion, and the formation of structures through gravitational collapse.
1612:
Krishnan, Chethan; Mohayaee, Roya; Colgáin, Eoin Ó; Sheikh-Jabbari, M. M.; Yin, Lu (16 September 2021). "Does Hubble
Tension Signal a Breakdown in FLRW Cosmology?".
2336:
de
Oliveira-Costa, Angelica; Tegmark, Max; Zaldarriaga, Matias; Hamilton, Andrew (25 March 2004). "The significance of the largest scale CMB fluctuations in WMAP".
882:
and which states that our observational location in the universe is not unusual or special; on a large-enough scale, the universe looks the same in all directions (
925:(the governing body of the Planck Mission) has concluded that these anisotropies in the CMB are, in fact, statistically significant and can no longer be ignored.
2458:
Kim, Jaiseung; Naselsky, Pavel (10 May 2010). "Anomalous parity asymmetry of the
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe power spectrum data at low multipoles".
619:
844:... In a sense, this disagreement is a credit to the model; alone among all cosmologies, the steady state model makes such definite predictions that it
2977:
821:
that it could hardly be formed by the superposition of contributions from a multitude of dust clumps at different temperatures as well as at different
796:
over-dense region and result in a thermal instability and emit a large amount of plasma. However, Gould and
Burbidge (1963) realized that the thermal
1009:
804:. Therefore, in the steady-state cosmological model, thermal instability does not appear to be important in the formation of galaxy-sized masses.
3538:
727:
On the other hand, the steady-state model says while the universe is expanding, it nevertheless does not change its appearance over time (the
3624:
3518:
3495:
3472:
3449:
1524:
1486:
1288:
1142:
1356:
Ryle and Clarke, "An examination of the steady-state model in the light of some recent observations of radio sources," MNRAW 122 (1961) 349
353:
2789:
Luongo, Orlando; Muccino, Marco; Colgáin, Eoin Ó; Sheikh-Jabbari, M. M.; Yin, Lu (2022). "Larger H0 values in the CMB dipole direction".
1097:
3194:
2736:
Krishnan, Chethan; Mohayaee, Roya; Colgáin, Eoin Ó; Sheikh-Jabbari, M. M.; Yin, Lu (2022). "Hints of FLRW breakdown from supernovae".
2519:
Hutsemekers, D.; Cabanac, R.; Lamy, H.; Sluse, D. (October 2005). "Mapping extreme-scale alignments of quasar polarization vectors".
2130:
Siewert, Thilo M.; Schmidt-Rubart, Matthias; Schwarz, Dominik J. (2021). "Cosmic radio dipole: Estimators and frequency dependence".
852:
Since this discovery, the Big Bang theory has been considered to provide the best explanation of the origin of the universe. In most
1453:
562:
612:
3166:
Hoyle, F.; Burbidge, G.; Narlikar, J. V. (1994). "Further astrophysical quantities expected in a quasi-steady state
Universe".
195:
2183:
Secrest, Nathan; von
Hausegger, Sebastian; Rameez, Mohamed; Mohayaee, Roya; Sarkar, Subir; Colin, Jacques (25 February 2021).
879:
869:
728:
667:
557:
271:
1893:
Nathan J. Secrest; Sebastian von
Hausegger; Mohamed Rameez; Roya Mohayaee; Subir Sarkar; Jacques Colin (February 25, 2021).
1067:; the evaporation of such a particle has been evoked as the source of light elements in an expanding steady-state universe.
2016:
1023:
Other authors claim that the existence of large-scale structures does not necessarily violate the cosmological principle.
200:
123:
31:
3529:
1158:
3619:
918:
813:
778:) were found only at large distances (therefore could have existed only in the distant past due to the effects of the
605:
581:
128:
2021:
3510:
3441:
3168:
2956:
Horvath, I.; Hakkila, J.; Bagoly, Z. (2013). "The largest structure of the Universe, defined by Gamma-Ray Bursts".
