899:
341:, variability and the availability of normative data. However, it is important to note that all sudomotor function assessments are not specific for small fiber or sudomotor neuropathy, as they can also yield abnormal results from disorders of the sweat glands themselves. The following is a list of methods used in clinical practice and clinical research for sudomotor assessment.
840:. In addition, there is significant intra-individual and inter-individual variability, and SSR declines with age and is commonly absent in individuals over the age of 50. SSR is only considered a surrogate marker of sudomotor function and its results should be interpreted in the context of other sudomotor testing.
848:
The spoon test, developed in 1964 by Dr. Ernest Bors, relies on assessment of the smooth movement of the convex side of a spoon along the surface of the patient’s skin. In patients with sudomotor dysfunction, the spoon will slide in a smooth and uninterrupted fashion. Conversely, the spoon’s movement
828:
is positioned on the patient’s palm or sole, along with a reference electrode on the dorsal side of the same body area. A change in skin potential is then induced either through electrical stimulation or deep breathing. The recorded SSR is then plotted on a graph and analyzed for presence or absence,
2637:
Vinik, Aaron I.; Smith, A. Gordon; Singleton, J. Robinson; Callaghan, Brian; Freedman, Barry I.; Tuomilehto, Jaakko; Bordier, Lyse; Bauduceau, Bernard; Roche, Frederic (June 2016). "Normative Values for
Electrochemical Skin Conductances and Impact of Ethnicity on Quantitative Assessment of Sudomotor
344:
Thermoregulatory Sweat Test (TST) and
Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test (QSART) are considered the gold standards for assessment of sudomotor function. Newer methods may offer simpler, potentially more sensitive, and more widely available alternatives for screening and monitoring in the clinic
789:
solution. At the onset of sweating, the reaction of sweat with the povidone-iodine solution and corn starch results in the appearance of a black spot. A customized miniature camera can follow the secretions of up to 400 sweat glands at a time for up to 60 seconds, analyzing the enlargement rate and
639:
age groups, and it has been demonstrated that ESC values begin to decrease in the eighth decade of life. ESC has the potential to be a useful tool for detecting small fiber neuropathies. It is highly sensitive, rapid, more accessible and less technically complex than current gold standard sudomotor
425:
is released steadily onto the skin within the inner compartment. The middle compartment acts as a buffer between the inner and outer compartments to prevent direct stimulation of sweat glands or leakage of the acetylcholine solution. The outflow humidity of the nitrogen gas after passing across the
760:
Although QDIRT is less technically demanding than QSART or TST, it still requires trained staff and an environmentally controlled room; iontophoresis may cause skin irritation or burning; the skin areas studied using QDIRT are not pre-defined, thus limiting the interindividual comparability of the
3706:
Saad, Mehdi; Psimaras, Dimitri; Tafani, Camille; Sallansonnet-Froment, Magali; Calvet, Jean-Henri; Vilier, Alice; Tigaud, Jean-Marie; Bompaire, Flavie; Lebouteux, Marie; de
Greslan, Thierry; Ceccaldi, Bernard; Poirier, Jean-Michel; Ferrand, François-Régis; Le Moulec, Sylvestre; Huillard, Olivier;
2314:
D'Amato, Cinzia; Greco, Carla; Lombardo, Giorgio; Frattina, Valentina; Campo, Mariagrazia; Cefalo, Chiara M. A.; Izzo, Valentina; Lauro, Davide; Spallone, Vincenza (March 2020). "The diagnostic usefulness of the combined COMPASS 31 questionnaire and electrochemical skin conductance for diabetic
2793:
Papanas, Nikolaos; Giassakis, Georgios; Papatheodorou, Konstantinos; Papazoglou, Dimitrios; Monastiriotis, Christodoulos; Christakidis, Dimitrios; Piperidou, Haritomeni; Maltezos, Efstratios (November 2007). "Sensitivity and specificity of a new indicator test (Neuropad) for the diagnosis of
756:
and mineral oil. The indicator dye changes color with the onset of sweating. Digital photographs of the color change are recorded every 15 seconds over approximately 7 minutes. Spatial and temporal analysis of sweat droplets as well as direct and indirect sweat response are measured.
90:. Eccrine glands are the predominant sweat gland in the human body with numbers totaling up to 4 million. They are located within the reticular dermal layer of the skin and distributed across nearly the entire surface of the body with the largest numbers occurring in the palms and soles.
385:
When used in conjunction with postganglionic sudomotor function testing, such as the quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test (QSART), it can differentiate a preganglionic lesion from a postganglionic lesion. A distal anhidrotic pattern is characteristic of length-dependent
3631:
Ramachandran, Ambady; Moses, Anand; Shetty, Samith; Thirupurasundari, Chandragiri
Janakiraman; Seeli, Abraham Catherin; Snehalatha, Chamukuttan; Singvi, Sunil; Deslypere, Jean-Paul (June 2010). "A new non-invasive technology to screen for dysglycaemia including diabetes".
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Khalfallah, Kamel; Ayoub, Hanna; Calvet, Jean Henry; Neveu, Xavier; Brunswick, Philippe; Griveau, Sophie; Lair, Virginie; Cassir, Michel; Bedioui, Fethi (March 2012). "Noninvasive
Galvanic Skin Sensor for Early Diagnosis of Sudomotor Dysfunction: Application to Diabetes".
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Yajnik, C.S.; Kantikar, V.; Pande, A.; Deslypere, J.-P.; Dupin, J.; Calvet, J.-H.; Bauduceau, B. (April 2013). "Screening of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in patients with diabetes using non-invasive quick and simple assessment of sudomotor function".
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Inspection of the patient’s skin, particularly on the lower extremities, in conjunction with a thorough medical history, can provide valuable information regarding the possible presence of sudomotor dysfunction. Evidence of altered skin hydration, such as
2944:
Loavenbruck, Adam J.; Hodges, James S.; Provitera, Vincenzo; Nolano, Maria; Wendelshafer-Crabb, Gwen; Kennedy, William R. (June 2017). "A device to measure secretion of individual sweat glands for diagnosis of peripheral neuropathy: Loavenbruck et al".
615:(HRV) indices, intraepidermal nerve fiber density, sweat gland nerve fiber density and quantitative sudomotor axon reflex testing (QSART). In addition to diabetes, low ESC values have been reported in association with increased severity of diabetic
868:
taken from the distal leg, distal thigh, and proximal thigh prepared for standard analysis of intraepidermal nerve fiber density (IENFD). Nerve fibers innervating sweat glands are stained with
Protein Gene Product 9.5 and quantified using manual
3830:
Caccia, MR; Dezuanni, E; Salvaggio, A; Osio, M; Bevilacqua, M; Norbiato, G; Mangoni, A (1991). "Sympathetic skin response versus maximum motor and sensory conduction velocity to detect subclinical neuropathy in non-insulin-dependent diabetics".
