2029:
1946:
1991:
1961:
1916:
2044:
2074:
2059:
1901:
1931:
2556:
1976:
2578:
20:
598:, volcanism affects plate movement. The plates will be moved towards a geoidal low perhaps where the slab avalanche occurred and pushed away from the geoidal high that can be caused by the plumes or superplumes. This causes the continents to push together to form supercontinents and was evidently the process that operated to cause the early continental crust to aggregate into Protopangea.
72:
747:. Changes in the position and elevation of the continents, the paleolatitude and ocean circulation affect the glacial epochs. There is an association between the rifting and breakup of continents and supercontinents and glacial epochs. According to the model for Precambrian supercontinent series, the breakup of Kenorland and Rodinia was associated with the
540:
1046:
613:. The timing of flood basalts has corresponded with a large-scale continental break-up. However, due to a lack of data on the time required to produce flood basalts, the climatic impact is difficult to quantify. The timing of a single lava flow is also undetermined. These are important factors on how flood basalts influenced
869:
During the late
Permian, it is expected that seasonal Pangaean temperatures varied drastically. Subtropic summer temperatures were warmer than that of today by as much as 6–10 degrees, and mid-latitudes in the winter were less than −30 degrees Celsius. These seasonal changes within the supercontinent
993:
isotopic studies suggest that iron formations are usually from continental sources, meaning that dissolved Fe and Fe had to be transported during continental erosion. A rise in atmospheric oxygen prevents Fe transport, so the lack of iron formations may have been the result of an increase in oxygen.
942:
The process of Earth's increase in atmospheric oxygen content is theorized to have started with the continent-continent collision of huge landmasses forming supercontinents, and therefore possibly supercontinent mountain ranges (super-mountains). These super-mountains would have eroded, and the mass
605:
or plumes, and a massive heat release resulted in the final break-up of
Paleopangea. Accretion occurs over geoidal lows that can be caused by avalanche slabs or the downgoing limbs of convection cells. Evidence of the accretion and dispersion of supercontinents is seen in the geological rock record.
894:
during supercontinent time periods have focused on the mid-Cretaceous. Present amplitudes of
Milankovitch cycles over present-day Eurasia may be mirrored in both the southern and northern hemispheres of the supercontinent Pangaea. Climate modeling shows that summer fluctuations varied 14–16 degrees
861:
models suggest that values were low in the late
Cenozoic and Carboniferous-Permian glaciations. Although early Paleozoic values are much larger (more than 10 percent higher than that of today). This may be due to high seafloor spreading rates after the breakup of Precambrian supercontinents and the
806:
The possibility of the southwest–northeast trending
Appalachian-Hercynian Mountains makes the region's monsoonal circulations potentially relatable to present-day monsoonal circulations surrounding the Tibetan Plateau, which is known to positively influence the magnitude of monsoonal periods within
685:
and other oceanic materials that are present in the suture zone. Intracratonic orogenic belts occur as thrust belts and do not contain any oceanic material. However, the absence of ophiolites is not strong evidence for intracratonic belts, because the oceanic material can be squeezed out and eroded
346:
deformation events are all possible indicators of
Precambrian supercontinent cyclicity, although the Protopangea–Paleopangea solution implies that Phanerozoic style of supercontinent cycles did not operate during these times. Also, there are instances where these secular trends have a weak, uneven,
167:
and this distancing continues today. Because
Pangaea is the most recent of Earth's supercontinents, it is the best known and understood. Contributing to Pangaea's popularity in the classroom, its reconstruction is almost as simple as fitting together the present continents bordering the Atlantic
849:
Cold winters in continental interiors are due to rate ratios of radiative cooling (greater) and heat transport from continental rims. To raise winter temperatures within continental interiors, the rate of heat transport must increase to become greater than the rate of radiative cooling. Through
774:
levels to occur at the same time. However, some geologists disagree and think that there was a temperature increase at this time. This increase may have been strongly influenced by the movement of
Gondwana across the South Pole, which may have prevented lengthy snow accumulation. Although late
668:
becomes the driving force. Passive margins are therefore born during the break-up of supercontinents and die during supercontinent assembly. Pangaea's supercontinent cycle is a good example of the efficiency of using the presence or lack of these entities to record the development, tenure, and
758:
In contrast, the
Protopangea–Paleopangea theory shows that these glaciations correlated with periods of low continental velocity, and it is concluded that a fall in tectonic and corresponding volcanic activity was responsible for these intervals of global frigidity. During the accumulation of
680:
Orogenic belts can form during the assembly of continents and supercontinents. The orogenic belts present on continental blocks are classified into three different categories and have implications for interpreting geologic bodies. Intercratonic orogenic belts are characteristic of ocean basin
759:
supercontinents with times of regional uplift, glacial epochs seem to be rare with little supporting evidence. However, the lack of evidence does not allow for the conclusion that glacial epochs are not associated with the collisional assembly of supercontinents. This could just represent a
686:
away in an intracratonic environment. The third kind of orogenic belt is a confined orogenic belt which is the closure of small basins. The assembly of a supercontinent would have to show intracratonic orogenic belts. However, interpretation of orogenic belts can be difficult.
