Judiciary of Austria - Knowledge (XXG)

31: 1648:) in 1867 and implemented in 1869, decided demarcation conflicts between courts and the bureaucracy, between its constituent crown lands, and between one of the crown lands and the Empire itself. It also adjudicated on financial liability claims raised by crown lands against each other, by a crown land against the Empire, by the Empire against a crown land, or by a person, corporation, or municipality against a crown land or the Empire. Last but not least, the Imperial Court also heard complaints of citizens who alleged to have been violated in their constitutional rights, although its powers were not cassatory: it could only vindicate the complainant by 1667:) of 1867 he was no longer an autocrat; many of his decrees and injunctions now depended on the relevant minister to countersign them. The double-pronged approach of making the Emperor dependent on his ministers and also making ministers criminally liable for bad outcomes would firstly enable, secondly motivate the ministers to put pressure on the monarch. The statute in question actually predates the Constitution by a few months, but the Constitution conspicuously failed to abrogate it; it also expressly confirmed the legal inviolability of the person of the Emperor himself. 756:

of the judges must belong to the same sex as the alleged victim. If there is a jury, then at least two of the jurors must be of the same sex as the alleged victim. If the defendant is juvenile and the alleged crime is serious enough to warrant a panel, then at least one of the judges must be of the same sex as the defendant and at least one of the judges must be a present or former educator or competent social worker. If there is a jury, at least two of the jurors must be of the relevant sex and at least four must have the relevant job experience.

1151:: A citizen who feels violated in their constitutional rights by an administrative decision or assessment files suit in an administrative court. If the administrative court agrees with the complainant, it overrules the administration. If the administrative court does not, the complainant can escalate the matter to the Constitutional Court. If the Constitutional Court agrees with the complainant, it overrules the administrative court, prompting a retrial; it thus potentially also overrules the administration. 567: 858: 1028: 396:). If the case is a civil case, the appellate court first checks whether the trial court has committed procedural errors; if yes, it orders a retrial, sending the case back to the trial court. If no, or if the case is criminal, the appellate court conducts what is essentially a retrial itself − the appellate trial does not merely review questions of law but also questions of fact, assessing evidence and questioning witnesses. 281: 1204: 1470: 961:) that provides the minister with a shortlist of three candidates in the event of a vacancy. In theory, the minister may appoint any Austrian legally qualified to sit the bench and not excluded by the constitution's rudimentary incompatibility provisions. In practice, the minister dependably picks one of the three candidates nominated by the court. 1433:, charging defendants and presenting the case against them before the judge. Regional and higher courts have state attorneys' offices attached to them; the state attorneys working at the regional court level are the backbone of the service. Trials before district courts are usually handled through assistants and proxies. (§29 GVG, §§51−60 StPO) 1147:

legislation in question. Verdicts by administrative trial courts can additionally be challenged on the grounds that they violate the relevant party's constitutional rights in some other way. This possibility lets the Constitutional Court exercise judicial review not just of ordinances but also of individual-scope actions of the

1265:, a statute that promised increased civil liberties, a limited form of democratic participation in government, and access to independent courts with the power to review administrative acts and halt administrative overreach. Although the document as a whole was fairly short, one of its seven sections was a substantial 1766:

Austrian courts other than the Constitutional Court have no power of judicial review to this day; they cannot strike or refuse to apply laws they consider unconstitutional, although they can (and are required to) refuse to apply laws they think have not been constitutionally enacted or promulgated. A

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and made it clear that Habsburg subjects would from now on be able to take the State to court should it violate their fundamental rights. Since regular courts were still unable to overrule the bureaucracy, much less the legislature, these guarantees necessitated the creation of specialist courts that

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between judiciary and executive was complete; courts could not overrule the bureaucracy just as the bureaucracy could not overrule the courts. The also was no mechanism for courts to squash unconstitutional legislation. The need for a judicial review of laws was simply not felt at the time. In modern