2023:
Khalfallah, Kamel; Calvet, Jean-Henri; Brunswick, Philippe; Névoret, Marie-Laure; Ayoub, Hanna; Cassir, Michel (2020). "A Simple and
Accurate Method to Assess Autonomic Nervous System through Sudomotor Function". In Yurish, Sergey (ed.).
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heads. The pad is kept on each foot for ten minutes and the final color is recorded. A full change in color from blue to pink is considered a normal sweat response, while an absent or incomplete color change is considered abnormal.
1196:
Machado-Moreira, Christiano A.; Smith, Foske M.; van den Heuvel, Anne M. J.; Mekjavic, Igor B.; Taylor, Nigel A. S. (September 2008). "Sweat secretion from the torso during passively-induced and exercise-related hyperthermia".
715:
The silicone imprint method is relatively inexpensive and can be performed in non-specialized testing centers; however, the method is prone to artifacts caused by residual hair and dirt, as well as skin surface texture and
560:
The flow of Cl ions in the sweat secreted from the activated sweat glands are captured by the anode. This process is repeated twice for the feet and twice for the hands with the right and left electrodes alternating as the
2749:
Liatis, S.; Marinou, K.; Tentolouris, N.; Pagoni, S.; Katsilambros, N. (December 2007). "Usefulness of a new indicator test for the diagnosis of peripheral and autonomic neuropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus".
773:. It allows for the quantification of sweat from each individual sweat gland, as well as their location and distribution, thus providing both temporal and spatial resolution. The procedure is initiated by the
446:
receptors on the sudomotor nerve terminals, which transmit the action potential antidromically to axon branch points and then orthodromically to adjacent sudomotor nerves and glands (indirect sweat response).
373:
on an examination table. An indicator dye is evenly applied to the ventral surface of the patient’s skin excluding the eyes, ears, and perioral region. The dye changes color in response to a decrease in skin
548:
electrochemical studies were then carried out in conventional three-electrode cells to identify the origin of currents measured upon the application of low voltage potentials with variable amplitudes to
3707:
Goldwasser, François; Taillia, Hervé; Maisonobe, Thierry; Ricard, Damien (1 April 2016). "Quick, non-invasive and quantitative assessment of small fiber neuropathy in patients receiving chemotherapy".
1868:
Peltier, Amanda; Smith, A. Gordon; Russell, James W.; Sheikh, Kiran; Bixby, Billie; Howard, James; Goldstein, Jonathan; Song, Yanna; Wang, Lily; Feldman, Eva L.; Singleton, J. Robinson (April 2009).
1529:
Hoeijmakers, Janneke G.; Faber, Catharina G.; Lauria, Giuseppe; Merkies, Ingemar S.; Waxman, Stephen G. (July 2012). "Small-fibre neuropathies—advances in diagnosis, pathophysiology and management".
378:
which occurs upon the onset of sweating as the room temperature is gradually raised. Pictures are taken to record the patient’s sweating patterns. In addition, a TST% is calculated by dividing the
793:
The procedure is relatively quick and the camera is portable. However, further testing is needed to establish normative data and to confirm its utility in autonomic testing. As the test lacks an
409:(QSART) was developed in 1983 by Phillip Low as a quantitative method for the identification of localized postganglionic sudomotor dysfunction. Three-compartment sweat capsules are placed on the
748:
sweating; however, it utilizes an automated imaging analysis software that is less technically complex. Prior to iontophoresis, the skin is dried and covered with an indicator dye consisting of
469:
procedure may cause skin irritation and discomfort. QSART requires highly specialized equipment needing regular calibration, a humidity- and temperature-controlled room, and trained personnel.
880:
SGNFD can potentially be used as a surrogate anatomical marker for sudomotor function. However, it is not a direct assessment of the sweat response, and normative data must be established.
805:
SSR refers to the change in skin resistance to electrical conduction associated with the sympathetic activation of sudomotor function in response to external or internal stimuli, such as
272:, and pure autonomic failure. Sudomotor dysfunction can manifest as increased or decreased sweating patterns. Both patterns have the potential to affect an individual’s quality of life.
1574:"The New Age of Sudomotor Function Testing: A Sensitive and Specific Biomarker for Diagnosis, Estimation of Severity, Monitoring Progression, and Regression in Response to Intervention"
809:, deep breathing, and mental stress. It is mediated by a poorly understood somato-sympathetic reflex with spinal, bulbar, and suprabulbar components. The SSR is frequently utilized in
2255:
Selvarajah, Dinesh; Cash, Tom; Davies, Jennifer; Sankar, Adithya; Rao, Ganesh; Grieg, Marni; Pallai, Shillo; Gandhi, Rajiv; Wilkinson, Iain D.; Tesfaye, Solomon (12 October 2015).
127:
for processing. In addition, there are warm-sensitive neurons located within the preoptic nucleus that detect increases in core body temperature. Efferent pathways then descend
369:
sudomotor function objectively. The test is performed in a standardized room with the temperature preheated to 45–50 °C and humidity set to 35–40%. The patient lies
736:
sudomotor function outside of specialized autonomic testing centers. It combines elements of TST, QSART, and the silicone imprint method. Similar to QSART, it involves the
239:
206:
2196:
Luk, Andrea O. Y.; Fu, Wai-Chi; Li, Xue; Ozaki, Risa; Chung, Harriet H. Y.; Wong, Rebecca Y. M.; So, Wing-Yee; Chow, Francis C. C.; Chan, Juliana C. N. (13 August 2015).
325:, but this procedure is invasive and inappropriate for long term follow-up. Sudomotor testing can be a valuable diagnostic tool for the early detection of small fiber
3231:
Coon, Elizabeth A.; Fealey, Robert D.; Sletten, David M.; Mandrekar, Jay N.; Benarroch, Eduardo E.; Sandroni, Paola; Low, Phillip A.; Singer, Wolfgang (March 2017).
2422:
Fabry, Vincent; Gerdelat, Angélique; Acket, Blandine; Cintas, Pascal; Rousseau, Vanessa; Uro-Coste, Emmanuelle; Evrard, Solène M.; Pavy-Le Traon, Anne (5 May 2020).
397:
The TST has proven to be a sensitive measure of sudomotor function. However, it is time-consuming and requires a highly specialized facility with trained personnel.
3852:
Hilz, Max J.; Stemper, Brigitte; Axelrod, Felicia B. (1 May 1999). "Sympathetic skin response differentiates hereditary sensory autonomic neuropathies III and IV".