548:
951:, would have washed into oceans, just as is seen happening today. The oceans would then be rich in nutrients essential to photosynthetic organisms, which would then be able to respire mass amounts of oxygen. There is an apparent direct relationship between
918:
Oxygen levels of the
Archaean were negligible, and today they are roughly 21 percent. It is thought that the Earth's oxygen content has risen in stages: six or seven steps that are timed very closely to the development of Earth's supercontinents.
290:
Although it contrasts the first model, the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates Vaalbara and Kenorland of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea–Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that
895:
Celsius on Pangaea, which is similar or slightly higher than summer temperatures of Eurasia during the Pleistocene. The largest-amplitude Milankovitch cycles are expected to have been at mid-to high-latitudes during the Triassic and Jurassic.
914:
influences both cold and warm climatic episodes. Atmospheric circulation and climate are strongly influenced by the location and formation of continents and supercontinents. Therefore, continental drift influences mean global temperature.
789:
Agreement can be met with the theory that continental snow can occur when the edge of a continent is near the pole. Therefore Gondwana, although located tangent to the South Pole, may have experienced glaciation along its coasts.
873:
During the Jurassic, summer temperatures did not rise above zero degrees Celsius along the northern rim of Laurasia, which was the northernmost part of Pangaea (the southernmost portion of Pangaea was Gondwana). Ice-rafted
107:
times. To separate supercontinents from other groupings, a limit has been proposed in which a continent must include at least about 75% of the continental crust then in existence in order to qualify as a supercontinent.
303:
as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times. This approach was widely criticized by many researchers as it uses incorrect application of paleomagnetic data.
709:
is under debate.) The locality of the Variscan range made it influential to both the northern and southern hemispheres. The elevation of the Appalachians would greatly influence global atmospheric circulation.
347:
or absent imprint on the supercontinent cycle; secular methods for supercontinent reconstruction will produce results that have only one explanation, and each explanation for a trend must fit in with the rest.
1711:
Piper, J.D.A., "Paleopangea in Meso-Neoproterozoic times: the paleomagnetic evidence and implications to continental integrity, supercontinent from and Eocambrian break-up." Journal of Geodynamics. 50 (2010):
718:
Continents affect the climate of the planet drastically, with supercontinents having a larger, more prevalent influence. Continents modify global wind patterns, control ocean current paths, and have a higher
119:
landmass, which covers approximately 57% of Earth's total land area. The last period in which the continental landmasses were near to one another was 336 to 175 million years ago, forming the supercontinent
1128:
1799:
811:
would negatively influence precipitation variations. The breakup of supercontinents may have affected local precipitation. When any supercontinent breaks up, there will be an increase in precipitation
723:
than the oceans. Winds are redirected by mountains, and albedo differences cause shifts in onshore winds. Higher elevation in continental interiors produces a cooler, drier climate, the phenomenon of
103:
to form a single large landmass. However, some geologists use a different definition, "a grouping of formerly dispersed continents", which leaves room for interpretation and is easier to apply to
1726:
Eyles, Nick. "Glacio-epochs and the Supercontinent Cycle after ~3.0 Ga: Tectonic Boundary Conditions for Glaciation." Paleogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 258 (2008): 89–129. Print.
587:
in what is known as a "slab avalanche". This displacement at the discontinuity will cause the lower mantle to compensate and rise elsewhere. The rising mantle can form a plume or superplume.
324:. The Wilson cycle rarely synchronizes with the timing of a supercontinent cycle. However, supercontinent cycles and Wilson cycles were both involved in the creation of Pangaea and Rodinia.
629:
and plate interactions as far back as Pangaea are relatively well understood today. However, the evidence becomes more sparse further back in geologic history. Marine magnetic anomalies,
955:
and the atmospheric oxygen content. There is also evidence for increased sedimentation concurrent with the timing of these mass oxygenation events, meaning that the organic carbon and
115:, supercontinents have assembled and dispersed multiple times in the geologic past. According to modern definitions, a supercontinent does not exist today; the closest is the current
1013:
there were three increases in ocean oxygen levels, this period is the fifth oxygenation stage. One of the reasons indicating this period to be an oxygenation event is the increase in
1491:
Piper, J.D.A. "Continental velocity through geological time: the link to magmatism, crustal accretion and episodes of global cooling." Geoscience Frontiers. 4 (2013): 7–36.
641:
of fossils, and distribution of climatically sensitive strata are all methods to obtain evidence for continent locality and indicators of the environment throughout time.
543:
As the slab is subducted into the mantle, the more dense material will break off and sink to the lower mantle creating a discontinuity elsewhere known as a slab avalanche
1053:
Granites and detrital zircons have notably similar and episodic appearances in the rock record. Their fluctuations correlate with Precambrian supercontinent cycles. The
1006:. An increase (near doubled concentration) of sulfur isotopes, which is suggested by these models, would require an increase in the oxygen content of the deep oceans.
350:
The following table names reconstructed ancient supercontinents, using Bradley's 2011 looser definition, with an approximate timescale of millions of years ago (Ma).
1072:. Oceanic magnetic anomalies and paleomagnetic data are the primary resources used for reconstructing continent and supercontinent locations back to roughly 150 Ma.