1134:
1005:, discovered in 2012, which is three times longer than and twice as wide as is predicted possible according to ΛCDM
347:
327:
135:
80:
3056:
1830:
1802:
1738:
1102:
173:
978:
3634:
744:
342:
107:
2252:"Peculiar motion of Solar system from the Hubble diagram of supernovae Ia and its implications for cosmology"
1829:
Migkas, K.; Schellenberger, G.; Reiprich, T. H.; Pacaud, F.; Ramos-Ceja, M. E.; Lovisari, L. (8 April 2020).
310:
190:
3237:
Narlikar, J. V.; Vishwakarma, R. G.; Burbidge, G. (2002). "Interpretations of the Accelerating Universe".
1087:
1012:, discovered in November 2013, which has a length of 2000–3000 Mpc (more than seven times that of the SGW)
875:
865:
849:
radiation, it will be difficult to doubt that the universe has evolved from a hotter denser early stage."
2295:"Solar system peculiar motion from the Hubble diagram of quasars and testing the cosmological principle"
1506:
1052:
922:
887:
515:
317:
259:
856:
publications, the Big Bang is implicitly accepted and is used as the basis of more complete theories.
3348:
3256:
3203:
3177:
3145:
3101:
3065:
3014:
2922:
2861:
2808:
2755:
2694:
2632:
2538:
2477:
2416:
2355:
2206:
2149:
2057:
1975:
1916:
1852:
1760:
1696:
1631:
1576:
1410:
1379:
1321:
1240:
1199:
1092:
1060:
528:
500:
322:
3426:
2583:
2045:
1674:
632:
3603:
1807:
830:
721:
690:
671:
460:
420:
390:
337:
293:
281:
185:
75:
1831:"Probing cosmic isotropy with a new X-ray galaxy cluster sample through the LX-T scaling relation"
3629:
3591:
3579:
3464:
3385:
3366:
3338:
3307:
3272:
3246:
3219:
3032:
3004:
2957:
2938:
2912:
2885:
2851:
2824:
2798:
2771:
2745:
2718:
2684:
2656:
2622:
2562:
2528:
2501:
2467:
2440:
2406:
2379:
2345:
2306:
2263:
2232:
2196:
2165:
2139:
1991:
1965:
1934:
1906:
1868:
1842:
1776:
1750:
1712:
1686:
1675:"Luminosity distance and anisotropic sky-sampling at low redshifts: A numerical relativity study"
1655:
1621:
1592:
1566:
1064:
995:
938:
663:
647:
541:
480:
450:
415:
385:
332:
276:
45:
2842:
Saadeh D, Feeney SM, Pontzen A, Peiris HV, McEwen, JD (2016). "How Isotropic is the Universe?".
1953:
1478:
1471:
812:
For most cosmologists, the refutation of the steady-state model came with the discovery of the
3514:
3491:
3468:
3445:
2877:
2710:
2648:
2554:
2493:
2432:
2371:
2224:
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1520:
1482:
1449:
1426:
1339:
1284:
1138:
1032:
907:
510:
3555:
3356:
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3264:
3211:
3181:
3153:
3119:
3109:
3073:
3022:
2930:
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2816:
2763:
2702:
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2640:
2636:
2546:
2542:
2485:
2424:
2363:
2316:
2273:
2214:
2157:
2153:
2103:
2065:
1983:
1924:
1860:
1856:
1768:
1764:
1704:
1639:
1584:
1512:
1418:
1329:
1276:
1248:
1207:
1074:
985:
958:
954:
593:
405:
395:
380:
231:
100:
2091:
1280:
3384:
Hoyle, F.; Burbidge, G.; Narlikar, J. V. (1994). "Note on a Comment by Edward L. Wright".
1036:
826:
783:
model in the minds of most cosmologists, although some proponents of the astronomers like
717:
713:
682:
520:
455:
440:
425:
410:
400:
264:
2993:"Seeing patterns in noise: gigaparsec-scale 'structures' that do not violate homogeneity"
161:
3352:
3260:
3207:
3149:
3105:
3069:
3018:
2926:
2865:
2812:
2759:
2481:
2420:
2359:
2210:
2061:
1979:
1920:
1700:
1635:
1580:
1414:
1398:
1383:
1367:
1325:
1244:
1203:
3543:
2489:
1271:(2019). "Steady-State theory and the cosmological controversy". In Kragh, Helge (ed.).