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The court does not have a fixed number of justices; it consists of a president, a vice president, and as many additional members as Court and cabinet deem necessary and appropriate. As of the early 21st century, there are typically between fifty and sixty judges on the court. As of August 2018, there

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In criminal trials, some effort is made to prevent panels and juries from being biased or unable to empathize with either defendants or alleged victims. If the crime alleged is a sexual assault or some other violation of a person's sexual integrity serious enough to warrant a panel, then at least one

1717:

In acknowledgment of their questionable standing, the remaining deputies decided to meet not as the House of Deputies but as the Provisional National Assembly. The Assembly would only make decisions that could not be delayed; it would retain as much as possible of the existing body of constitutional

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Legislation can be challenged before the Constitutional Court by any private person, natural or other. The complaint has to argue that the complainant is being violated in their rights by the piece of legislation at issue, actually and not just potentially. The complaint also has to argue that there

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in criminal cases) against verdicts of appellate courts. The court also deals with service-related complaints by jurists against the judiciary and with disciplinary complaints against jurists; it acts as the trial court in cases involving certain senior judges and prosecutors, as an appeals court in

411:

in criminal cases) can be filed against the verdict of the appellate court. In criminal cases, appeals at law that are not obviously frivolous are also handled in public hearings. A successful appeal at law not just overturns but completely erases the verdict of the appellate court, sending the case

256:

Judges presiding over trials are professionals. In order to become eligible for appointment to a bench, a prospective judge needs to have a master's degree or equivalent in Austrian law, undergo four years of post-graduate training, and pass an exam. The training includes theoretical instruction and

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In theory, trials before the Constitutional Court are oral, public, and decided by the full plenum. In practice, oral argument and true plenary sessions have become rare because workload is heavy and there are broad exceptions to these general rules; most cases today are decided behind closed doors

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is no plausible way for the complainant to get the problem resolved through any other procedure. Depending on the type of the statute, ordinance, or treaty, the court can often also be called upon by the national government, by regional governments, or by groups of national or regional legislators.

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they had been demanding for decades. The German-speaking remnant was demoralized, rudderless, and crippled by partisan strife. The monarchy was discredited and its administration with it. None of the rump state's various legislative bodies had any real authority either. Provincial legislatures had

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As far as civil and criminal jurisprudence was concerned, the December Constitution mostly just resurrected the principles originally stipulated in 1849. Judges regained their autonomy and independence, although state attorneys remained limited to their narrow role as prosecutors. The constitution

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forbids the administrative and judicial branches of government from interfering with each other. This peculiarity, established during the neo-absolutist years of the Habsburg monarchy, originally meant that subjects could not take bureaucrats to court or otherwise petition the courts to review the

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lies with one of the district courts; its decision can be appealed to the relevant regional court. Some cases are first tried before the regional court and can be appealed to the higher regional court. Higher regional courts and the Supreme Court do not have original jurisdiction; they exclusively

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The State Court was disbanded. In its original form, it was pointless without a monarch in possession of permanent and unqualified immunity; besides, it had never actually convened. The responsibility for holding top officials accountable was transferred to a special committee of the Provisional

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Trials before higher regional courts are bench trials decided by panels of either three or five judges: three professional judges and two expert lay judges in employment and social assistance cases, two professional judges and one expert lay judge in all other civil cases, and three professional

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Criminal trials are held before three-judge panels, four-judge panels, or juries in cases of alleged homicide, sexual assault, robbery, certain types of grand larceny or fraud, and in any case where the alleged crime carries a maximum jail term of more than five years. The specifics are somewhat

315:). The court is actively involved, questioning witnesses brought forward by the parties to the trials, summoning expert witnesses on its own initiative, and generally attempting to determine the truth. Most trials are bench trials, although the bench will often be a panel including one or more 1506:

Jury trials were abolished. A complete rewrite of the Penal Procedure Code in 1853 reintroduced old-style inquisitorial trials. Judges lost their independence. State attorneys continued to exist but lost most of their responsibilities; they were essentially reduced to their function as public