1060:
Some issues exist with relying on granite sourced zircons, such as a lack of evenly globally sourced data and the loss of granite zircons by sedimentary coverage or
1702:
Piper, J.D.A. "Protopangea: palaeomagnetic definition of Earth's oldest (Mid-Archaean-Paleoproterozoic) supercontinent." Journal of Geodynamics. 50 (2010): 154–165.
959:
at these times were more likely to be buried beneath sediment and therefore unable to react with the free oxygen. This sustained the atmospheric oxygen increases.
846:
throughout the Precambrian. Erroneous conclusions are more likely to be made when models are limited to one climatic configuration (which is usually present-day).
970:
fractionation. It was temporary but supports the increase in atmospheric oxygen because molybdenum isotopes require free oxygen to fractionate. Between 2.45 and
878:
sourced from Russia are indicators of this northern boundary. The Jurassic is thought to have been approximately 10 degrees Celsius warmer along 90 degrees East
1864:
1791:
287:
with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction. During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path.
283:
is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.72–2.115 Ga; 1.35–1.13 Ga; and
316:
is the break-up of one supercontinent and the development of another, which takes place on a global scale. Supercontinent cycles are not the same as the
1580:"Archaean granulite facies metamorphism at the Singhbhum Craton–Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt interface: implication for the Ur supercontinent assembly"
802:
circulations are difficult to predict, there is evidence for a large orographic barrier within the interior of Pangaea during the late Paleozoic
1765:
Baum, Steven K., and Thomas J. Crowely. "Milankovitch Fluctuations on Supercontinents." Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (1992): 793–796. Print.
1749:
Baum, Steven K., and Thomas J. Crowley. "Milankovitch Fluctuations on Supercontinents." Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (1992): 793–796. Print.
1468:
Donnadieu, Yannick et al. "A 'Snowball Earth' Climate Triggered by Continental Break-Up Through Changes in Runoff." Nature, 428 (2004): 303–306.
660:), whereas the tenure of Pangaea contained few. Matching edges of continents are where passive margins form. The edges of these continents may
551:
The effects of mantle plumes possibly caused by slab avalanches elsewhere in the lower mantle on the breakup and assembly of supercontinents
1781:
Campbell, Ian H., Charlotte M. Allen. "Formation of Supercontinents Linked to Increases in Atmospheric Oxygen." Nature. 1 (2008): 554–558.
974:
the second period of oxygenation occurred, which has been called the 'great oxygenation event.' Evidence supporting this event includes
1825:
1138:
576:
1857:
1477:
Piper, J.D.A. "A planetary perspective on Earth evolution: Lid Tectonics before Plate Tectonics." Tectonophysics. 589 (2013): 44–56.
583:
crust is denser than the surrounding mantle, it sinks to discontinuity. Once the slabs build up, they will sink through to the
1537:
2566:
673:
during the timing of Pangaea's assembly. The tenure of Pangaea is marked by a low number of passive margins during 336 to
1169:
231:
Rodinia broke apart. However, before completely breaking up, some fragments of Rodinia had already come together to form
2472:
1850:
601:
Dispersal of supercontinents is caused by the accumulation of heat underneath the crust due to the rising of very large
2613:
2432:
870:
were influenced by the large size of Pangaea. And, just like today, coastal regions experienced much less variation.
807:
Eurasia. It is therefore somewhat expected that lower topography in other regions of the supercontinent during the
1068:
appear and make up for the gaps. These detrital zircons are taken from the sands of major modern rivers and their
2377:
2367:
2120:
457:
208:
2618:
2586:
2352:
1662:
1217:
Hoffman, P.F. (1999). "The break-up of Rodinia, birth of Gondwana, true polar wander and the snowball Earth".
1054:
2409:
2404:
1081:
2347:
1290:
967:
693:
was created, along the equator. This 6000-km-long mountain range is usually referred to in two parts: the
775:
Ordovician temperatures at the South Pole may have reached freezing, there were no ice sheets during the
2232:
2140:
1950:
1945:
698:
743:
on Earth over millions of years. Glaciers have major implications on the climate, particularly through
267:
and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from
2571:
2326:
2217:
1677:
1635:
1552:
1510:
1405:
1335:
1282:
1226:
1184:
595:
313:
280:
171:
For the period before Pangaea, there are two contrasting models for supercontinent evolution through
1295:
2608:
2581:
2528:
2318:
2277:
891:
724:
216:
172:
141:
1740:
Crowley, Thomas J., "Climate Change on Tectonic Time Scales". Tectonophysics. 222 (1993): 277–294.
1626:
Nance, R.D.; Murphy, J.B.; Santosh, M. (2014). "The supercontinent cycle: A retrospective essay".
2436:
2282:
2262:
1601:
1421:
1308:
999:
770:(~458.4 Ma), the particular configuration of Gondwana may have allowed for glaciation and high CO
665:
44:
40:
36:
2555:
689:
The collision of Gondwana and Laurasia occurred in the late Palaeozoic. By this collision, the
2503:
2357:
2322:
1821:
1134:
911:
783:
760:
638:
560:
547:
327:
48:
2518:
2182:
1685:
1643:
1591:
1560:
1518:
1448:
1413:
1343:
1300:
1273:
Bradley, D.C. (2011). "Secular Trends in the Geologic Record and the Supercontinent Cycle".