950:
934:
914:
899:
845:
797:
779:
505:
465:
1055:, further modifications of the model were made. The Planck particle is a hypothetical
3613:
3370:
3311:
3036:
2828:
2775:
2722:
2660:
2444:
2383:
2236:
2169:
1987:
1938:
1872:
1780:
1716:
1659:
1596:
1130:
Cosmology and Controversy: The Historical Development of Two Theories of the Universe
1016:
929:
853:
841:
765:
732:
490:
475:
375:
17:
3276:
3223:
2566:
2505:
1995:
3567:
2942:
2873:
775:
709:
678:
495:
470:
445:
430:
286:
2889:
2706:
2644:
2161:
1864:
1772:
1446:
Cosmology's century: an inside history of our modern understanding of the universe
1399:"X-Rays from the Galactic Center, External Galaxies, and the Intergalactic Medium"
829:
wrote in 1972: "The steady state model does not appear to agree with the observed
3406:
2550:
1128:
3487:
2820:
2767:
2069:
1708:
1588:
1502:
1268:
1124:
1071:
736:
686:
666:
remains unchanged due to a continuous creation of matter, thus adhering to the
243:
236:
3361:
3326:
3158:
3131:
3114:
3087:
2428:
2367:
2219:
2184:
1929:
1894:
1737:
Jacques Colin; Roya Mohayaee; Mohamed Rameez; Subir Sarkar (20 November 2019).
1643:
3427:
Burbidge, G., Hoyle, F., "The Origin of Helium and the Other Light Elements",
2108:
1952:
B. Javanmardi; C. Porciani; P. Kroupa; J. Pflamm-Altenburg (August 27, 2015).
1516:
1253:
1228:
1212:
1187:
1056:
818:
784:
740:
689:. The observational evidence points to a hot Big Bang cosmology with a finite
485:
2714:
2652:
2558:
2497:
2436:
2375:
2278:
2251:
2228:
1651:
1430:
949:
of alignments in quasar polarizations, scaling relations in galaxy clusters,
3027:
2992:
2321:
2294:
435:
3215:
2881:
1343:
720:(1917), was unstable. The modern Big Bang theory, first advanced by Father
1954:"Probing the Isotropy of Cosmic Acceleration Traced By Type Ia Supernovae"
3390:
3343:
3251:
2917:
2533:
2411:
2350:
1002:
883:
837:
822:
659:
638:
168:
70:
63:
2978:"Line of galaxies is so big it breaks our understanding of the universe"
3303:
3190:"The basic theory underlying the quasi-steady state cosmological model"
2903:
Gott, J. Richard III; et al. (May 2005). "A Map of the Universe".
2397:
Land, Kate; Magueijo, Joao (28 November 2005). "Is the Universe odd?".
1031:
Quasi-steady-state cosmology (QSS) was proposed in 1993 by Fred Hoyle,
942:
800:
radiation emitted by such a plasma would exceed the amount of observed
3123:
53:
1571:
903:
771:
3189:
1334:
1309:
874:
One of the fundamental assumptions of the steady-state model is the
3562:
3268:
3078:
3051:
2934:
2856:
2803:
2750:
2689:
2627:
2311:
2268:
2201:
2144:
1970:
1911:
1847:
1755:
1691:
1626:
1422:
708:
Cosmological expansion was originally seen through observations by
30:
This article is about the cosmological theory. For other uses, see
3009:
2962:
2472:
2046:"Peculiar Velocity of the Sun and the Cosmic Microwave Background"
991:
801:
702:
3290:
Hoyle, F. (1993). "Light element synthesis in Planck fireballs".
3052:"A quasi-steady state cosmological model with creation of matter"
1368:"Cosmic rays and radio waves as manifestations of a hot universe"
1174:
he Steady State theorists' ideas are largely discredited today...
3410:
3088:"Astrophysical deductions from the quasi-steady state cosmology"
1505:(1996-12-31). "Chapter 7: From Controversy to Marginalization".