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formation; the accuracy of the results depends on the silicone material used; the processing of the sweat impressions is time consuming; and the technique requires
1825:
Low, P. A.; Caskey, P. E.; Tuck, R. R.; Fealey, R. D.; Dyck, P. J. (November 1983). "Quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test in normal and neuropathic subjects".
1153:
Buchmann, Sylvia J.; Penzlin, Ana Isabel; Kubasch, Marie Luise; Illigens, Ben Min-Woo; Siepmann, Timo (February 2019). "Assessment of sudomotor function".
2583:"Accuracy of a Rapid and Non-Invasive Method for the Assessment of Small Fiber Neuropathy Based on Measurement of Electrochemical Skin Conductances"
171:
M3 receptors on the basolateral membrane of the clear cells in the secretory coil of the eccrine gland. This triggers the release of intracellular
2522:
Casellini, Carolina M.; Parson, Henri K.; Hodges, Kim; Edwards, Joshua F.; Lieb, David C.; Wohlgemuth, Stephen D.; Vinik, Aaron I. (3 May 2016).
580:
The measurement requires no specific patient preparation or medical personnel training. The test lasts less than 3 minutes, and is innocuous and
3744:
Leclair-Visonneau, Laurène; Bosquet, Tristan; Magot, Armelle; Fayet, Guillemette; Gras-Le Guen, Christèle; Hamel, Antoine; Péréon, Yann (2016).
3508:
Dyck, Peter J.; Overland, Carol J.; Low, Phillip A.; Litchy, William J.; Davies, Jenny L.; Dyck, P. James B.; O'Brien, Peter C. (August 2010).
2832:
Hijazi, Mido M.; Buchmann, Sylvia J.; Sedghi, Annahita; Illigens, Ben M.; Reichmann, Heinz; Schackert, Gabriele; Siepmann, Timo (1 July 2020).
1388:
Low, Victoria A.; Sandroni, Paola; Fealey, Robert D.; Low, Phillip A. (July 2006). "Detection of small-fiber neuropathy by sudomotor testing".
3510:"Signs and symptoms versus nerve conduction studies to diagnose diabetic sensorimotor polyneuropathy: Cl vs. NPhys trial: Cl vs. NPhys Trial"
2038:
1315:
999:
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sweat response; however, unlike QSART, it allows for spatial but not temporal resolution of the sweat response. Following iontophoresis of a
3393:
1870:"Reliability of quantitative sudomotor axon reflex testing and quantitative sensory testing in neuropathy of impaired glucose regulation"
553:
electrodes applied to the skin during clinical tests. These studies also evaluated the influence of different parameters in sweat (e.g.,
457:
QSART is sensitive and specific for detecting postganglionic small fiber dysfunction. However, some studies have found it to have a high
3551:
Vitale, G.I.; Quatrale, R.P.; Giles, P.J.; Birnbaum, J.E. (July 1986). "Electrical field stimulation of isolated primate sweat glands".
3095:
Gibbons, Christopher; Freeman, Roy (August 2004). "The evaluation of small fiber function—autonomic and quantitative sensory testing".
2524:"Bariatric Surgery Restores Cardiac and Sudomotor Autonomic C-Fiber Dysfunction towards Normal in Obese Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes"
97:
in response to both emotional and thermal stimulation. Eccrine glands are primarily innervated by small-diameter, unmyelinated class
1790:
Fealey, Robert D.; Low, Phillip A.; Thomas, Juergen E. (June 1989). "Thermoregulatory
Sweating Abnormalities in Diabetes Mellitus".
806:
782:
623:. It has also been shown to be sensitive to change after different interventions in subjects with T2DM. ESC measurements are highly
592:
443:
387:
379:
304:
168:
3932:
Khurana, Ramesh K.; Russell, Colin (April 2017). "The spoon test: a valid and reliable bedside test to assess sudomotor function".
557:, lactate) on the obtained currents. These studies formed the basis for the ESC methodology of measuring sudomotor function.
382:
skin area by the total skin area and multiplying by 100. The TST% acts as an indicator of the severity of neurologic impairment.
962:
477:
439:
2581:
Bordier, Lyse; Dolz, Manuel; Monteiro, Linsay; Névoret, Marie-Laure; Calvet, Jean-Henri; Bauduceau, Bernard (29 February 2016).
544:
to develop a computational tool for measuring chloride ion flow through a sweat gland in response to an imposed voltage.
438:
to deliver the acetylcholine into the dermal skin layers. The acetylcholine binds to sweat glands (direct sweat response), and
406:
3329:"Early Detection of Orthostatic Hypotension by Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test (QSART) in Type 2 Diabetic Patients"
1917:
Krieger, Sarah-Maria; Reimann, Manja; Haase, Rocco; Henkel, Elena; Hanefeld, Markolf; Ziemssen, Tjalf (26 September 2018).
569:. A conductance deduced from the resulting current between the electrodes and the voltages is reported as ESC, measured in
712:
or computer-assisted analysis, for sweat droplet size, number, and distribution, and compared to lower limits of normal.
450:
Sweat production is measured as the change in relative humidity over time. The temporal resolution, magnitude, and onset
3978:
3663:"Sudomotor Function as a Tool for Cardiorespiratory Fitness Level Evaluation: Comparison with Maximal Exercise Capacity"
3392:
Gerrett, Nicola; Griggs, Katy; Redortier, Bernard; Voelcker, Thomas; Kondo, Narihiko; Havenith, George (1 August 2018).
781:
solution over a 2.25 cm skin area, which stimulates the underlying sweat glands directly through the activation of
128:
2794:
peripheral neuropathy in type 2 diabetes patients: a comparison with clinical examination and nerve conduction study".
2144:
Freedman, Barry I.; Smith, Susan Carrie; Bagwell, Benjamin M.; Xu, Jianzhao; Bowden, Donald W.; Divers, Jasmin (2015).
1971:
Casellini, Carolina M.; Parson, Henri K.; Richardson, Margaret S.; Nevoret, Marie L.; Vinik, Aaron I. (November 2013).
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due to the hydration of cobalt ions. One pad is applied to the plantar surface of each foot in between the 1st and 2nd
337:
There are several methods available for the assessment of sudomotor function. They vary in cost, technical complexity,
2025:
733:
677:
673:
669:
604:
600:
366:
102:
3048:"Sympathetic skin responses (SSRs) in monofocal brain lesions: topographical aspects of central sympathetic pathways"
943:, and ulcers, can be suggestive of sudomotor dysfunction. Presence of intense foot odor may be another presentation.