1234:
1192:
816:
776:
748:
744:
694:
690:
614:
564:
64:
2508:
2478:
2419:
2242:
903:
706:
669:
break-up of supercontinents. There is a sharp decrease in passive margins between 500 and
626:
602:
414:
343:
300:
212:
192:
148:
112:
60:
52:
1326:
Meert, J.G. (2012). "What's in a name? The Columbia (Paleopangaea/Nuna) supercontinent".
1681:
1639:
1556:
1514:
1409:
1339:
1286:
1230:
1188:
513:
From the Carboniferous, formed part of Pangaea, not always regarded as a supercontinent
183:
The first model theorizes that at least two separate supercontinents existed comprising
2440:
2160:
1069:
907:
879:
812:
752:
740:
630:
418:
386:
264:
196:
1501:
Z.X, Li (October 2009). "How not to build a supercontinent: A reply to J.D.A. Piper".
1452:
1238:
1196:
132:
is not considered a supercontinent under the first definition since the landmasses of
2602:
2457:
1995:
1990:
1980:
1975:
1605:
1425:
1312:
634:
321:
292:
1564:
1522:
1304:
2560:
2513:
2247:
2222:
2033:
2028:
610:
591:
584:
568:
563:. Approximately 660 km into the mantle, a discontinuity occurs, affecting the
539:
317:
116:
76:
19:
1379:
Fluteau, Frédéric. (2003). "Earth dynamics and climate changes". C. R. Geoscience
982:(meaning that Fe was being produced and became an important component in soils).
834:
Even though during the Archaean solar radiation was reduced by 30 percent and the
697:
of the late Carboniferous makes up the eastern part, and the western part is the
2414:
2382:
2372:
1578:
Mahapatro, S.N.; Pant, N.C.; Bhowmik, S.K.; Tripathy, A.K.; Nanda, J.K. (2011).
863:
839:
555:
The causes of supercontinent assembly and dispersal are thought to be driven by
331:
296:
160:
124:. The positions of continents have been accurately determined back to the early
104:
1045:
2452:
2362:
2342:
2192:
1920:
1915:
1439:
Williams, Caroline; Nield, Ted (October 2007). "Earth's next supercontinent".
1200:
1086:
1049:
U–Pb ages of 5,246 concordant detrital zircons from 40 of Earth's major rivers
1018:
948:
910:) are the two most prevailing factors present within the geologic time scale.
819:
767:
702:
580:
556:
200:
1647:
1347:
731:, and rock record shows evidence of continentality in the middle of Pangaea.
2523:
2492:
2387:
2337:
2257:
2252:
2197:
2130:
1873:
1792:"G'day mate: 1.7-billion-year-old chunk of North America found in Australia"
1065:
1064:
consumption. Where granite zircons are less adequate, detrital zircons from
1034:
990:
875:
682:
677:
and its break-up is indicated accurately by an increase in passive margins.
441:
402:
335:
272:
244:
188:
137:
96:
295:(comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during
1396:
Bradley, D. C. (23 December 2014). "Mineral evolution and Earth history".
211:(Northern Europe and North America). Nuna continued to develop during the
71:
2447:
2332:
2237:
2212:
2202:
2165:
2150:
2135:
2125:
2048:
2043:
1417:
975:
835:
808:
502:
487:
370:
339:
240:
232:
184:
129:
125:
32:
1057:
from orogenic granites are among the most reliable aging determinants.
2467:
2462:
2227:
2207:
2187:
2155:
2145:
2078:
2073:
2063:
2058:
1037:, which were strongly influenced by an increase in atmospheric oxygen.
1030:
1003:
952:
843:
799:
728:
657:
518:
472:
425:
252:
248:
224:
133:
121:
84:
28:
24:
1842:
1029:
and was identified by models suggesting shifts in the balance of S in
609:
The influence of known volcanic eruptions does not compare to that of
2498:
2267:
1965:
1960:
1905:
1900:
1689:
1061:
956:
720:
653:
100:
56:
1596:
1579:
935:
Explosion of marine algae life (partly sourced from noted nutrients)
452:
Not generally regarded as a supercontinent, depending on definition
436:
Not generally regarded as a supercontinent, depending on definition
2272:
1877:
1044:
1022:
1014:
854:
content and ocean heat transport are not comparatively effective.
546:
538:
92:
70:
18:
932:
Large quantities of minerals and nutrients wash out to open ocean
1935:
1930:
944:
882:
compared to the present temperature of today's central Eurasia.
661:
413:
Alternatively the continents may have formed into two groupings
1846:
128:, shortly before the breakup of Pangaea. Pangaea's predecessor
1170:"Configuration of Columbia, a Mesoproterozoic Supercontinent"
906:
and the chemical composition of the atmosphere (specifically
151:, is hypothesized to form within the next 250 million years.
16:
Landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton
842:
boundary by 6 percent, the Earth has only experienced three
681:
closure. Clear indicators of intracratonic activity contain
1818:
Supercontinent: Ten Billion Years in the Life of Our Planet
1163:
1161:
1159:
1157:
815:
over the surface of the continental landmasses, increasing
1538:"Validating the existence of Vaalbara in the Neoarchean"
1837:
989:
is indicated by the disappearance of iron formations.