662:
theory. In the steady-state model, the density of matter in the
3132:"Astrophysical deductions from the quasi-steady state: Erratum"
2017:"Simple but challenging: the Universe according to Planck"
1119:
1117:
1019:, discovered in June 2021, which has a length of 1000 Mpc
27:
Model of the universe – alternative to the Big Bang model
3239:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
1273:
The Oxford handbook of the history of modern cosmology
3527:
2586:
743:
in 1948. Similar models had been proposed earlier by
3461:
Conflict in the Cosmos: Fred Hoyle's Life in Science
1673:
Asta Heinesen; Hayley J. Macpherson (15 July 2021).
988:, discovered in 2003, which has a length of 423 Mpc,
910:
suggests that isotropy is violated on large scales.
2185:"A Test of the Cosmological Principle with Quasars"
2092:"On the expected anisotropy of radio source counts"
1895:"A Test of the Cosmological Principle with Quasars"
1188:"The Steady-State Theory of the Expanding Universe"
981:, discovered in 1991, which has a length of 580 Mpc
2605:
1470:
953:time delay, Type Ia supernovae, and quasars &
3436:Hoyle, F.; Burbidge, G.; Narlikar, J. V. (2000).
3331:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3188:Hoyle, F.; Burbidge, G.; Narlikar, J. V. (1995).
3137:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3130:Hoyle, F.; Burbidge, G.; Narlikar, J. V. (1994).
3093:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3086:Hoyle, F.; Burbidge, G.; Narlikar, J. V. (1994).
3050:Hoyle, F.; Burbidge, G.; Narlikar, J. V. (1993).
2997:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2299:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2256:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2096:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1607:
1605:
1397:Gould, R. J.; Burbidge, G. R. (1 November 1963).
1233:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1192:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
998:discovered in 2011, which has a length of 780 Mpc
693:, which the steady-state model does not predict.
3407:"Errors in the Steady State and Quasi-SS Models"
2090:G. F. R. Ellis; J. E. Baldwin (1 January 1984).
1739:"Evidence for anisotropy of cosmic acceleration"
1511:. Princeton University Press. pp. 318–388.
1448:. Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press.
1372:Ursi Symp. 1: Paris Symposium on Radio Astronomy
712:. Theoretical calculations also showed that the
945:. This contradicts the cosmological principle.
3327:"Comments on the Quasi-Steady-State Cosmology"
1541:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology (2nd ed.).
674:is always the same at any time and any place.
3505:Narlikar, Jayant; Burbidge, Geoffrey (2008).
1551:
1549:
613:
8:
620:
606:
220:
94:
52:
36:
3389:
3360:
3342:
3250:
3157:
3113:
3077:
3026:
3008:
2961:
2916:
2855:
2802:
2749:
2688:
2626:
2591:
2585:
2532:
2471:
2410:
2349:
2320:
2310:
2277:
2267:
2218:
2200:
2143:
2107:
1969:
1928:
1910:
1846:
1754:
1690:
1625:
1570:
1333:
1252:
1211:
787:insist that the radio data were suspect.
1229:"A New Model for the Expanding Universe"
860:Violations of the cosmological principle
631:
3534:
1113:
251:
223:
115:
44:
1366:Gold, T.; Hoyle, F. (1 January 1959).
3413:, Physics & Astronomy Department.
1186:Bondi, Hermann; Gold, Thomas (1948).
7:
1803:"Do We Live in a Lopsided Universe?"
1477:. John Whitney & Sons. pp.
1281:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198817666.013.5
3507:Facts and Speculations in Cosmology
1559:Journal of High Energy Astrophysics
1098:Large-scale structure of the cosmos
1010:Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall
3405:Wright, E. L. (20 December 2010).
3195:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
1310:"Einstein's lost theory uncovered"
348:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF")
25:
3438:A Different Approach to Cosmology
1958:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
1899:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
1063:is approximately the same as its
670:, a principle that says that the
563:Timeline of cosmological theories
328:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)
3597:
3585:
3573:
3561:
3549:
3537:
587:
576:
575:
1801:Lee Billings (April 15, 2020).
343:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS)
196:Future of an expanding universe
3431:, 509: L1–L3, 10 December 1998
3292:Astrophysics and Space Science
2874:10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.131302
2606:{\displaystyle L_{\text{X}}-T}
2044:Dennis Sciama (12 June 1967).
