668:. Most often bipolar supply (+ and - ) voltages are supplied to the controller relative to the winding return. So 50% duty cycle results in zero current. 0% results in full V/R current in one direction. 100% results in full current in the opposite direction. This current level is monitored by the controller by measuring the voltage across a small sense resistor in series with the winding. This requires additional electronics to sense winding currents, and control the switching, but it allows stepper motors to be driven with higher torque at higher speeds than L/R drives. It also allows the controller to output predetermined current levels rather than fixed. Integrated electronics for this purpose are widely available.
493:
connected, the shaft becomes harder to turn. One way to distinguish the center tap (common wire) from a coil-end wire is by measuring the resistance. Resistance between common wire and coil-end wire is always half of the resistance between coil-end wires. This is because there is twice the length of coil between the ends and only half from center (common wire) to the end. A quick way to determine if the stepper motor is working is to short circuit every two pairs and try turning the shaft. Whenever a higher-than-normal resistance is felt, it indicates that the circuit to the particular winding is closed and that the phase is working.
544:
497:
473:
764:
Several manufacturers show that their motors can easily maintain the 3% or 5% equality of step travel size as step size is reduced from full stepping down to 1/10 stepping. Then, as the microstepping divisor number grows, step size repeatability degrades. At large step size reductions it is possible to issue many microstep commands before any motion occurs at all and then the motion can be a "jump" to a new position. Some stepper controller ICs use increased current to minimise such missed steps, especially when the peak current pulses in one phase would otherwise be very brief.
514:
1048:). NEMA stepper motors are labeled by faceplate size, NEMA 17 being a stepper motor with a 1.7 by 1.7 inches (43 mm × 43 mm) faceplate and dimensions given in inches. The standard also lists motors with faceplate dimensions given in metric units. These motors are typically referred with NEMA DD, where DD is the diameter of the faceplate in inches multiplied by 10 (e.g., NEMA 17 has a diameter of 1.7 inches). There are further specifiers to describe stepper motors, and such details may be found in the ICS 16-2001 standard.
352:. To make the motor shaft turn, one electromagnet is first given power, which magnetically attracts the gear's teeth. When the gear's teeth are aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. This means that when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one. From there the process is repeated. Each of the partial rotations is called a "step", with an
326:
643:
since at some speed, the voltage U will be changing faster than the current I can keep up. In simple terms the rate of change of current is L / R (e.g. a 10 mH inductance with 2 ohms resistance will take 5 ms to reach approx 2/3 of maximum torque or around 24 ms to reach 99% of max torque). To obtain high torque at high speeds requires a large drive voltage with a low resistance and low inductance.
1277:
132:
594:
36:
318:
736:
to compensate. The advantage of half stepping is that the drive electronics need not change to support it. In animated figure shown above, if we change it to half-stepping, then it will take 8 steps to rotate by 1 tooth position. So there will be 25×8 = 200 steps per full rotation and each step will be 360/200 = 1.8°. Its angle per step is half of the full step.
247:
77:
688:(see Theory below), and it is ideally driven by sinusoidal current. A full-step waveform is a gross approximation of a sinusoid, and is the reason why the motor exhibits so much vibration. Various drive techniques have been developed to better approximate a sinusoidal drive waveform: these are half stepping and microstepping.
677:
829:
When the motor moves a single step it overshoots the final resting point and oscillates round this point as it comes to rest. This undesirable ringing is experienced as motor rotor vibration and is more pronounced in unloaded motors. An unloaded or under loaded motor may, and often will, stall if the
784:
during each step. Winding inductance and counter-EMF generated by a moving rotor tend to resist changes in drive current, so that as the motor speeds up, less and less time is spent at full current—thus reducing motor torque. As speeds further increase, the current will not reach the rated value, and
772:
A step motor can be viewed as a synchronous AC motor with the number of poles (on both rotor and stator) increased, taking care that they have no common denominator. Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth on the rotor and stator cheaply multiplies the number of poles (reluctance motor).