465:, and low diagnostic sensitivity. It is also sensitive to various factors such as caffeine and medications, and the
362:
136:
105:
2257:"SUDOSCAN: A Simple, Rapid, and Objective Method with Potential for Screening for Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy"
354:
112:
2834:"Assessment of cutaneous axon-reflex responses to evaluate functional integrity of autonomic small nerve fibers"
595:. Sudoscan has been shown to be useful in the detection of small fiber neuropathy in patients with and without
253:
23:
3746:"Electrochemical skin conductance for quantitative assessment of sweat function: Normative values in children"
2473:
Zhu, Ling; Zhao, Xiaolan; Zeng, Ping; Zhu, Jianguo; Yang, Shuwen; Liu, Annan; Song, Yuehua (November 2016).
1480:
Boger, M.S.; Hulgan, T.; Haas, D.W.; Mitchell, V.; Smith, A.G.; Singleton, J.R.; Peltier, A.C. (July 2012).
680:, is not recommended for children and patients over the age of 70, and is sensitive to certain medications.
3789:"Sympathetic skin response--a method of assessing unmyelinated axon dysfunction in peripheral neuropathies"
769:
The SST was recently developed by Adam
Loavenbruck and colleagues in 2017 for the evaluation of individual
612:
581:
481:
458:
152:
120:
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Freedman, Barry I.; Bowden, Donald W.; Smith, Susan Carrie; Xu, Jianzhao; Divers, Jasmin (January 2014).
1023:
Rittié, Laure; Sachs, Dana L.; Orringer, Jeffrey S.; Voorhees, John J.; Fisher, Gary J. (January 2013).
451:
326:
307:
732:
The QDIRT was developed in 2008 by
Christopher Gibbons and colleagues as a means for the evaluation of
577:
to secrete Cl ions by eccrine glands, thus providing a quantitative measurement of sudomotor function.
1973:"Sudoscan, a Noninvasive Tool for Detecting Diabetic Small Fiber Neuropathy and Autonomic Dysfunction"
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2268:
2209:
2198:"The Clinical Utility of SUDOSCAN in Chronic Kidney Disease in Chinese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes"
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608:
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In general, decreased ESC values indicate a higher risk of sudomotor dysfunction, and thus a greater
540:
model of the skin was devised, reproducing the behavior of chloride ions and the properties of their
314:
83:
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Quattrini, C.; Jeziorska, M.; Tavakoli, M.; Begum, P.; Boulton, A. J. M.; Malik, R. A. (June 2008).
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glands. Eccrine glands open directly onto the surface of the skin, while apocrine glands open into
79:
2370:"Diagnostic Accuracy of Electrochemical Skin Conductance in the Detection of Sudomotor Fiber Loss"
785:
M3 receptors. Immediately following iontophoresis, the skin is dried, and then covered with a 10%
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1079:"Physiology of sweat gland function: The roles of sweating and sweat composition in human health"
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108:
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Itch, Hiroshi; Uebori, Seiji; Asai, Mahito; Kashiwaya, Tagui; Atoh, Keita; Making, Isao (2003).
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can cause social embarrassment, while insufficient sweating can result in heat intolerance and
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3724:
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3590:"Relationships between electrochemical skin conductance and kidney disease in Type 2 diabetes"
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3233:"Anhidrosis in multiple system atrophy involves pre‐ and postganglionic sudomotor dysfunction"
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Themistocleous, Andreas C; Ramirez, Juan D; Serra, Jordi; Bennett, David L H (December 2014).
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of small fiber neuropathies is Intraepidermal Nerve Fiber Density (IENFD) measured from punch
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storages and an influx of extracellular calcium which ultimately results in the movement of
51:
35:
824:(EMG) equipment in a lightly dimmed, humidity- and temperature-controlled room. A surface
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721:
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596:
550:
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358:
338:
300:
1249:"The Investigation of the Cardiovascular and Sudomotor Autonomic Nervous System—A Review"
631:. For that purpose, normative reference values have been established on a total of 1,350
252:
sudomotor function can occur in any disorder that directly and/or indirectly affects the
2539:
2272:
2213:
2068:
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in normal controls will be frequently interrupted by the presence of sweat on the skin.
345:
of autonomic and small fiber neuropathies, particularly those associated with diabetes.
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2098:
Novak, Peter (February 2019). "Electrochemical skin conductance: a systematic review".
1997:
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of the sweat response are digitally recorded and analyzed using specialized software.
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2354:
982:
Gagnon, Daniel; Crandall, Craig G. (2018). "Sweating as a heat loss thermoeffector".
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1025:"Eccrine Sweat Glands are Major Contributors to Reepithelialization of Human Wounds"
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1558:
853:
628:
124:
31:
3661:
Raisanen, Anu; Eklund, Jyrki; Calvet, Jean-Henri; Tuomilehto, Jaakko (June 2014).
3645:
1094:
708:
is complete (about 5 minutes). The silicone imprints are then analyzed, either by
3891:"The spoon test: a simple bedside test for assessing sudomotor autonomic failure"
3376:
3199:
2548:
2281:
2222:
1759:
1742:
1497:
1040:
573:(μS), and is proportional to the Cl flow to the skin surface, that is to say the
1298:
Freeman, Roy; Chapleau, Mark W. (2013). "Testing the autonomic nervous system".
952:
865:
833:
794:
778:
770:
753:
745:
701:
697:
541:
523:
505:
322:
281:
261:
144:
75:
43:
27:
3449:
3436:
Quinton, Paul M. (June 2007). "Cystic Fibrosis: Lessons from the Sweat Gland".
2849:
123:
neurons through the lateral spinothalamic tract to the preoptic nucleus of the
3945:
3761:
3720:
3394:"Sweat from gland to skin surface: production, transport, and skin absorption"
3184:"Quantification of sweat gland innervation: A clinical-pathologic correlation"
3108:
3011:
2718:
2701:
2111:
2076:
1706:
1210:
1166:
889:
874:
709:
636:
427:
249:
2599:
2440:
2386:
1935:
1590:
1542:
1265:
3679:
1640:
825:
814:
656:(II) salt indicator that changes color from blue to pink in the presence of
509:
318:
277:
94:
46:
of sweat is the body’s most effective method of heat reduction and the only
3953:
3873:
3779:
3728:
3698:
3653:
3623:
3543:
3500:
3457:
3420:
3384:
3354:
3319:
3301:
3266:
3217:
3182:
Gibbons, C. H.; Illigens, B. M. W.; Wang, N.; Freeman, R. (28 April 2009).
3157:
3116:
3019:
2966:
2921:
2867:
2815:
2771:
2727:
2669:
2618:
2567:
2508:
2475:"Study on autonomic dysfunction and metabolic syndrome in Chinese patients"
2459:
2405:
2346:
2300:
2241:
2179:
2119:
2006:
1954:
1903:
1768:
1724:
1658:
1609:
1572:
Vinik, Aaron I.; Nevoret, Marie-Laure; Casellini, Carolina (11 June 2015).