1051:. After the observation of an
917:shows hemispheric bias in the
880:perfect cosmological principle
870:Perfect cosmological principle
729:perfect cosmological principle
668:perfect cosmological principle
558:History of the Big Bang theory
354:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
1:
3484:Fred Hoyle: A Life in Science
1614:Classical and Quantum Gravity
1308:Castelvecchi, Davide (2014).
550:Discovery of cosmic microwave
201:Ultimate fate of the universe
32:Steady state (disambiguation)
3625:Obsolete theories in physics
2677:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2615:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2521:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2490:10.1088/2041-8205/714/2/L265
2132:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2022:ESA Science & Technology
1835:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2991:Nadathur, Seshadri (2013).
2821:10.1103/PhysRevD.105.103510
2768:10.1103/PhysRevD.105.063514
2707:10.1051/0004-6361/202140296
2645:10.1051/0004-6361/201936602
2162:10.1051/0004-6361/202039840
2070:10.1103/PhysRevLett.18.1065
1865:10.1051/0004-6361/201936602
1773:10.1051/0004-6361/201936373
1709:10.1103/PhysRevD.104.023525
1589:10.1016/j.jheap.2022.04.002
919:cosmic microwave background
886:) and from every location (
814:cosmic microwave background
808:Cosmic microwave background
318:Black Hole Initiative (BHI)
3651:
3511:Cambridge University Press
3442:Cambridge University Press
3169:Astronomy and Astrophysics
2551:10.1051/0004-6361:20053337
2429:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.101302
2368:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.063516
1988:10.1088/0004-637X/810/1/47
1743:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1444:Peebles, P. J. E. (2022).
1135:Princeton University Press
863:
763:
81:Chronology of the universe
29:
3429:The Astrophysical Journal
3057:The Astrophysical Journal
2905:The Astrophysical Journal
2460:The Astrophysical Journal
2293:Singal, Ashok K. (2022).
2250:Singal, Ashok K. (2022).
2189:The Astrophysical Journal
1517:10.1515/9780691227719-008
1508:Cosmology and Controversy
1473:Gravitation and Cosmology
1469:Weinberg, Steven (1972).
1403:The Astrophysical Journal
1103:Expansion of the universe
968:Violations of homogeneity
878:, which follows from the
658:is an alternative to the
174:Expansion of the universe
3362:10.1093/mnras/276.4.1421
3159:10.1093/mnras/269.4.1152
3115:10.1093/mnras/267.4.1007
2220:10.3847/2041-8213/abdd40
1930:10.3847/2041-8213/abdd40
1644:10.1088/1361-6382/ac1a81
745:William Duncan MacMillan
338:Planck space observatory
124:Gravitational wave (GWB)
3182:1994A&A...289..729H
2844:Physical Review Letters
2699:2021A&A...649A.151M
2637:2020A&A...636A..15M
2543:2005A&A...441..915H
2154:2021A&A...653A...9S
2109:10.1093/mnras/206.2.377
2050:Physical Review Letters
1857:2020A&A...636A..15M
1765:2019A&A...631L..13C
1254:10.1093/mnras/108.5.372
1213:10.1093/mnras/108.3.252
760:Counts of radio sources
191:Inhomogeneous cosmology
3325:Wright, E. L. (1994).
3216:10.1098/rspa.1995.0012
2607:
2279:10.1093/mnras/stac1986
1088:Non-standard cosmology
894:Violations of isotropy
876:cosmological principle
866:Cosmological principle
643:
3028:10.1093/mnras/stt1028
2608:
2322:10.1093/mnras/stac144
1159:"Steady State theory"
1053:accelerating universe
1045:mini-creation events,
923:European Space Agency
635:
282:Large-scale structure
260:Shape of the universe
18:Steady-state theories
2584:
1543:London: Wiley, 2003.
1275:. pp. 161–205.
1227:Hoyle, Fred (1948).
1093:Copernican principle
1061:Schwarzschild radius
979:Clowes–Campusano LQG
594:Astronomy portal
552:background radiation
529:List of cosmologists
3482:Mitton, S. (2005).
3459:Mitton, S. (2005).