696:
In this drive method only a single phase is activated at a time. It has the same number of steps as the full-step drive, but the motor will have significantly less torque than rated. It is rarely used. The animated figure shown above is a wave drive motor. In the animation, rotor has 25 teeth and it
663:
Chopper drive circuits are referred to as controlled current drives because they generate a controlled current in each winding rather than applying a constant voltage. Chopper drive circuits are most often used with two-winding bipolar motors, the two windings being driven independently to provide a
642:
dI/dt = V/L. The resulting current for a voltage pulse is a quickly increasing current as a function of inductance. This reaches the V/R value and holds for the remainder of the pulse. Thus when controlled by a constant voltage drive, the maximum speed of a stepper motor is limited by its inductance
735:
When half-stepping, the drive alternates between two phases on and a single phase on. This increases the angular resolution. The motor also has less torque (approx 70%) at the full-step position (where only a single phase is on). This may be mitigated by increasing the current in the active winding
616:
may be extended to greater speeds if the stator poles can be reversed more quickly, the limiting factor being a combination of the winding inductance. To overcome the inductance and switch the windings quickly, one must increase the drive voltage. This leads further to the necessity of limiting the
492:
in the right order, and this ease of operation makes unipolar motors popular with hobbyists; they are probably the cheapest way to get precise angular movements. For the experimenter, the windings can be identified by touching the terminal wires together in PM motors. If the terminals of a coil are
1013:
Datasheets from the manufacturer often indicate
Inductance. Back-EMF is equally relevant, but seldom listed (it is straightforward to measure with an oscilloscope). These figures can be helpful for more in-depth electronics design, when deviating from standard supply voltages, adapting third party
633:
drives because a constant positive or negative voltage is applied to each winding to set the step positions. However, it is winding current, not voltage that applies torque to the stepper motor shaft. The current I in each winding is related to the applied voltage V by the winding inductance L and
793:
This is the measure of the torque produced by a stepper motor when it is operated without an acceleration state. At low speeds the stepper motor can synchronize itself with an applied step frequency, and this pull-in torque must overcome friction and inertia. It is important to make sure that the
646:
With an L/R drive it is possible to control a low voltage resistive motor with a higher voltage drive simply by adding an external resistor in series with each winding. This will waste power in the resistors, and generate heat. It is therefore considered a low performing option, albeit simple and
1186:
The driver (or amplifier) converts the indexer command signals into the power necessary to energize the motor windings. There are numerous types of drivers, with different voltage and current ratings and construction technology. Not all drivers are suitable to run all motors, so when designing a
748:
in which the winding current approximates a sinusoidal AC waveform. The common way to achieve sine-cosine current is with chopper-drive circuits. Sine–cosine microstepping is the most common form, but other waveforms can be used. Regardless of the waveform used, as the microsteps become smaller,
359:
The circular arrangement of electromagnets is divided into groups, each group called a phase, and there is an equal number of electromagnets per group. The number of groups is chosen by the designer of the stepper motor. The electromagnets of each group are interleaved with the electromagnets of
620:
An additional limitation, often comparable to the effects of inductance, is the back-EMF of the motor. As the motor's rotor turns, a sinusoidal voltage is generated proportional to the speed (step rate). This AC voltage is subtracted from the voltage waveform available to induce a change in the
555:
Because windings are better utilized, they are more powerful than a unipolar motor of the same weight. This is due to the physical space occupied by the windings. A unipolar motor has twice the amount of wire in the same space, but only half used at any point in time, hence is 50% efficient (or
533:
A typical driving pattern for a two coil bipolar stepper motor would be: A+ B+ A− B−. I.e. drive coil A with positive current, then remove current from coil A; then drive coil B with positive current, then remove current from coil B; then drive coil A with negative current (flipping polarity by
468:
circuit can be simply a single switching transistor for each half winding. Typically, given a phase, the center tap of each winding is made common: three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often, these two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five
763:
Example: many modern hybrid step motors are rated such that the travel of every full step (example 1.8 degrees per full step or 200 full steps per revolution) will be within 3% or 5% of the travel of every other full step, as long as the motor is operated within its specified operating ranges.
805:
The stepper motor pull-out torque is measured by accelerating the motor to the desired speed and then increasing the torque loading until the motor stalls or misses steps. This measurement is taken across a wide range of speeds and the results are used to generate the stepper motor's dynamic
726:
This is the usual method for full-step driving the motor. Two phases are always on so the motor will provide its maximum rated torque. As soon as one phase is turned off, another one is turned on. Wave drive and single phase full step are both one and the same, with same number of steps but
650:
Modern voltage-mode drivers overcome some of these limitations by approximating a sinusoidal voltage waveform to the motor phases. The amplitude of the voltage waveform is set up to increase with step rate. If properly tuned, this compensates the effects of inductance and
340:
is applied to their terminals. The stepper motor is known for its property of converting a train of input pulses (typically square waves) into a precisely defined increment in the shaft’s rotational position. Each pulse rotates the shaft through a fixed angle.
806:
performance curve. As noted below this curve is affected by drive voltage, drive current and current switching techniques. A designer may include a safety factor between the rated torque and the estimated full load torque required for the application.
266:
The left electromagnet (4) is energized, rotating again by 3.6°. When the top electromagnet (1) is again enabled, the rotor will have rotated by one tooth position; since there are 25 teeth, it will take 100 steps to make a full rotation in this
664:
specific motor torque CW or CCW. On each winding, a "supply" voltage is applied to the winding as a square wave voltage; example 8 kHz. The winding inductance smooths the current which reaches a level according to the square wave
1025:, which is specified by the manufacturer at particular drive voltages or using their own drive circuitry. Dips in the torque curve suggest possible resonances, whose impact on the application should be understood by designers.