263:
The second model (Kenorland-Arctica) is based on both
938:
Mass amounts of oxygen produced during photosynthesis
705:. (The existence of a flat elevated plateau like the
381:
Also described as a supercraton or just a continent
320:, which is the opening and closing of an individual
239:. Pangaea formed through the collision of Gondwana,
1536:de Kock, M.O.; Evans, D.A.D.; Beukes, N.J. (2009).
739:The term glacial-epoch refers to a long episode of
397:Described as both a continent and a supercontinent
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
644:Phanerozoic (541 Ma to present) and Precambrian (
79:landmass contains about 57% of Earth's land area.
1383:(1): 157–174. doi:10.1016/S1631-0713(03)00004-X
223:Nuna collided with other land masses, forming
207:, and portions of them later collided to form
1858:
1838:The Paleomap Project – Christopher R. Scotese
850:climate models, alterations in atmospheric CO
652:) had primarily passive margins and detrital
8:
1663:"Reconstructing pre-Pangean supercontinents"
590:Besides having compositional effects on the
27:with the positions of the continents at the
1777:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1464:
1462:
1025:. The sixth event occurred between 360 and
75:Although not a supercontinent, the current
2306:
2301:
2101:
2096:
2018:
2013:
1890:
1885:
1865:
1851:
1843:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1268:
985:The third oxygenation stage approximately
1595:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1391:
1389:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1294:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1122:
163:supercontinent Pangaea began to break up
1722:
1720:
1718:
1127:Rogers, John J. W.; Santosh, M. (2004).
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
352:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1098:
994:The fourth oxygenation event, roughly
633:match-ups, geologic interpretation of
35:boundary, about 250 Ma. AR=Amuria; NC=
1133:. New York: Oxford University Press.
7:
1168:Rogers, J.J.W.; Santosh, M. (2002).
1820:, Harvard University Press, 2009,
798:Though precipitation rates during
577:large low-shear-velocity provinces
91:is the assembly of most or all of
14:
1219:Journal of African Earth Sciences
1002:from marine carbonate-associated
299:times. According to this theory,
2577:
2576:
2554:
2072:
2057:
2042:
2027:
1989:
1974:
1959:
1944:
1929:
1914:
1899:
1802:from the original on 2018-01-25.
943:amounts of nutrients, including
147:A future supercontinent, termed
2400:Possible future supercontinents
1565:10.1016/j.precamres.2009.07.002
1523:10.1016/j.precamres.2009.06.007
1305:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.05.003
755:glacial epochs, respectively.
1130:Continents and supercontinents
1:
1453:10.1016/S0262-4079(07)62661-X
1239:10.1016/S0899-5362(99)00018-4
1197:10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70883-2
998:is based on modeled rates of
596:large-ion lithophile elements
2178:Other prehistoric continents
567:through processes involving
191:, with Kenorland comprising
203:age broke off at ~2480 and
144:were separate at the time.
111:Moving under the forces of
2635:
929:Erosion of super-mountains
271:until break-up during the
168:ocean like puzzle pieces.
2546:
2304:
2300:
2099:
2095:
2016:
2012:
1888:
1884:
966:there was an increase in
862:lack of land plants as a
822:and the consumption of CO
219:of juvenile arcs, and in
2587:Chronology of continents
1648:10.1016/j.gr.2012.12.026
1348:10.1016/j.gr.2011.12.002
727:. This is seen today in
695:Hercynian mountain range
1082:List of paleocontinents
691:Variscan mountain range
259:Protopangea–Paleopangea
215:, primarily by lateral
2348:Great Australian Bight
1661:Evans, D.A.D. (2013).
1050:
579:). When a slab of the
552:
544:
526:Carboniferous-Jurassic
80:
68:
23:The supercontinent of
1398:American Mineralogist
1275:Earth-Science Reviews
1048:
699:Appalachian Mountains
550:
542:
378:Eoarchean-Mesoarchean
74:
22:
2572:Continental fragment
2567:Regions of the world
1545:Precambrian Research
1503:Precambrian Research
1418:10.2138/am-2015-5101
926:Super-mountains form
890:Many studies of the
594:by replenishing the
394:Mesoarchean-Siderian
314:supercontinent cycle
2529:Indian Subcontinent
2319:Submerged continent
1682:2013GSAB..125.1735E
1640:2014GondR..25....4N
1557:2009PreR..174..145D
1515:2009PreR..174..208L
1410:2015AmMin.100....4B
1340:2012GondR..21..987M
1287:2011ESRv..108...16B
1231:1999JAfES..28...17H
1189:2002GondR...5....5R
892:Milankovitch cycles
886:Milankovitch cycles
410:Neoarchean-Rhyacian
356:Supercontinent name
227:. Between ~825 and
2614:Historical geology
2310:
2105:
2022:
1894:
1584:Geological Journal
1051:
968:molybdenum isotope
923:Continents collide
701:, uplifted in the
666:seafloor spreading
637:, paleomagnetism,
553:
545:
510:Ediacaran-Jurassic
465:Orosirian-Ectasian
433:Rhyacian-Orosirian
97:continental blocks
81:
69:
45:Panthalassic Ocean
2596:
2595:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2358:Kerguelen Plateau
2296:
2295:
2291:
2290:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2008:
2007:
2003:
2002:
1628:Gondwana Research
1328:Gondwana Research
1177:Gondwana Research
1055:U–Pb zircon dates
912:Continental drift
899:Atmospheric gases
782:through the late
761:preservation bias
664:. At this point,
639:paleobiogeography
532:
531:
449:Orosirian-Stenian
199:. These parts of
65:Spreading centers
49:Paleotethys Ocean
2626:
2580:
2579:
2561:World portal
2559:
2558:
2496:
2445:
2402:
2330:
2307:
2302:
2180:
2118:
2102:
2097:
2076:
2061:
2046:
2031:
2019:
2014:
1993:
1978:
1963:
1948:
1933:
1918:
1903:
1891:
1886:
1867:
1860:
1853:
1844:
1804:
1803:
1788:
1782:
1779:
1766:
1763:
1750:
1747:
1741:
1738:
1727:
1724:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1690:10.1130/B30950.1
1667:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1623:
1610:
1609:
1599:
1590:(2–3): 312–333.