1550:
1515:
1466:
1433:"The clinical approach to small fibre neuropathy and painful channelopathy"
1409:
1363:
1325:
1284:
1218:
1174:
1112:
1058:
1009:
3924:
3906:
3865:
3844:
3822:
3804:
3572:
3073:
2886:
Gibbons, C. H.; Illigens, B. M.W.; Centi, J.; Freeman, R. (10 June 2008).
2702:"The Neuropad test: a visual indicator test for human diabetic neuropathy"
2660:
2651:
1988:
1846:
1838:
1811:
2337:
940:
689:
657:
513:
422:
310:. In some cases, it may be the only detectable neurologic manifestation.
289:
257:
176:
1743:"Thermoregulatory disorders and illness related to heat and cold stress"
2993:"Sympathetic skin response: Basic mechanisms and clinical applications"
641:
574:
566:
493:
417:
of the foot. The outer compartment of the capsule is filled with a 10%
410:
269:
172:
148:
47:
39:
3525:
3482:
3465:
Gibbons, Christopher H; Wang, Ningshan; Freeman, Roy (December 2010).
3248:
3148:
3131:
2958:
2490:
2328:
2161:
1885:
1401:
984:
Thermoregulation: From Basic Neuroscience to Clinical Neurology Part I
111:. Increases in body and skin temperature are detected by visceral and
30:
activity in response to various environmental and individual factors.
2991:
Vetrugno, R.; Liguori, R.; Cortelli, P.; Montagna, P. (August 2003).
790:
area of each spot. The test is then repeated for replicate analysis.
653:
632:
370:
209:
3467:"Capsaicin Induces Degeneration of Cutaneous Autonomic Nerve Fibers"
2888:"QDIRT: Quantitative direct and indirect test of sudomotor function"
704:, a thin layer of silicone is applied to the tested skin area until
676:, and its potential as an at-home test. However, Neuropad has lower
1302:. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 115. pp. 115–136.
986:. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 156. pp. 211–232.
797:
response, it has a limited ability to assess nerve fiber function.
2315:
cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and diabetic polyneuropathy".
635:
participants. Normative ESC values have also been established for
611:. Sudoscan has been compared with other reference tests including
562:
151:
with postganglionic cholinergic sudomotor (and to a lesser extent
3667:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
2686:
3132:"Simple methods of examination in paraplegia: I. the spoon test"
554:
414:
160:
132:
3787:
Shahani, B T; Halperin, J J; Boulu, P; Cohen, J (1 May 1984).
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1342:
Freeman, Roy (April 2005). "Autonomic peripheral neuropathy".
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
893:
761:
test; and little normative or performance data are available.
516:
484:
method for the assessment of sudomotor function that utilizes
2146:"Electrochemical Skin Conductance in Diabetic Kidney Disease"
299:
Sudomotor dysfunction is one of the most common and earliest
531:
1689:
Illigens, Ben M. W.; Gibbons, Christopher H. (April 2009).
375:
159:
sympathetic ganglia. When the action potential reaches the
2939:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2931:
430:. Once a stable baseline of outflow humidity is reached,
2018:
2016:
512:) for quantitative measurement of the resulting flow of
16:
Autonomic nervous system control of sweat gland activity
1966:
1964:
910:
434:
of the acetylcholine fluid is initiated by using a 2mA
2986:
2984:
2139:
2137:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1142:
50:
method available when the air temperature rises above
3177:
3175:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2424:"Which Method for Diagnosing Small Fiber Neuropathy?"
1482:"Measures of small-fiber neuropathy in HIV infection"
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1122:
218:
185:
3041:
3039:
3037:
2827:
2825:
1247:
Ziemssen, Tjalf; Siepmann, Timo (12 February 2019).
852:
The spoon test is inexpensive, easy to perform, but
115:
thermoreceptors, which send signals via class C and
3895:
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
3793:
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
3286:"Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy in Diabetes Mellitus"
2632:
2630:
2628:
2417:
2415:
2368:Porubcin, Michal G.; Novak, Peter (17 April 2020).
627:. Studies have shown ESC values to be dependent on
38:mechanism used by the body to prevent heat-related
832:The SSR is thought to be mainly influenced by the
233:
200:
2681:
2679:
2191:
2189:
640:function tests, and causes minimal-to-no patient
473:Electrochemical Skin Conductance (ESC) - Sudoscan
3889:Tsementzis, S A; Hitchcock, E R (1 April 1985).
1736:
1734:
1383:
1381:
401:Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test (QSART)
1919:"Sudomotor Testing of Diabetes Polyneuropathy"
1691:"Sweat testing to evaluate autonomic function"
1337:
1335:
1625:"The Management of the Quinizarin Sweat Test"
813:studies and is a well-known component of the
728:Quantitative Direct and Indirect Test (QDIRT)
607:of 67 to 92%, as well as in the screening of
8:
1072:
1070:
1068:
2033:. IFSA Publishing, S.L. pp. 149–204.
413:, proximal and distal leg, as well as the
3914:
3812:
3769:
3688:
3678:
3613:
3594:Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications
3533:
3490:
3344:
3309:
3256:
3207:
3147:
3063:
2911:
2857:
2796:Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications
2717:
2659:
2608:
2598:
2557:
2547:
2498:
2449:
2439:
2395:
2385:
2336:
2290:
2280:
2231:
2221:
2169:
2027:Advances in Biosensors: Reviews, Volume 3
1996:
1944:
1934:
1893:
1758:
1714:
1648:
1599:
1589:
1505:
1456:
1274:
1264:
1102:
1048:
652:Neuropad utilizes an adhesive pad with a
296:due to altered epidermal moisturization.
224:
219:
217:
191:
186:
184:
3290:Methodist DeBakey Cardiovascular Journal
2947:Journal of the Peripheral Nervous System
2317:Journal of the Peripheral Nervous System
54:. In addition, sweat plays key roles in
3634:Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice
974:
860:Sweat Gland Nerve Fiber Density (SGNFD)
668:The strengths of Neuropad are its high
407:quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test
163:terminal of the postganglionic neuron,
143:in the intermediolateral column of the
3284:Agashe, Shruti; Petak, Steven (2018).
2640:Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics
1977:Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics
1199:European Journal of Applied Physiology
496:amplitudes) to electrically stimulate
167:is released which binds and activates
820:The test is performed using standard
7:
644:, so very suitable for routine use.
394:commonly seen in diabetic patients.
357:(TST) was developed in the 1940s by
3046:Linden, D.; Berlit, P. (May 1995).
1741:Cheshire, William P. (April 2016).