1017:
A stepper's low-speed torque will vary directly with current. How quickly the torque falls off at faster speeds depends on the winding inductance and the drive circuitry it is attached to, especially the driving voltage.
525:
Bipolar motors have a pair of single winding connections per phase. The current in a winding needs to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be more complicated, typically with an
295:. The step position can be rapidly increased or decreased to create continuous rotation, or the motor can be ordered to actively hold its position at one given step. Motors vary in size, speed, step resolution, and
911:
250:
Animation of a simplified stepper motor turned on, attracting the nearest teeth of the gear-shaped iron rotor. With the teeth aligned to electromagnet 1, they will be slightly offset from right electromagnet (2).
837:
of operation. When the excitation frequency matches this resonance the ringing is more pronounced, steps may be missed, and stalling is more likely. Motor resonance frequency can be calculated from the formula:
360:
other groups to form a uniform pattern of arrangement. For example, if the stepper motor has two groups identified as A or B, and ten electromagnets in total, then the grouping pattern would be ABABABABAB.
463:
per phase. Each section of windings is switched on for each direction of magnetic field. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the polarity of the common wire, the
534:
switching the wires e.g. with an H bridge), then remove current from coil A; then drive coil B with negative current (again flipping polarity same as coil A); the cycle is complete and begins anew.
1010:
will produce the rated winding current at DC: but this is mostly a meaningless rating, as all modern drivers are current limiting and the drive voltages greatly exceed the motor rated voltage.
556:
approximately 70% of the torque output available). Though a bipolar stepper motor is more complicated to drive, the abundance of driver chips means this is much less difficult to achieve.
344:
Stepper motors effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged as a stator around a central rotor, a gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external
749:
motor operation becomes smoother, thereby greatly reducing resonance in any parts the motor may be connected to, as well as the motor itself. Resolution will be limited by the mechanical
797:
The pull-in curve defines an area called the start/stop region. Into this region, the motor can be started/stopped instantaneously with a load applied and without loss of synchronism.
572:
Bipolar with a single winding per phase. This method will run the motor on only half the available windings, which will reduce the available low speed torque but require less current
404:
Permanent magnet stepper motors have simple DC switching electronics, a power-off detent, and no position readout. These qualities are ideal for applications such as paper printers,
256:
The top electromagnet (1) is turned off, and the right electromagnet (2) is energized, pulling the teeth into alignment with it. This results in a rotation of 3.6° in this example.
397:
remains at that shaft location. This detent has a predictable spring rate and specified torque limit; slippage occurs if the limit is exceeded. If current is removed, a lesser
1180:
capable of generating step pulses and direction signals for the driver. In addition, the indexer is typically required to perform many other sophisticated command functions.
363:
Electromagnets within the same group are all energized together. Because of this, stepper motors with more phases typically have more wires (or leads) to control the motor.
95:
1239:
Precise positioning and repeatability of movement, since good stepper motors have an accuracy of 3–5% of a step and this error is non-cumulative from one step to the next.
994:
resulting from rotor velocity. The resultant current promotes damping, so the drive circuit characteristics are important. The rotor ringing can be described in terms of
401:
still remains, holding shaft position against spring or other torque influences. Stepping can then be resumed while reliably being synchronized with control electronics.
559:
An 8-lead stepper is like a unipolar stepper, but the leads are not joined to common internally to the motor. This kind of motor can be wired in several configurations:
988:
941:
655:, allowing decent performance relative to current-mode drivers, but at the expense of design effort (tuning procedures) that are simpler for current-mode drivers.
1041:
961:
1943:
1687:
530:
arrangement (however there are several off-the-shelf driver chips available to make this a simple affair). There are two leads per phase, none is common.
447:
1169:
A stepper motor system consists of three basic elements, often combined with some type of user interface (host computer, PLC or dumb terminal):
1245:
Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore, the life of the motor is simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
581:
Multi-phase stepper motors with many phases tend to have much lower levels of vibration. While they are more expensive, they do have a higher
1442:
1394:
500:
Stepper motors like this are often accompanied by a reduction gear mechanism to increase the output torque. The one shown here was used in a
844:
1014:
driver electronics, or gaining insight when choosing between motor models with otherwise similar size, voltage, and torque specifications.
821:, and sometimes included in the specifications) when not driven electrically. Soft iron reluctance cores do not exhibit this behavior.
426:
Hybrid synchronous motors are a combination of the permanent magnet and variable reluctance types, to maximize power in a small size.
408:, and robotics. Such applications track position simply by counting the number of steps that each motor has been instructed to take.