3353:1995MNRAS.276.1421W
3261:2002PASP..114.1092N
3208:1995RSPSA.448..191H
3150:1994MNRAS.269.1152H
3106:1994MNRAS.267.1007H
3070:1993ApJ...410..437H
3019:2013MNRAS.434..398N
2927:2005ApJ...624..463G
2866:2016PhRvL.117m1302S
2813:2022PhRvD.105j3510L
2760:2022PhRvD.105f3514K
2613:scaling relation".
2482:2010ApJ...714L.265K
2421:2005PhRvD..72j1302L
2360:2004PhRvD..69f3516D
2211:2021ApJ...908L..51S
2062:1967PhRvL..18.1065S
1980:2015ApJ...810...47J
1921:2021ApJ...908L..51S
1808:Scientific American
1701:2021PhRvD.104b3525M
1636:2021CQGra..38r4001K
1581:2022JHEAp..34...49A
1415:1963ApJ...138..969G
1384:1959IAUS....9..583G
1326:2014Natur.506..418C
1245:1948MNRAS.108..372H
1204:1948MNRAS.108..252B
1070:Astrophysicist and
755:Observational tests
691:age of the universe
672:observable universe
656:steady state theory
294:Structure formation
186:Friedmann equations
76:Age of the universe
40:Part of a series on
3620:Physical cosmology
3465:Joseph Henry Press
3304:10.1007/BF00644753
3245:(800): 1092–1096.
2603:
2025:. October 5, 2016
1841:(April 2020): 42.
1065:Compton wavelength
1037:Jayant V. Narlikar
1027:Quasi-steady state
996:large quasar group
939:Type Ia supernovae
908:type Ia supernovae
664:expanding universe
652:steady-state model
644:
333:Dark Energy Survey
277:Large quasar group
46:Physical cosmology
3520:978-0-521-86504-3
3497:978-1-85410-961-3
3474:978-0-309-09313-2
3451:978-0-521-66223-9
2791:Physical Review D
2738:Physical Review D
2594:
2399:Physical Review D
2338:Physical Review D
2056:(24): 1065–1067.
1679:Physical Review D
1526:978-0-691-22771-9
1488:978-0-471-92567-5
1320:(7489): 418–419.
1290:978-0-19-881766-6
1144:978-0-691-02623-7
1033:Geoffrey Burbidge
928:Already in 1967,
840:relation or with
630:
629:
301:
300:
143:
142:
16:(Redirected from
3642:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3590:
3589:
3588:
3578:
3577:
3576:
3566:
3565:
3554:
3553:
3552:
3542:
3541:
3533:
3524:
3501:
3478:
3455:
3415:
3414:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3391:astro-ph/9412045
3381:
3375:
3374:
3364:
3346:
3344:astro-ph/9410070
3322:
3316:
3315:
3287:
3281:
3280:
3254:
3252:astro-ph/0205064
3234:
3228:
3227:
3185:
3163:
3161:
3127:
3117:
3100:(4): 1007–1019.
3083:
3081:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3030:
3012:
2988:
2982:
2981:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2920:
2918:astro-ph/0310571
2900:
2894:
2893:
2859:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2806:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2753:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2692:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2630:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2596:
2595:
2592:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2536:
2534:astro-ph/0507274
2516:
2510:
2509:
2475:
2466:(2): L265–L267.
2455:
2449:
2448:
2414:
2412:astro-ph/0507289
2394:
2388:
2387:
2353:
2351:astro-ph/0307282
2333:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2314:
2305:(2): 1819–1829.
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2271:
2262:(4): 5969–5980.
2247:
2241:
2240:
2222:
2204:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2147:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2111:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2013:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1973:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1932:
1914:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1850:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1758:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1694:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1629:
1609:
1600:
1599:
1574:
1553:
1544:
1537:
1531:
1530:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1476:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1363:
1357:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1337:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1121:
986:Sloan Great Wall
959:standard candles
955:gamma-ray bursts
846:can be disproved
791:X-ray background
747:, among others.