692:imprint utilizes the principles of
78:are primarily classified as either
3565:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1986.tb06218.x
3065:10.1111/j.1600-0404.1995.tb07023.x
2904:10.1212/01.wnl.0000314646.49565.c0
1308:10.1016/B978-0-444-52902-2.00007-2
992:10.1016/B978-0-444-63912-7.00013-8
526:can be obtained with the use of a
131:from the hypothalamus through the
14:
3750:Clinical Neurophysiology Practice
2479:Journal of Diabetes Investigation
1077:Baker, Lindsay B. (3 July 2019).
1029:The American Journal of Pathology
349:Thermoregulatory Sweat Test (TST)
241:, and water into the duct lumen.
2764:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02280.x
963:Electrochemical skin conductance
897:
488:(the application of rectangular
478:Electrochemical skin conductance
3413:10.1152/japplphysiol.00872.2017
3346:10.2169/internalmedicine.42.560
1449:10.1136/practneurol-2013-000758
836:content of sweat secreted from
801:Sympathetic Skin Response (SSR)
480:is an objective, quantitative,
390:, such as the distal symmetric
280:. Depending on the severity of
3606:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2013.09.006
3553:British Journal of Dermatology
2808:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2006.08.003
2150:American Journal of Nephrology
1623:Guttmann, L. (1 August 1947).
1:
3646:10.1016/j.diabres.2010.01.023
3401:Journal of Applied Physiology
3052:Acta Neurologica Scandinavica
1804:10.1016/s0025-6196(12)65338-5
1356:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)74815-7
1095:10.1080/23328940.2019.1632145
3377:10.1016/j.diabet.2012.09.004
3200:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181a2e8b8
2549:10.1371/journal.pone.0154211
2282:10.1371/journal.pone.0138224
2223:10.1371/journal.pone.0134981
1760:10.1016/j.autneu.2016.01.001
1629:Postgraduate Medical Journal
1498:10.1016/j.autneu.2012.04.001
1041:10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.09.019
508:from the human sweat to the
234:{\displaystyle {\ce {Na^+}}}
201:{\displaystyle {\ce {Cl^-}}}
147:. The preganglionic neurons
3934:Clinical Autonomic Research
3000:Clinical Autonomic Research
2100:Clinical Autonomic Research
1695:Clinical Autonomic Research
1155:Clinical Autonomic Research
864:SGNFD can be quantified in
355:thermoregulatory sweat test
3995:
3450:10.1152/physiol.00041.2006
2850:10.1007/s10072-020-04293-w
2587:Frontiers in Endocrinology
1578:Frontiers in Endocrinology
1300:Peripheral Nerve Disorders
887:
765:Sensitive Sweat Test (SST)
266:neurodegenerative diseases
3946:10.1007/s10286-017-0401-2
3762:10.1016/j.cnp.2016.07.001
3721:10.1007/s11060-015-2049-x
3709:Journal of Neuro-Oncology
3365:Diabetes & Metabolism
3130:Bors, Ernest (May 1964).
3109:10.1016/j.ncl.2004.03.002
3012:10.1007/s10286-003-0107-5
2719:10.1007/s00125-008-0987-y
2112:10.1007/s10286-017-0467-x
2077:10.1109/JSEN.2010.2103308
1707:10.1007/s10286-008-0506-8
1211:10.1007/s00421-007-0646-x
1167:10.1007/s10286-018-0530-2
939:, excessive skin dander,
3833:Acta Neurologica Belgica
2600:10.3389/fendo.2016.00018
2441:10.3389/fneur.2020.00342
2387:10.3389/fneur.2020.00273
1936:10.3389/fneur.2018.00803
1591:10.3389/fendo.2015.00094
1543:10.1038/nrneurol.2012.97
1531:Nature Reviews Neurology
1266:10.3389/fneur.2019.00053
829:latency, and amplitude.
597:type 2 diabetes mellitus
388:small fiber neuropathies
292:, ulcerations, and poor
254:autonomic nervous system
24:autonomic nervous system
3680:10.3390/ijerph110605839
1792:Mayo Clinic Proceedings
1641:10.1136/pgmj.23.262.353
684:Silicone Imprint Method
492:(DC) pulses of varying
3302:10.14797/mdcj-14-4-251
2428:Frontiers in Neurology
2374:Frontiers in Neurology
1923:Frontiers in Neurology
1747:Autonomic Neuroscience
1486:Autonomic Neuroscience
1253:Frontiers in Neurology
856:and not quantitative.
807:electrical stimulation
613:Heart Rate Variability
593:small fiber neuropathy
426:skin is measured by a
235:
202:
34:production is a vital
3907:10.1136/jnnp.48.4.378
3866:10.1212/wnl.52.8.1652
3805:10.1136/jnnp.47.5.536
2838:Neurological Sciences
2652:10.1089/dia.2015.0396
1989:10.1089/dia.2013.0129
1839:10.1002/ana.410140513
236:
203:
2057:IEEE Sensors Journal
930:Physical Examination
883:
609:diabetic nephropathy
498:eccrine sweat glands
216:
183:
3979:Medical terminology
3471:Annals of Neurology
2540:2016PLoSO..1154211C
2273:2015PLoSO..1038224S
2214:2015PLoSO..1034981L
2069:2012ISenJ..12..456K
1827:Annals of Neurology
1437:Practical Neurology
1350:(9466): 1259–1270.
958:Eccrine sweat gland
811:psychophysiological
744:solution to induce
702:cholinergic agonist
603:of 77 to 87% and a
284:, it may result in
141:cholinergic neurons
109:cholinergic neurons
3514:Muscle & Nerve
3237:Movement Disorders
3097:Neurologic Clinics
1874:Muscle & Nerve
1390:Muscle & Nerve
909:. You can help by
674:cost-effectiveness
621:metabolic syndrome
504:(the migration of
303:manifestations of
301:neurophysiological
274:Excessive sweating
268:, multiple system
231:
198:
20:Sudomotor function
3526:10.1002/mus.21661
3483:10.1002/ana.22126
3333:Internal Medicine
3249:10.1002/mds.26864
3194:(17): 1479–1486.
3149:10.1038/sc.1964.4
2959:10.1111/jns.12212
2898:(24): 2299–2304.
2758:(12): 1375–1380.
2752:Diabetic Medicine
2689:. Neuropad. 2014.
2491:10.1111/jdi.12524
2329:10.1111/jns.12366
2162:10.1159/000437342
2040:978-84-09-25125-4
1886:10.1002/mus.21210
1402:10.1002/mus.20551
1317:978-0-444-52902-2
1001:978-0-444-63912-7
927:
926:
486:chronoamperometry
258:diabetes mellitus
223:
190:
155:) neurons in the
93:Eccrine sweat is
3986:
3965:
3928:
3918:
3885:
3860:(8): 1652–1657.
3848:
3826:
3816:
3783:
3773:
3740:
3702:
3692:
3682:
3673:(6): 5839–5848.