1575:
1569:
1568:
1551:(1–2): 145–154.
1542:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1509:(1–2): 208–214.
1498:
1492:
1489:
1478:
1475:
1469:
1466:
1457:
1456:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1393:
1384:
1377:
1352:
1351:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1298:
1270:
1243:
1242:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1199:. Archived from
1174:
1165:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1124:
1028:
1012:
1009:Between 650 and
997:
988:
981:
973:
965:
908:greenhouse gases
805:
788:
781:
766:During the late
749:Paleoproterozoic
745:sea level change
676:
672:
651:
647:
603:convection cells
362:Period/Era Range
353:
286:
278:
270:
238:
230:
222:
206:
166:
63:shown in black.
61:Subduction zones
2634:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2619:Supercontinents
2599:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2591:
2553:
2538:
2533:
2519:Eastern Siberia
2509:Central America
2497:
2490:
2484:
2479:Terra Australis
2446:
2430:
2424:
2420:Pangaea Proxima
2403:
2398:
2392:
2331:
2327:microcontinents
2316:
2292:
2287:
2233:East Antarctica
2181:
2176:
2170:
2119:
2115:supercontinents
2111:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2067:
2062:
2052:
2047:
2037:
2032:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1984:
1979:
1969:
1964:
1954:
1949:
1939:
1934:
1924:
1919:
1909:
1904:
1880:
1871:
1834:
1813:
1811:Further reading
1808:
1807:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1769:
1764:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1730:
1725:
1716:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1676:(11–12): 1736.
1665:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1625:
1624:
1613:
1597:10.1002/gj.1311
1577:
1576:
1572:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1460:
1447:(2626): 36–40.
1438:
1437:
1433:
1395:
1394:
1387:
1378:
1355:
1325:
1324:
1320:
1296:10.1.1.715.6618
1272:
1271:
1246:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1203:
1172:
1167:
1166:
1155:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1126:
1125:
1100:
1095:
1078:
1070:drainage basins
1043:
1026:
1010:
1000:sulfur isotopes
995:
986:
979:
971:
963:
904:Plate tectonics
901:
888:
860:
853:
832:
825:
803:
796:
786:
779:
773:
737:
716:
707:Tibetan Plateau
674:
670:
649:
645:
627:palaeogeography
623:
621:Plate tectonics
537:
458:Columbia (Nuna)
344:greenstone belt
330:trends such as
310:
301:plate tectonics
284:
276:
268:
261:
236:
228:
220:
213:Mesoproterozoic
204:
181:
173:geological time
164:
157:
149:Pangaea Proxima
113:plate tectonics
67:shown in green.
53:Neotethys Ocean
17:
12:
11:
5:
2632:
2630:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2601:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2514:Eastern Africa
2511:
2506:
2501:
2487:
2485:
2483:
2482:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2313:
2311:
2305:
2298:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2108:
2106:
2100:
2093:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2084:
2083:
2070:
2068:
2055:
2053:
2040:
2038:
2025:
2023:
2017:
2010:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2001:
2000:
1987:
1985:
1972:
1970:
1957:
1955:
1942:
1940:
1927:
1925:
1912:
1910:
1897:
1895:
1889:
1882:
1881:
1872:
1870:
1869:
1862:
1855:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1833:
1832:External links
1830:
1829:
1828:
1826:978-0674032453
1812:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1783:
1767:
1751:
1742:
1728:
1714:
1704:
1695:
1653:
1611:
1570:
1528:
1493:
1479:
1470:
1458:
1431:
1385:
1353:
1334:(4): 987–993.
1318:
1281:(1–2): 16–33.
1244:
1209:
1206:on 2015-02-03.