1146:

Legislation can also be challenged by courts that are trying cases for whose outcome it is relevant. Legislation can further be challenged by one of the parties to the a trial, but only after the trial court has handed down its verdict and only if the verdict actually references the piece of

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Appeals are limited. Verdicts in civil cases can be appealed up only once; verdicts in criminal cases can be appealed up twice. Appeals in point of law and pleas in nullity may still be possible even when regular appeals are exhausted, but the specifics are complicated. (§2 GVG, §§352−390

1661:) held the Emperor's ministers accountable for political misconduct committed in office. The State Court was an oblique and roundabout way of keeping the Emperor himself in check. The Emperor could not be taken to court, but under the terms of the Law on the Responsibility of Ministers ( 253:) to prevent the government from influencing outcomes by hand-picking a judge sympathetic to its perspective. For example, if a litigant files for divorce in a court with multiple judges handling divorce cases, the first letter of their last name decides which judge they are assigned. 412:

down the ladder again. Verdicts of trial courts − although not of appellate courts − that result from the trial court's application of an unconstitutional statute or an illegal ordinance can additionally be fought with extraordinary appeals at law to the Constitutional Court.

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The judicial powers and responsibilities of landlords, cities, and ecclesiastical corporations are abolished; all disputes are adjudicated by the State, in courts explicitly created by statutory law and according to procedure explicitly set forth in statutory law. (§20,

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and criminal trials as well as non-adversary proceedings such as inheritance cases or legal guardianship matters. The courts of public law supervise the other two branches of government: the administrative court system reviews the legality of administrative acts; the

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The main differences between the court system of the March Constitution and the court system as it exists today are the district collegiate courts, since abolished, the comparatively wide purview of the state attorneys, since narrowed, and the fact that there is no

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Subsequent legislation pursuant to the March Constitution created a court system that also survives, with a few significant but narrow alterations, until this day. Most notably, the outline defined by the constitution was fleshed by the Constitution of the courts

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One of the peculiarities of the Austrian judiciary is its strict organizational separation of civil and criminal justice. Courts are divided into civil and criminal chambers; judges spend their days trying either civil cases or criminal cases but never both. In

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Regional courts are trial courts with panels of judges trying serious crimes, in some cases assisted by juries, but also appellate courts hearing appeals to verdicts of district and district collegiate courts in their respective regions. (§§12−18 GVG, §§14−16

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law until general elections could be held and a properly legitimized Constituting National Assembly could be convoked. In particular, the Provisional Assembly made no drastic changes to the court system; it mainly updated the system of courts of public law:

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StGBl 1919/212, Gesetz, womit die Aufgabe des ehemaligen Staatsgerichtshofes auf den deutschösterreichischen Verfassungsgerichtshof übertragen und das Gesetz über die Errichtung eines deutschösterreichischen Verfassungsgerichtshofes abgeändert und ergänzt

1526:

subjects for material autonomy, exacerbated by a series of diplomatic setbacks, kept eroding the cohesion of the empire and the personal authority of the Emperor. By 1861, Franz Joseph was forced to grant a third constitution. Following his defeat in the

474:, home to no fewer than 12 separate district courts. In some cases, a district court serving a city also serves part of the surrounding suburbs. In others, two or three very small administrative districts are lumped together into a single judicial zone. 759:

Appeals of district courts decisions to regional courts are decided by three-judge panels: two professional judges and one expert lay judge in trials at mercantile law, three professional judges in all other civil matters and in all criminal cases.

1315:). While the judge is tasked with actively searching for the truth as opposed to merely refereeing, however, judge and prosecutor are separate entities. The older form of inquisitorial system, in which judge and prosecutor are the same party ( 1552:

restored full separation of powers, including on the district level. District courts, accordingly, were detached from district administrative offices again. District collegiate courts, on the other hand, were not; they were simply abandoned.