3657:
3627:
3617:
3584:
3547:
3537:
3504:
3494:
3461:
3432:
3398:
3388:
3358:
3348:
3323:
3313:
3271:
3270:
3260:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3211:
3179:
3170:
3169:
3151:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3067:
3043:
3032:
3031:
2997:
2988:
2979:
2978:
2941:
2926:
2925:
2915:
2883:
2872:
2871:
2861:
2844:(7): 1685–1696.
2829:
2820:
2819:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2721:
2712:(6): 1046–1050.
2697:
2691:
2690:
2687:"Neuropad Movie"
2683:
2674:
2673:
2663:
2634:
2623:
2622:
2612:
2602:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2561:
2551:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2502:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2453:
2443:
2419:
2410:
2409:
2399:
2389:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2340:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2294:
2284:
2267:(10): e0138224.
2252:
2246:
2245:
2235:
2225:
2193:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2141:
2132:
2131:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2032:
2020:
2011:
2010:
2000:
1968:
1959:
1958:
1948:
1938:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1897:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1762:
1738:
1729:
1728:
1718:
1686:
1663:
1662:
1652:
1635:(262): 353–366.
1620:
1614:
1613:
1603:
1593:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1509:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1460:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1385:
1376:
1375:
1339:
1330:
1329:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1278:
1268:
1244:
1231:
1230:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1150:
1117:
1116:
1106:
1074:
1063:
1062:
1052:
1020:
1014:
1013:
979:
922:
919:
901:
894:
875:light microscopy
822:electromyography
436:electric current
421:solution, while
361:to measure both
240:
238:
237:
232:
230:
229:
228:
221:
207:
205:
204:
199:
197:
196:
195:
188:
52:skin temperature
36:thermoregulatory
3994:
3993:
3989:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3983:
3969:
3968:
3931:
3888:
3851:
3829:
3786:
3743:
3705:
3660:
3630:
3587:
3550:
3507:
3464:
3435:
3396:
3391:
3361:
3326:
3283:
3280:
3278:Further reading
3275:
3274:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3181:
3180:
3173:
3129:
3128:
3124:
3094:
3093:
3089:
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2989:
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2823:
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2791:
2787:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2699:
2698:
2694:
2685:
2684:
2677:
2636:
2635:
2626:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2534:(5): e0154211.
2521:
2520:
2516:
2472:
2471:
2467:
2421:
2420:
2413:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2313:
2312:
2308:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2208:(8): e0134981.
2195:
2194:
2187:
2143:
2142:
2135:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2030:
2022:
2021:
2014:
1983:(11): 948–953.
1970:
1969:
1962:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1740:
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1732:
1688:
1687:
1666:
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1571:
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1523:
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1425:
1387:
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1379:
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1340:
1333:
1318:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1246:
1245:
1234:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1152:
1151:
1120:
1076:
1075:
1066:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1002:
981:
980:
976:
971:
949:
932:
923:
917:
914:
907:needs expansion
892:
886:
862:
846:
803:
787:povidone-iodine
767:
750:povidone-iodine
730:
722:standardization
696:to measure the
686:
650:
551:stainless steel
538:electrochemical
522:Currently, ESC
475:
463:reproducibility
403:
359:Ludwig Guttmann
351:
339:reproducibility
335:
247:
220:
214:
213:
187:
181:
180:
135:and medulla to
72:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3992:
3990:
3982:
3981:
3971:
3970:
3967:
3966:
3929:
3901:(4): 378–380.
3886:
3849:
3827:
3799:(5): 536–542.
3784:
3741:
3715:(2): 373–380.
3703:
3658:
3640:(3): 302–306.
3628:
3585:
3548:
3520:(2): 157–164.
3505:
3477:(6): 888–898.
3462:
3444:(3): 212–225.
3433:
3407:(2): 459–469.
3389:
3371:(2): 126–131.
3359:
3339:(7): 560–564.
3324:
3296:(4): 251–256.
3279:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3243:(3): 397–404.
3223:
3171:
3122:
3103:(3): 683–702.
3087:
3058:(5): 372–376.
3033:
3006:(4): 256–270.
2980:
2953:(2): 139–148.
2927:
2873:
2821:
2802:(6): 353–358.
2785:
2741:
2692:
2675:
2661:2027.42/140359
2646:(6): 391–398.
2624:
2573:
2514:
2485:(6): 901–907.
2465:
2411:
2360:
2306:
2247:
2185:
2156:(6): 438–447.
2133:
2090:
2063:(3): 456–463.
2046:
2039:
2012:
1960:
1909:
1880:(4): 529–535.
1860:
1833:(5): 573–580.
1817:
1798:(6): 617–628.
1782:
1730:
1664:
1615:
1564:
1537:(7): 369–379.
1521:
1472:
1443:(6): 368–379.
1423:
1377:
1331:
1316:
1290:
1232:
1205:(2): 265–270.
1188:
1118:
1089:(3): 211–259.
1064:
1035:(1): 163–171.
1015:
1000:
973:
972:
970:
967:
966:
965:
960:
955:
948:
945:
937:hyperkeratosis
931:
928:
925:
924:
904:
902:
888:Main article:
885:
882:
861:
858:
845:
842:
838:eccrine glands
802:
799:
766:
763:
734:postganglionic
729:
726:
706:polymerization
685:
682:
649:
646:
617:kidney disease
599:(T2DM) with a
528:medical device
500:, and reverse
490:direct current
474:
471:
402:
399:
392:polyneuropathy
367:postganglionic
350:
347:
334:
331:
286:hyperkeratosis
264:, infections,
246:
243:
227:
194:
103:postganglionic
88:hair follicles
71:
68:
22:refers to the
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3991:
3980:
3977:
3976:
3974:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3839:(4): 213–22.