722:Georges Lemaître
716:, as modeled by
622:
615:
608:
592:
591:
590:
579:
578:
272:Galaxy formation
232:Lambda-CDM model
221:
213:Components
95:
56:
37:
21:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3635:1948 in science
3610:
3609:
3608:
3598:
3596:
3586:
3584:
3574:
3572:
3560:
3550:
3548:
3536:
3528:
3521:
3504:
3498:
3481:
3475:
3458:
3452:
3435:
3423:
3421:Further reading
3418:
3404:
3403:
3399:
3383:
3382:
3378:
3324:
3323:
3319:
3289:
3288:
3284:
3236:
3235:
3231:
3187:
3186:
3165:
3164:
3129:
3128:
3085:
3084:
3049:
3048:
3044:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2587:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2114:
2112:
2089:
2088:
2084:
2074:
2072:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2028:
2026:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2000:
1998:
1951:
1950:
1946:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1875:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1813:
1811:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1783:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1721:
1719:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1611:
1610:
1603:
1555:
1554:
1547:
1539:Andrew Liddle.
1538:
1534:
1527:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1355:
1351:
1335:10.1038/506418a
1307:
1306:
1302:
1291:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1167:
1165:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1123:
1122:
1115:
1111:
1084:
1029:
970:
933:studies of the
900:galaxy clusters
896:
872:
864:Main articles:
862:
834:
827:Steven Weinberg
810:
793:
768:
762:
757:
718:Albert Einstein
714:static universe
699:
683:astrophysicists
626:
588:
586:
568:
567:
554:
551:
544:
542:Subject history
534:
533:
525:
370:
362:
361:
358:
355:
313:
303:
302:
265:Galaxy filament
218:
206:
205:
157:
152:Expansion
145:
144:
129:Microwave (CMB)
108:Nucleosynthesis
92:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3648:
3646:
3638:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3606:
3594:
3582:
3570:
3558:
3546:
3526:
3525:
3519:
3502:
3496:
3479:
3473:
3456:
3450:
3433:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3416:
3397:
3376:
3317:
3298:(2): 177–193.
3282:
3269:10.1086/342374
3229:
3176:(3): 729–739.
3079:10.1086/172761
3042:
3003:(1): 398–406.
2983:
2969:
2948:
2935:10.1086/428890
2911:(2): 463–484.
2895:
2850:(13): 131302.
2834:
2797:(10): 103510.
2781:
2728:
2666:
2602:
2599:
2590:
2572:
2527:(3): 915–930.
2511:
2450:
2405:(10): 101302.
2389:
2328:
2285:
2242:
2175:
2122:
2102:(2): 377–381.
2082:
2036:
2008:
1944:
1885:
1821:
1793:
1729:
1665:
1620:(18): 184001.
1601:
1545:
1532:
1525:
1494:
1487:
1461:
1454:
1436:
1423:10.1086/147698
1389:
1358:
1349:
1300:
1289:
1260:
1219:
1178:
1150:
1143:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1083:
1080:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1013:
1006:
999:
989:
982:
969:
966:
951:strong lensing
935:Hubble diagram
915:Planck Mission
913:Data from the
898:Evidence from
895:
892:
861:
858:
832:
809:
806:
798:bremsstrahlung
792:
789:
780:speed of light
776:radio galaxies
761:
758:
756:
753:
698:
695:
628:
627:
625:
624:
617:
610:
602:
599:
598:
597:
596:
584:
570:
569:
566:
565:
560:
555:
548:
545:
540:
539:
536:
535:
532:
531:
524:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
372:
371:
368:
367:
364:
363:
360:
359:
352:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
314:
309:
308:
305:
304:
299:
298:
297:
296:
284:
279:
274:
262:
254:
253:
249:
248:
247:
246:
234:
226:
225:
219:
212:
211:
208:
207:
204:
203:
198:
193:
188:
176:
171:
158:
151:
150:
147:
146:
141:
140:
139:
138:
136:Neutrino (CNB)
126:
118:
117:
113:
112:
111:
110:
93:
91:Early universe
90:
89:
86:
85:
84:
83:
78:
73:
58:
57:
49:
48:
42:
41:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3647:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3605:
3595:
3593:
3583:
3581:
3571:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3557:
3547:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3522:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3503:
3499:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3457:
3453:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3425:
3424:
3420:
3412:
3408:
3401:
3398:
3392:
3387:
3380:
3377:
3372:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3283:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3233:
3230:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3202:(1933): 191.