1153:
1140:978-0195165890
1139:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1084:
1077:
1074:
1042:
1039:
940:
939:
936:
933:
930:
927:
924:
900:
897:
887:
884:
880:paleolongitude
858:
851:
831:
828:
823:
795:
792:
777:early Silurian
771:
753:Neoproterozoic
736:
733:
725:continentality
715:
712:
656:(and orogenic
635:orogenic belts
631:passive margin
622:
619:
561:Earth's mantle
536:
533:
530:
529:
527:
524:
521:
515:
514:
511:
508:
505:
499:
498:
496:
493:
490:
484:
483:
481:
480:Stenian-Tonian
478:
475:
469:
468:
466:
463:
460:
454:
453:
450:
447:
444:
438:
437:
434:
431:
428:
422:
421:
411:
408:
405:
399:
398:
395:
392:
389:
383:
382:
379:
376:
373:
367:
366:
363:
360:
357:
309:
306:
281:reconstruction
265:palaeomagnetic
260:
257:
180:
177:
156:
153:
89:supercontinent
59:shown in red.
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2631:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2495:
2494:
2493:Subcontinents
2489:
2488:
2486:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2458:Kumari Kandam
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2401:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2117:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2045:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2011:
1998:
1997:
1996:South America
1992:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1981:North America
1977:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1902:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1868:
1863:
1861:
1856:
1854:
1849:
1848:
1845:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1784:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1497:
1494:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1441:New Scientist
1435:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1213:
1210:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1142:
1136:
1132:
1131:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1047:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1007:
1005:
1001:
992:
983:
977:
969:
960:
958:
954:
950:
946:
937:
934:
931:
928:
925:
922:
921:
920:
916:
913:
909:
905:
898:
896:
893:
885:
883:
881:
877:
871:
867:
865:
855:
847:
845:
841:
837:
829:
827:
821:
818:
814:
810:
801:
794:Precipitation
793:
791:
785:
784:Mississippian
778:
769:
764:
762:
756:
754:
750:
746:
742:
734:
732:
730:
726:
722:
713:
711:
708:
704:
703:early Permian
700:
696:
692:
687:
684:
678:
667:
663:
659:
655:
642:
640:
636:
632:
628:
620:
618:
616:
612:
611:flood basalts
607:
604:
599:
597:
593:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
565:surface crust
562:
559:processes in
558:
549:
541:
534:
528:
525:
522:
520:
517:
516:
512:
509:
506:
504:
501:
500:
497:
494:
491:
489:
486:
485:
482:
479:
476:
474:
471:
470:
467:
464:
461:
459:
456:
455:
451:
448:
445:
443:
440:
439:
435:
432:
429:
427:
424:
423:
420:
416:
412:
409:
406:
404:
401:
400:
396:
393:
390:
388:
385:
384:
380:
377:
374:
372:
369:
368:
364:
361:
358:
355:
354:
351:
348:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
323:
322:oceanic basin
319:
315:
307:
305:
302:
298:
294:
293:lid tectonics
288:
285:0.75–0.573 Ga
282:
275:period after
274:
266:
258:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
234:
226:
218:
214:
210:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
178:
176:
174:
169:
162:
154:
152:
150:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
118:
117:Afro-Eurasian
114:
109:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
78:
77:Afro-Eurasian
73:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
21:
2552:
2491:
2477:
2441:hypothesised
2431:
2399:
2317:
2248:Kazakhstania
2223:Congo Craton
2177:
2114:
2113:Prehistoric
2112:
2071:
2056:
2041:
2034:Afro-Eurasia
2026:
1988:
1973:
1958:
1943:
1928:
1913:
1898:
1817:
1816:Nield, Ted,
1795:
1786:
1745:
1707:
1698:
1673:
1670:GSA Bulletin
1669:
1656:
1631:
1627:
1587:
1583:
1573:
1548:
1544:
1531:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1473:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1401:
1397:
1380:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1278:
1274:
1225:(1): 17–33.
1222:
1218:
1212:
1201:the original
1180:
1176:
1144:. Retrieved
1129:
1059:
1052:
1008:
984:
961:
941:
917:
902:
889:
872:
868:
856:
848:
833:
804:(~251.9 Ma).
797:
787:(~330.9 Ma).
765:
757:
738:
717:
688:
679:
643:
624:
615:paleoclimate
608:
600:
592:upper mantle
589:
585:lower mantle
572:
554:
349:
332:carbonatites
326:
318:Wilson cycle
311:
289:
262:
182:
170:
158:
146:
110:
88:
82:
2415:Novopangaea
2283:South China
2263:North China
1796:www.msn.com
1634:(1): 4–29.
1183:(1): 5–22.
1017:-sensitive
978:appearance
864:carbon sink
840:Precambrian
830:Temperature
780:(~443.8 Ma)
573:superplumes
462:1,820–1,350
446:1,991–1,124
430:2,114–1,995
407:2,720–2,114
391:2,803–2,408
375:3,636–2,803
297:Precambrian
161:Phanerozoic
105:Precambrian
41:South China
37:North China
2609:Continents
2603:Categories
2551:See also:
2453:Hyperborea
2443:continents
2378:Seychelles
2363:Madagascar
2343:Doggerland
2238:Euramerica
2193:Asiamerica
1921:Antarctica
1874:Continents
1404:(1): 4–5.