287:
that rotates in a series of small and discrete angular steps. Stepper motors can be set to any given step position without needing a
757:, and other sources of error between the motor and the end device. Gear reducers may be used to increase resolution of positioning.
233:
215:
113:
63:
1432:
1045:
543:
1006:
Stepper motors' nameplates typically give only the winding current and occasionally the voltage and winding resistance. The rated
2123:
1680:
1157:
by programming the motors to rotate at the frequencies of different musical tones, in a sequence that imitates that found in a
496:
472:
393:
electromagnets. Pulses move the rotor clockwise or anticlockwise in discrete steps. If left powered at a final step, a strong
2072:
1248:
The motor's response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less costly to control.
153:
149:
49:
638:
I=V/R. The inductance L determines the maximum rate of change of the current in the winding according to the formula for an
540:
Dithering the stepper signal at a higher frequency than the motor can respond to will reduce this "static friction" effect.
196:
1857:
1561:
1154:
168:
569:
Bipolar with parallel windings. This requires higher current but can perform better as the winding inductance is reduced.
2205:
1306:
1621:
2215:
1928:
1901:
1494:
1296:
284:
1254:
A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized, as the speed is proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.
175:
2225:
2220:
1673:
1660:
814:
513:
142:
2300:
1918:
1896:
1311:
1291:
302:
1538:
1251:
It is possible to achieve very low-speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the shaft.
2331:
2169:
2023:
1091:
182:
2270:
1581:
760:
Step size reduction is an important step motor feature and a fundamental reason for their use in positioning.
2210:
1761:
1044:(NEMA) standardises various dimensions, marking and other aspects of stepper motors, in NEMA standard (NEMA
1193:
The stepper motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital pulses into mechanical shaft rotation.
2033:
1938:
1867:
1646:
1103:
754:
382:
372:
164:
2164:
2028:
1766:
1746:
1726:
1468:
1404:
794:
load on the motor is frictional rather than inertial as the friction reduces any unwanted oscillations.
781:
465:
306:
2159:
2052:
1801:
1776:
1482:
1138:
1064:
440:
2265:
1968:
1963:
1708:
598:
446:
416:
2336:
2290:
2184:
2139:
2077:
2047:
2001:
1824:
1811:
1355:
Clarence W. de Silva. Mechatronics: An
Integrated Approach (2005). CRC Press. p. 675. "The terms
1282:
1099:
1060:
518:
55:
2250:
2200:
2154:
2082:
1874:
1862:
1852:
1438:
1390:
1146:
834:
389:(PM) in the rotor and operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor magnet and the
2305:
2295:
2240:
2235:
2179:
2149:
2097:
1993:
1983:
1973:
1923:
1786:
1756:
1696:
1642:
1382:
1118:
990:
is the rotor inertia in kg·m². The magnitude of the undesirable ringing is dependent on the
537:
Static friction effects using an H-bridge have been observed with certain drive topologies.
386:
376:
349:
333:
305:
are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count. They generally employ closed-loop
1520:
1386:
1264:
Resonance effect often exhibited at low speeds and decreasing torque with increasing speed.
966:
919:
189:
2280:
2230:
2092:
1913:
1891:
1879:
1847:
1751:
1417:
1378:
1079:
485:
356:
of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.
2255:
566:
Bipolar with series windings. This gives higher inductance but lower current per winding.
2275:
2174:
2144:
2006:
1958:
1906:
1834:
1771:
1714:
1326:
1177:
1087:
1057:
995:
946:
818:
780:
To achieve full rated torque, the coils in a stepper motor must reach their full rated
774:
714:
685:
634:
the winding resistance R. The resistance R determines the maximum current according to
630:
609:
585:
and with the appropriate drive electronics are often better suited to the application.
353:
345:
288:
325:
2325:
2285:
1549:
1457:
Clarence W. de Silva. Mechatronics: An
Integrated Approach (2005). CRC Press. p. 675.
1130:
1114:
582:
548:
501:
423:. Variable reluctance motors have detents when powered on, but not when powered off.
2310:
2245:
1933:
1134:
1126:
1095:
1083:
1022:
613:
635:
2087:
2018:
1316:
1142:
1110:
405:
131:
1626:
1507:
1276:
680:
Different drive modes showing coil current on a 4-phase unipolar stepper motor.
593:
419:
occurs with minimum gap, so the rotor points are attracted toward the stator's
1978:
1948:
1819:
1781:
1655:
1272:
1150:
665:
489:
460:
337:
17:
1539:
http://www.applied-motion.com/videos/intro-amps-ip65-rated-motors-motordrives
2260:
2013:
1791:
412:
317:
1632:
1595:
246:
2042:
1886:
1842:
1331:
1321:
991:
750:
652:
639:
527:
477:
292:
261:
The bottom electromagnet (3) is energized; another 3.6° rotation occurs.