3201:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3170:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3094:
3089:
3080:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3046:
3043:
3038:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2984:
2979:
2973:
2970:
2964:
2959:
2952:
2949:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2896:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2835:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2744:(6): 063514.
2743:
2739:
2732:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2670:
2667:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2600:
2597:
2588:
2576:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2515:
2512:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2454:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2390:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2344:(6): 063516.
2343:
2339:
2332:
2329:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2286:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2246:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2123:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2086:
2083:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2037:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2012:
2009:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1886:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1825:
1822:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1730:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1685:(2): 023525.
1684:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1509:
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1682:
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1572:2203.06142v1
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1503:Kragh, Helge
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1125:Kragh, Helge
1069:
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356:Probe (WMAP)
290:
287:Reionization
268:
240:
214:
182:
165:
162:Hubble's law
153:
132:
104:
67:
3592:Outer space
3580:Spaceflight
3488:Aurum Press
3337:(4): 1421.
3144:(4): 1152.
3064:: 437–457.
2029:October 29,
1168:January 11,
1072:cosmologist
888:homogeneity
737:Thomas Gold
687:astronomers
311:Experiments
244:Dark matter
237:Dark energy
179:FLRW metric
116:Backgrounds
3614:Categories
3124:11007/1133
2857:1605.07178
2804:2108.13228
2751:2106.02532
2690:2103.13904
2628:2004.03305
2312:2107.09390
2269:2106.11968
2202:2009.14826
2195:(2): L51.
2145:2010.08366
1971:1507.07560
1912:2009.14826
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1848:2004.03305
1756:1808.04597
1692:2103.11918
1627:2105.09790
1378:(9): 583.
1239:(5): 372.
1198:(3): 252.
1109:References
1075:Ned Wright
1057:black hole
1042:minibangs,
819:black body
785:Halton Arp
764:See also:
741:Fred Hoyle
391:Copernicus
369:Scientists
224:Components
3630:Cosmogony
3556:Astronomy
3371:118904109
3312:121245869
3037:119220579
3010:1306.1700
2963:1311.1104
2829:248713777
2776:235352881
2723:232352604
2715:0004-6361
2661:215238834
2653:0004-6361
2598:−
2559:0004-6361
2498:2041-8205
2473:1001.4613
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2437:1550-7998
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2229:2041-8213
2170:223953708
2001:March 24,
1964:(1): 47.
1939:222066749
1873:215238834
1814:March 24,
1781:208175643
1717:232307363
1660:234790314
1652:0264-9381
1597:247411131
1431:0004-637X
1017:Giant Arc
823:redshifts
648:cosmology
521:Zeldovich
421:Friedmann
396:de Sitter
323:BOOMERanG
252:Structure
217:Structure
101:Inflation
3277:15456774
3224:53449963
2882:27715088
2683:: A151.
2567:14626666
2506:24389919
2115:25 March
2075:25 March
1996:54958680
1878:24 March
1786:25 March
1722:25 March
1344:24572403
1127:(1999).
1082:See also
1003:Huge-LQG
884:isotropy
660:Big Bang
639:Big Bang
582:Category
501:Suntzeff
461:Lemaître
411:Einstein
376:Aaronson
169:Redshift
71:Universe
64:Big Bang
3544:Physics
3530:Portals
3349:Bibcode
3257:Bibcode
3204:Bibcode
3178:Bibcode
3146:Bibcode
3102:Bibcode
3066:Bibcode
3015:Bibcode
2943:9654355
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2809:Bibcode
2756:Bibcode
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2539:Bibcode
2478:Bibcode
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2356:Bibcode
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2058:Bibcode
1976:Bibcode
1917:Bibcode
1853:Bibcode
1761:Bibcode
1749:: L13.
1697:Bibcode
1632:Bibcode
1577:Bibcode
1479:463–464
1411:Bibcode
1409:: 969.
1380:Bibcode
1322:Bibcode
1296:today.'
1241:Bibcode
1200:Bibcode
943:quasars
904:quasars
836:versus
772:quasars
697:History
636:In the
506:Sunyaev
491:Schmidt
481:Penzias
476:Penrose
451:Huygens
441:Hawking
426:Galileo
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685:, and
650:, the
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511:Tolman
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466:Mather
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386:Alpher
381:Alfvén
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