1093:References
1087:Superocean
1066:sandstones
1035:carbonates
1019:molybdenum
949:phosphorus
876:dropstones
820:weathering
768:Ordovician
741:glaciation
683:ophiolites
557:convection
336:granulites
201:Neoarchean
2524:Greenland
2388:Zealandia
2353:Jan Mayen
2338:Cathaysia
2258:Laurentia
2253:Laramidia
2243:Kalaharia
2198:Atlantica
2131:Kenorland
1951:Australia
1606:127300220
1426:140191182
1313:140601854
1291:CiteSeerX
1146:5 January
1033:and C in
1021:in black
991:Neodymium
800:monsoonal
581:subducted
535:Volcanism
495:Ediacaran
477:1,130–750
442:Atlantica
403:Kenorland
340:eclogites
277:~0.573 Ga
273:Ediacaran
245:Laurentia
217:accretion
189:Kenorland
138:Laurentia
2582:Category
2448:Atlantis
2433:Mythical
2368:Mauritia
2333:Beringia
2218:Cimmeria
2213:Chilenia
2203:Avalonia
2183:Amazonia
2166:Vaalbara
2151:Pannotia
2136:Laurasia
2126:Gondwana
2121:Columbia
2049:Americas
1800:Archived
1712:191–223.
1076:See also
1062:plutonic
1031:sulfates
1004:sulfates
976:red beds
972:2.32 Ga,
844:ice ages
836:Cambrian
817:silicate
809:Jurassic
658:granites
503:Gondwana
488:Pannotia
371:Vaalbara
365:Comment
359:Age (Ma)
269:~2.72 Ga
241:Laurasia
233:Gondwana
221:~1000 Ma
185:Vaalbara
155:Theories
130:Gondwana
126:Jurassic
33:Triassic
2468:Meropis
2463:Lemuria
2278:Siberia
2228:Cuyania
2208:Baltica
2188:Arctica
2156:Rodinia
2146:Pangaea
2079:Oceania
2064:Eurasia
1678:Bibcode
1636:Bibcode
1553:Bibcode
1511:Bibcode
1406:Bibcode
1336:Bibcode
1283:Bibcode
1227:Bibcode
1185:Bibcode
1041:Proxies
996:0.6 Ga,
964:2.65 Ga
953:orogeny
735:Glacial
729:Eurasia
714:Climate
675:275 Ma,
654:zircons
625:Global
523:336–175
519:Pangaea
507:550–175
492:633–573
473:Rodinia
426:Arctica
419:Sclavia
415:Superia
328:Secular
253:Siberia
251:), and
249:Baltica
237:~608 Ma
225:Rodinia
205:2312 Ma
197:Sclavia
193:Superia
142:Siberia
134:Baltica
122:Pangaea
101:cratons
85:geology
57:Orogens
29:Permian
25:Pangaea
2504:Arabia
2499:Alaska
2439:, and
2410:Aurica
2405:Amasia
2268:Pampia
1966:Europe
1906:Africa
1824:
1604:
1424:
1311:
1293:
1137:
1027:260 Ma
1023:shales
1011:550 Ma
987:1.8 Ga
980:2.3 Ga
957:pyrite
813:runoff
721:albedo
671:350 Ma
650:541 Ma
646:4.6 Ga
569:plumes
342:, and
308:Cycles
279:. The
229:750 Ma
179:Series
165:215 Ma
2383:Sunda
2373:Sahul
2323:lands
2273:Sahul
1878:Earth
1666:(PDF)
1602:S2CID
1541:(PDF)
1422:S2CID
1309:S2CID
1204:(PDF)
1173:(PDF)
1015:redox
575:(aka
93:Earth
51:; NT=
47:; PT=
43:; PA=
39:; SC=
2437:lost
2325:and
2141:Nena
1936:Asia
1822:ISBN
1148:2021
1135:ISBN
947:and
945:iron
751:and
662:rift
571:and
417:and
247:and
209:Nuna
195:and
187:and
159:The
140:and
87:, a
1876:of
1686:doi
1674:125
1644:doi
1592:doi
1561:doi
1549:174
1519:doi
1507:174
1449:doi
1445:196
1414:doi
1402:100
1381:335
1344:doi
1301:doi
1279:108
1235:doi
1193:doi
962:At
648:to
235:by
175:.
99:or
95:'s
83:In
2605::
2473:Mu
2435:,
2161:Ur
1798:.
1794:.
1770:^
1754:^
1731:^
1717:^
1684:.
1672:.
1668:.
1642:.
1632:25
1630:.
1614:^
1600:.
1588:47
1586:.
1582:.
1559:.
1547:.
1543:.
1517:.
1505:.
1482:^
1461:^
1443:.
1420:.
1412:.
1400:.
1388:^
1356:^
1342:.
1332:21
1330:.
1307:.
1299:.
1289:.
1277:.
1247:^
1233:.
1223:28
1221:.
1191:.
1179:.
1175:.
1156:^
1101:^
866:.
857:CO
826:.
763:.
617:.
387:Ur
338:,
334:,
312:A
255:.
136:,
55:.
2321:/
1866:e
1859:t
1852:v
1692:.
1688::
1680::
1650:.
1646::
1638::
1608:.
1594::
1567:.
1563::
1555::
1525:.
1521::
1513::
1455:.
1451::
1428:.
1416::
1408::
1350:.
1346::
1338::
1315:.
1303::
1285::
1241:.
1237::
1229::
1195::
1187::
1181:5
1150:.
859:2
852:2
838:-
824:2
772:2
243:(
31:-
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