817:
using permanent magnets have a resonant position holding torque (called
773:
Modern steppers are of hybrid design, having both permanent magnets and
2118:
2113:
1638:
1566:
1236:
The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized)
1122:
1007:
602:
906:{\displaystyle f={\frac {100}{2\pi }}{\sqrt {\frac {2pM_{h}}{J_{r}}}}}
1796:
1720:
1301:
1075:
420:
398:
394:
390:
296:
1665:
1610:
1078:
they are frequently used in precision positioning equipment such as
1233:
The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
1153:. Some programming hobbyists have used arrays of stepper motors as
1028:
Step motors adapted to harsh environments are often referred to as
1483:
https://homepage.divms.uiowa.edu/~jones/step/physics.html#friction
1071:
830:
vibration experienced is enough to cause loss of synchronisation.
675:
592:
542:
512:
495:
480:
driver, is one of the most popular stepper motors among hobbyists.
471:
445:
324:
316:
245:
1434:
Instrument
Engineers' Handbook: Process Control and Optimization
1187:
motion control system, the driver selection process is critical.
1158:
1029:
697:
takes 4 steps to rotate by one tooth position. So there will be
676:
547:
A bipolar stepper motor with gear reduction mechanism used in a
1669:
1651:
488:
or stepper motor controller can be used to activate the drive
125:
70:
29:
1098:. Other uses are in packaging machinery, and positioning of
1063:. They are typically digitally controlled as part of an
1067:
system for use in holding or positioning applications.
744:
What is commonly referred to as microstepping is often
617:
current that these high voltages may otherwise induce.
608:
Stepper motor performance is strongly dependent on the
91:
1469:"Stepper Motor – Types, Advantages & Applications"
415:
rotor and operate based on the principle that minimum
969:
949:
922:
847:
1944:
Dual-rotor permanent magnet induction motor (DRPMIM)
1481:
See "Friction and the Dead Zone" by
Douglas W Jones
701:= 100 steps per full rotation and each step will be
2193:
2132:
2106:
2061:
1992:
1833:
1810:
1735:
1622:
Controlling a stepper motor without microcontroller
1367:
are synonymous and are often used interchangeably."
785:eventually the motor will cease to produce torque.
443:
in a two phase stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar.
156:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
86:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
1550:http://www.cncitalia.net/file/pdf/nemastandard.pdf
1242:Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
982:
955:
935:
905:
1056:Computer controlled stepper motors are a type of
439:There are two basic winding arrangements for the
1021:Steppers should be sized according to published
1521:"Microstepping: Myths and Realities - MICROMO"
459:A unipolar stepper motor has one winding with
371:There are three main types of stepper motors:
1681:
1042:National Electrical Manufacturers Association
27:Electric motor for discrete partial rotations
8:
1661:Stepping Motor Drive Guide from Dover Motion
629:L/R driver circuits are also referred to as
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1688:
1674:
1666:
1215:Can operate in an open loop control system
1109:Commercially, stepper motors are used in
974:
968:
948:
927:
921:
894:
883:
869:
854:
846:
234:Learn how and when to remove this message
216:Learn how and when to remove this message
114:Learn how and when to remove this message
98:, without removing the technical details.
1379:"A Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering"
1227:Can be used in robotics in a wide scale.
601:Motor Shield drive circuit for use with
1639:Control of Stepping Motors - A Tutorial
1377:Escudier, Marcel; Atkins, Tony (2019).
1345:
411:Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a
1596:"Advanced Micro Systems - stepper 101"
1413:
1402:
1206:High torque at startup and low speeds
96:make it understandable to non-experts
7:
1537:More on what is an IP65 step motor:
1387:10.1093/acref/9780198832102.001.0001
1351:
1349:
154:adding citations to reliable sources
1562:"Yakety Sax - Stepper Motor music"
1495:"electricmotors.machinedesign.com"
1467:Tarun, Agarwal (24 October 2013).
1218:Low maintenance (high reliability)
25:
1327:Three-phase AC synchronous motors
1176:The indexer (or controller) is a
963:is the number of pole pairs, and
45:This article has multiple issues.
1275:
517:A bipolar stepper motor used in
130:
75:
34:
722:Full-step drive (two phases on)
684:A stepper motor is a polyphase
476:The 28BYJ-48, accompanied by a
141:needs additional citations for
53:or discuss these issues on the
2073:Timeline of the electric motor
1155:electronic musical instruments
943:is the holding torque in N·m,
521:for moving the laser assembly.