3838:
3834:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3281:
3277:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3126:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3088:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3042:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2994:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2928:
2923:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2882:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2742:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2696:
2693:
2688:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2466:
2461:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2364:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2338:11380/1300847
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2310:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2091:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2050:
2047:
2042:
2036:
2029:
2028:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1619:
1616:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1568:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1525:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1427:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1192:
1189:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1016:
1011:
1007:
1003:
997:
993:
989:
985:
978:
975:
968:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
950:
946:
944:
942:
938:
929:
921:
912:
908:
905:This section
903:
900:
896:
895:
891:
881:
878:
876:
872:
867:
866:skin biopsies
859:
857:
855:
850:
843:
841:
839:
835:
830:
827:
823:
818:
816:
812:
808:
800:
798:
796:
791:
788:
784:
780:
776:
775:iontophoresis
772:
764:
762:
758:
755:
751:
747:
743:
742:acetylcholine
739:
738:iontophoresis
735:
727:
725:
723:
719:
713:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
694:iontophoresis
691:
683:
681:
679:
675:
671:
666:
663:
659:
655:
647:
645:
643:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
585:
583:
578:
576:
572:
568:
564:
558:
556:
552:
547:
543:
539:
534:
532:
529:
525:
520:
518:
515:
511:
507:
503:
502:iontophoresis
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
472:
470:
468:
467:iontophoresis
464:
460:
455:
453:
448:
445:
441:
437:
433:
432:iontophoresis
429:
424:
420:
419:acetylcholine
416:
412:
408:
400:
398:
395:
393:
389:
383:
381:
377:
372:
368:
364:
363:preganglionic
360:
356:
348:
346:
342:
340:
332:
330:
328:
324:
323:skin biopsies
320:
316:
315:gold standard
311:
309:
306:
302:
297:
295:
294:wound healing
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
244:
242:
225:
211:
192:
178:
174:
170:
166:
165:acetylcholine
162:
158:
157:paravertebral
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
137:preganglionic
134:
130:
129:ipsilaterally
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
107:
104:
100:
96:
91:
89:
85:
81:
77:
69:
67:
65:
64:wound healing
62:defense, and
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
3940:(2): 91–95.
3937:
3933:
3898:
3894:
3857:
3853:
3836:
3832:
3796:
3792:
3753:
3749:
3712:
3708:
3670:
3666:
3637:
3633:
3600:(1): 56–60.
3597:
3593:
3559:(1): 39–47.
3556:
3552:
3517:
3513:
3474:
3470:
3441:
3437:
3404:
3400:
3368:
3364:
3336:
3332:
3293:
3289:
3240:
3236:
3226:
3191:
3187:
3142:(1): 17–19.
3139:
3135:
3125:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3055:
3051:
3003:
2999:
2950:
2946:
2895:
2891:
2841:
2837:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2755:
2751:
2744:
2709:
2706:Diabetologia
2705:
2695:
2643:
2639:
2590:
2586:
2576:
2531:
2527:
2517:
2482:
2478:
2468:
2431:
2427:
2377:
2373:
2363:
2323:(1): 44–53.
2320:
2316:
2309:
2264:
2260:
2250:
2205:
2201:
2153:
2149:
2106:(1): 17–29.
2103:
2099:
2093:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2026:
1980:
1976:
1926:
1922:
1912:
1877:
1873:
1863:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1750:
1746:
1701:(2): 79–87.
1698:
1694:
1632:
1628:
1618:
1581:
1577:
1567:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1492:(1): 56–61.
1489:
1485:
1475:
1440:
1436:
1426:
1396:(1): 57–61.
1393:
1389:
1347:
1343:
1299:
1293:
1256:
1252:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1161:(1): 41–53.
1158:
1154:
1086:
1082:
1032:
1028:
1018:
983:
977:
933:
915:
911:adding to it
906:
884:Minor's Test
879:
863:
851:
847:
831:
819:
804:
792:
771:sweat glands
768:
759:
731:
714:
688:Like QSART,
687:
667:
651:
625:reproducible
586:
582:non-invasive
579:
571:microsiemens
559:
545:
535:
521:
506:electrolytes
482:non-invasive
476:
456:
449:
423:nitrogen gas
404:
396:
384:
352:
343:
336:
327:neuropathies
312:
308:neuropathies
298:
256:, including
248:
139:sympathetic
125:hypothalamus
92:
76:sweat glands
73:
19:
18:
3136:Spinal Cord
2638:Function".
1083:Temperature
953:Sweat gland
871:morphometry
834:electrolyte
795:axon-reflex
779:pilocarpine
754:corn starch
752:mixed with
746:axon-reflex
698:axon-reflex
678:specificity
670:sensitivity
605:specificity
601:sensitivity
542:ion channel
524:measurement
459:variability
305:small fiber
282:dyshidrosis
262:amyloidosis
245:Dysfunction
145:spinal cord
106:sympathetic
44:evaporation
28:sweat gland
26:control of
3438:Physiology
1753:: 91–104.
1344:The Lancet
969:References
890:Minor test
854:subjective
844:Spoon Test
783:muscarinic
718:air bubble
710:microscope
662:metatarsal
642:discomfort
589:likelihood
533:Sudoscan.
510:electrodes
444:muscarinic
428:hygrometer
380:anhidrotic
333:Assessment
169:muscarinic
153:adrenergic
113:peripheral
70:Physiology
3854:Neurology
3756:: 43–45.
3188:Neurology
2892:Neurology
2355:210924747
918:June 2022
826:electrode
815:polygraph
637:pediatric
629:ethnicity
440:nicotinic
371:unclothed
319:diagnosis
193:−
119:afferent
60:microbial
3973:Category
3954:28188384
3882:24227146
3874:10331694
3780:30214959
3737:19058905
3729:26749101
3699:24886754
3654:20188429
3624:24140119
3581:23529777
3544:20658599
3501:21061393
3458:17557942
3429:13675424
3421:29745799
3385:23159130
3355:12879946
3320:30788010
3267:27859565
3218:19398703
3166:25058129
3158:14159651
3117:15207880
3082:13486199
3028:21933444
3020:12955550
2967:28429515
2922:18541883
2868:32125538
2816:17967706
2780:18121438
2772:17941862
2736:34218407
2728:18368386
2670:27057778
2619:26973597
2568:27137224
2528:PLOS ONE
2509:27181217
2460:32431663
2406:32425871
2347:31985124
2301:26457582
2261:PLOS ONE
2242:26270544
2202:PLOS ONE
2180:26228248
2120:28951985
2085:18135022
2007:23889506
1955:30319533
1904:19260066
1855:42809747
1769:26794588
1725:18989618
1659:20255874
1610:26124748
1551:22641108
1516:22542355
1467:24778270
1418:21975039
1410:16718689
1372:40418387
1364:15811460
1326:23931777
1285:30809183
1227:10229619
1219:18157726
1183:13679051
1175:29737432
1113:31608304
1059:23159944
1010:30454591
947:See also
941:rhagades
777:of 0.5%
690:silicone
658:moisture
648:Neuropad
546:In vitro
536:A novel
290:rhagades
278:dry skin
250:Impaired
177:chloride
117:Aδ-fiber
99:C-fibers
95:secreted
84:apocrine
3962:8755293
3925:3998743
3916:1028306
3845:1746243
3823:6330307
3814:1027833
3771:6123897
3690:4078551
3615:3877197
3573:3524654
3535:2956592
3492:3057686
3311:6369622
3258:5483990
3209:2677479
3074:7639067
2975:3920733
2913:3046813
2859:7359149
2610:4770015
2559:4854471
2536:Bibcode
2500:5089954
2451:7214721
2434:: 342.
2397:7212463
2380:: 273.
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