329:A bipolar hybrid stepper motor
1:
1858:Dahlander pole changing motor
1203:Low cost for control achieved
1627:Zaber Microstepping Tutorial
1582:"Arduino MIDI Stepper Synth"
1307:Fractional horsepower motors
1224:Will work in any environment
1221:Less likely to stall or slip
450:Unipolar stepper motor coils
1902:Brushless DC electric motor
1437:. CRC Press. p. 2464.
1297:Brushless DC electric motor
815:Synchronous electric motors
379:, and hybrid synchronous.
285:Brushless DC electric motor
2353:
1629:. Retrieved on 2007-11-15.
1212:Simplicity of construction
1002:Ratings and specifications
303:Switched reluctance motors
1919:Switched reluctance (SRM)
1897:Brushed DC electric motor
1703:
1635:. Retrieved on 2023-7-20.
1334:(stepper motor) driver IC
1312:Lavet-type stepping motor
1292:Brushed DC electric motor
746:sine–cosine microstepping
692:Wave drive (one phase on)
336:rotate continuously when
2107:Experimental, futuristic
2024:Variable-frequency drive
1431:Liptak, Bela G. (2005).
819:detent torque or cogging
2124:Superconducting machine
1762:Coil winding technology
1633:Stepper System Overview
672:Phase current waveforms
383:Permanent magnet motors
1647:The University of Iowa
1412:Cite journal requires
984:
957:
937:
907:
833:Stepper motors have a
727:difference in torque.
681:
659:Chopper drive circuits
605:
552:
522:
505:
481:
451:
330:
322:
268:
2165:Power-to-weight ratio
2029:Direct torque control
1104:fluid control systems
985:
983:{\displaystyle J_{r}}
958:
938:
936:{\displaystyle M_{h}}
908:
825:Ringing and resonance
679:
596:
546:
516:
499:
475:
449:
441:electromagnetic coils
328:
320:
249:
2160:Open-loop controller
2053:Ward Leonard control
1777:DC injection braking
1165:Stepper motor system
1139:intelligent lighting
967:
947:
920:
845:
686:AC synchronous motor
150:improve this article
2063:History, education,
1709:Alternating current
1600:www.stepcontrol.com
1036:NEMA stepper motors
625:L/R driver circuits
597:Stepper motor with
377:variable reluctance
2226:Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
2185:Voltage controller
2140:Blocked-rotor test
2078:Ball bearing motor
2048:Motor soft starter
2002:AC-to-AC converter
1863:Wound-rotor (WRIM)
1825:Electric generator
1611:Final Drive Motors
1283:Electronics portal
1111:floppy disk drives
1061:positioning system
980:
953:
933:
903:
682:
606:
577:Higher-phase count
553:
523:
506:
482:
452:
331:
323:
269:
2319:
2318:
2155:Open-circuit test
1994:Motor controllers
1875:Synchronous motor
1697:Electric machines
1444:978-0-8493-1081-2
1396:978-0-19-883210-2
1119:computer printers
956:{\displaystyle p}
901:
900:
867:
835:natural frequency
334:Brushed DC motors
244:
243:
236:
226:
225:
218:
200:
124:
123:
116:
68:
16:(Redirected from
2344:
2170:Two-phase system
2150:Electromagnetism
2098:Mouse mill motor
2065:recreational use
1939:Permanent magnet
1868:Linear induction
1721:Permanent magnet
1690:
1683:
1676:
1667:
1643:Douglas W. Jones
1604:
1603:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1558:
1552:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1464:
1458:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1400:
1374:
1368:
1353:
1285:
1280:
1279:
1230:High reliability
1115:flatbed scanners
1080:linear actuators
1070:In the field of
989:
987:
986:
981:
979:
978:
962:
960:
959:
954:
942:
940:
939:
934:
932:
931:
912:
910:
909:
904:
902:
899:
898:
889:
888:
887:
871:
870:
868:
866:
855:
717:
710:
709:
705:
700:
631:constant voltage
387:permanent magnet
373:permanent magnet
350:micro controller
275:, also known as
239:
232:
221:
214:
210:
207:
201:
199:
158:
134:
126:
119:
112:
108:
105:
99:
79:
78:
71:
60:
38:
37:
30:
21:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2332:Electric motors
2322:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2189:
2128:
2102:
2093:Mendocino motor
2066:
2064:
2057:
1988:
1848:Induction motor
1829:
1806:
1752:Braking chopper
1740:
1738:
1731:
1699:
1694:
1618:
1608:
1607:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1548:
1544:
1536:
1532:
1525:www.micromo.com
1519:
1518:
1514:
1510:, microstepping
1506:
1502:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1480:
1476:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1430:
1429:
1425:
1411:
1401:
1397:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1354:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1281:
1274:
1271:
1261:
1200:
1167:
1088:rotation stages
1054:
1038:
1004:
970:
965:
964:
945:
944:
923:
918:
917:
890:
879:
872:
859:
843:
842:
827:
812:
803:
801:Pull-out torque
791:
775:soft iron cores
770:
742:
733:
724:
712:
707:
703:
702:
698:
694:
674:
661:
627:
591:
589:Driver circuits
579:
549:flatbed scanner
511:
502:flatbed scanner
486:microcontroller
457:
455:Unipolar motors
437:
432:
369:
321:A stepper motor
315:
289:position sensor
262:
257:
252:
240:
229:
228:
227:
222:
211:
205:
202:
165:"Stepper motor"
159:
157:
147:
135:
120:
109:
103:
100:
92:help improve it
89:
80:
76:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2350:
2348:
2340:
2339:
2334:
2324:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2175:Inchworm motor
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2145:Circle diagram
2142:
2136:
2134:
2133:Related topics
2130:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2083:Barlow's wheel
2080:
2075:
2069:
2067:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2034:Vector control
2031:
2016:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2007:Cycloconverter
1998:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1839:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1816:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1772:Damper winding
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1743:
1741:
1737:Components and
1736:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1723:
1717:
1715:Direct current
1711:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1685:
1678:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1649:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1617:
1616:External links
1614:
1606:
1605:
1587:
1573:
1553:
1542:
1530:
1512:
1500:
1486:
1474:
1459:
1450:
1443:
1423:
1414:|journal=
1395:
1369:
1361:stepping motor
1344:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1335:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1191:
1190:Stepper motors
1188:
1184:
1181:
1178:microprocessor
1174:
1166:
1163:
1131:image scanners
1058:motion-control
1053:
1050:
1037:
1034:
1003:
1000:
996:damping factor
977:
973:
952:
930:
926:
914:
913:
897:
893:
886:
882:
878:
875:
865:
862:
858:
853:
850:
826:
823:
811:
808:
802:
799:
790:
789:Pull-in torque
787:
769:
766:
741:
738:
732:
729:
723:
720:
693:
690:
673:
670:
660:
657:
626:
623:
610:driver circuit
590:
587:
578:
575:
574:
573:
570:
567:
564:
510:
509:Bipolar motors
507:
456:
453:
436:
433:
431:
428:
421:magnetic poles
368:
365:
354:integer number
346:driver circuit
314:
311:
281:stepping motor
242:
241:
224:
223:
138:
136:
129:
122:
121:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
18:Stepper motors
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2349:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2060:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1969:Piezoelectric
1967:
1965:
1964:Electrostatic
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1734:
1728:
1724:
1722:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1710:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1686:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1671:
1668:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1613:
1612:
1601:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1583:
1577:
1574:
1569:
1568:
1563:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1501:
1496:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1463:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1446:
1440:
1436:
1435:
1427:
1424:
1419:
1406:
1398:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1373:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1357:stepper motor
1352:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1262:
1259:Disadvantages
1258:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1143:camera lenses
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1127:slot machines
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1096:mirror mounts
1093:
1089:
1085:
1084:linear stages
1081:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1059:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1026:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1009:
1001:
999:
997:
993:
975:
971:
950:
928:
924:
895:
891:
884:
880:
876:
873:
863:
860:
856:
851:
848:
841:
840:
839:
836:
831:
824:
822:
820:
816:
810:Detent torque
809:
807:
800:
798:
795:
788:
786:
783:
778:
776:
767:
765:
761:
758:
756:
752:
747:
740:Microstepping
739:
737:
731:Half-stepping
730:
728:
721:
719:
716:
691:
689:
687:
678:
671:
669:
667:
658:
656:
654:
648:
644:
641:
637:
632:
624:
622:
618:
615:
614:Torque curves
611:
604:
600:
595:
588:
586:
584:
583:power density
576:
571:
568:
565:
562:
561:
560:
557:
550:
545:
541:
538:
535:
531:
529:
520:
515:
508:
503:
498:
494:
491:
487:
479:
474:
470:
467:
462:
454:
448:
444:
442:
434:
429:
427:
424:
422:
418:
414:
409:
407:
402:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
378:
374:
366:
364:
361:
357:
355:
351:
347:
342:
339:
335:
327:
319:
312:
310:
308:
304:
300:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
273:stepper motor
265:
260:
255:
248:
238:
235:
220:
217:
209:
198:
195:
191:
188:
184:
181:
177:
174:
170:
167: –
166:
162:
161:Find sources:
155:
151:
145:
144:
139:This article
137:
133:
128:
127:
118:
115:
107:
97:
93:
87:
84:This article
82:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
1953:
1609:
1599:
1590:
1576:
1565:
1556:
1545:
1533:
1524:
1515:
1503:
1489:
1477:
1462:
1453:
1433:
1426:
1405:cite journal
1372:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1168:
1147:CNC machines
1135:compact disc
1108:
1069:
1055:
1052:Applications
1039:
1027:
1023:torque curve
1020:
1016:
1012:
1005:
915:
832:
828:
813:
804:
796:
792:
779:
771:
762:
759:
745:
743:
734:
725:
695:
683:
662:
649:
645:
628:
619:
607:
580:
558:
554:
539:
536:
532:
524:
483:
458:
438:
425:
410:
403:
381:
370:
362:
358:
343:
332:
301:
280:
276:
272:
270:
263:
258:
253:
230:
212:
206:October 2023
203:
193:
186:
179:
172:
160:
148:Please help
143:verification
140:
110:
104:October 2023
101:
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
2088:Lynch motor
1853:Shaded-pole
1739:accessories
1317:Servo motor
1151:3D printers
1102:stages for
1100:valve pilot
1092:goniometers
1046:ICS 16-2001
490:transistors
466:commutation
406:3D printers
307:commutators
2326:Categories
1984:Axial flux
1974:Ultrasonic
1949:Servomotor
1929:Doubly fed
1924:Reluctance
1820:Alternator
1812:Generators
1782:Field coil
1767:Commutator
1727:commutated
1725:SC - Self-
1656:RepRapWiki
1652:NEMA motor
1365:step motor
1340:References
1209:Ruggedness
1198:Advantages
666:duty cycle
519:DVD drives
461:center tap
417:reluctance
338:DC voltage
277:step motor
176:newspapers
50:improve it
2337:Actuators
2301:Steinmetz
2216:Davenport
2014:Amplidyne
1914:Universal
1892:Homopolar
1880:Repulsion
1792:Slip ring
1508:zaber.com
1065:open loop
864:π
636:Ohm's law
621:current.
563:Unipolar.
435:Two phase
413:soft iron
313:Mechanism
56:talk page
2306:Sturgeon
2236:Ferraris
2221:Davidson
2043:Metadyne
1959:Traction
1907:Unipolar
1887:DC motor
1843:AC motor
1747:Armature
1332:ULN2003A
1322:Solenoid
1269:See also
1173:Indexers
1137:drives,
1123:plotters
992:back EMF
755:backlash
751:stiction
653:back-EMF
640:inductor
599:Adafruit
528:H-bridge
293:feedback
267:example.
264:Frame 4:
259:Frame 3:
254:Frame 2:
2296:Sprague
2291:Siemens
2266:Maxwell
2231:Faraday
2180:Starter
2119:Railgun
2114:Coilgun
1954:Stepper
1802:Winding
1567:YouTube
1183:Drivers
1040:The US
1032:rated.
1008:voltage
782:current
706:⁄
647:cheap.
603:Arduino
478:ULN2003
283:, is a
190:scholar
90:Please
2286:Saxton
2271:Ørsted
2256:Jedlik
2251:Jacobi
2241:Gramme
2206:Barlow
2194:People
2019:Drives
1934:Linear
1835:Motors
1797:Stator
1441:
1393:
1363:, and
1302:Flange
1161:file.
1149:, and
1094:, and
1076:optics
1072:lasers
916:where
768:Theory
699:25 × 4
469:leads.
430:Phases
399:detent
395:detent
391:stator
385:use a
297:torque
192:
185:
178:
171:
163:
2311:Tesla
2281:Pixii
2246:Henry
2211:Botto
2201:Arago
1787:Rotor
1757:Brush
1719:PM -
1713:DC -
1707:AC -
367:Types
348:or a
197:JSTOR
183:books
2276:Park
2261:Lenz
1979:TEFC
1439:ISBN
1418:help
1391:ISBN
1159:MIDI
1074:and
1030:IP65
291:for
169:news
1383:doi
857:100
713:3.6
708:100
704:360
279:or
152:by
94:to
2328::
1654:,
1645:,
1641:–
1598:.
1564:.
1523:.
1409::
1407:}}
1403:{{
1389:.
1381:.
1359:,
1348:^
1145:,
1141:,
1133:,
1129:,
1125:,
1121:,
1117:,
1113:,
1106:.
1090:,
1086:,
1082:,
998:.
777:.
753:,
718:.
711:=
612:.
484:A
375:,
309:.
299:.
271:A
59:.
1689:e
1682:t
1675:v
1602:.
1584:.
1570:.
1527:.
1497:.
1471:.
1447:.
1420:)
1416:(
1399:.
1385::
976:r
972:J
951:p
929:h
925:M
896:r
892:J
885:h
881:M
877:p
874:2
861:2
852:=
849:f
715:°
551:.
504:.
237:)
231:(
219:)
213:(
208:)
204:(
194:·
187:·
180:·
173:·
146:.
117:)
111:(
106:)
102:(
88:.
66:)
62:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