440:− the country's two largest cities by a wide margin − the two chambers of the regional court are actually two completely separate courts, housed in separate buildings. In Vienna, there is a third regional court for trials at mercantile law ( 1491:) by the crown as opposed to enacted by the people or agreed upon by the empire's constituent crown lands, Franz Joseph felt at liberty to walk back on his promises as soon as he had regained a firm grip on his subjects. The Constitution ( 739:

In cases of alleged manslaughter, aggravated robbery, rape, membership in a terrorist organization, abuse of official authority, or financial crimes causing more than EUR 1,000,000 in damage, a second professional judge is added to the

247:. Appointments are for life; judges cannot be removed or reassigned without their consent. In courts with more than one judge − which is essentially all of them − there has to be a fixed and specific apportionment of responsibilities ( 1763:. The court was now able to void regulations that violated the law and laws that violated the constitution. It also acquired responsibility for handling election complaints; the Kelsen constitution did not retain the Election Court. 452:). Normally, original jurisdiction over disputes in these areas of law would lie with the civil regional court. As an additional special case, the higher regional court in Vienna has original jurisdiction over antitrust cases. 716:

Other civil suits can be tried by three-judge panels upon request of the parties if the amount in dispute exceeds EUR 100,000. In cases at mercantile law, the panel consists of two professional judges and one expert lay judge

939:

over all Austrian antitrust cases. A third panel handles disciplinary proceedings and other disputes internal to the judiciary. Of the remaining fifteen panels, ten deal with civil cases and five with criminal trials.

1735:). In April 1919, the government transferred the responsibilities of the former State Court to the Constitutional Court and also gave the Constitutional Court cassatory power: from now on, the court could not just 1457:) is the legislature and the Constitutional Court is the monitoring authority acting as a check on it. In the philosophical framework of 19th-century Austria, the imperial court was the main seat of power and 1170:

over, although the way Austria uses general and administrative courts to vet complaints about unconstitutional legislation and other constitutional rights infringements does present something of an edge case.

900:

cases involving lower-level judges and prosecutors, attorneys, and notaries. In addition to its adjudicative responsibilities, the court is charged with running the Republic's official public law library (the

520:), including but not limited to child custody disputes, child maintenance and visitation rights disputes, appointments of legal guardians for senile elders or the mentally ill, or expropriation proceedings; 1853:

is only used to denote inquisitorial trials in which judge and prosecutor are the same person, or the same panel. An inquisitorial trial in which judge and prosecution are separate entities is called an

332:, which has been adopted into the Austrian constitution, but also to Austrian constitutional law preceding it, criminal defendants are protected by the set of procedural guarantees typical for modern 305:). The court evaluates evidence brought before it by the parties to the trial but makes no attempt to uncover any additional evidence or otherwise investigate the matter itself. Criminal trials are 1507:

prosecutors, and comparatively powerless ones at that. Trials were no longer public. Trials before higher regional courts and the supreme court were no longer oral. On the district level, the

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court that suspects a statute at issue may be unconstitutional has the right (and the obligation) to refer the matter to the Constitutional Court. The literature calls this approach the

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is the sole responsibility of the federal government. Judges and prosecutors are recruited, trained, and employed by the Republic; courts hand down verdicts in the name of the Republic (

1511:

was abandoned, at least on paper. District courts were merged into district administrative offices, although in practice district judges continued to operate much as they had before.

749:). The same is true for treason, a number of other political crimes, and all other crimes with minimum jail terms of more than five and maximum jail terms of more than ten years. 1633:) and implemented in 1876, had the power to review the legality of administrative acts, ensuring that the executive branch remained faithful to the principle of the rule of law. 683:

In cases for which the regional court has original jurisdiction, the trial is usually a bench trial decided by a single professional judge, but there are several exceptions:

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adjudicates on complaints regarding the constitutionality of statutes, the legality of ordinances, and the conduct of elected officials and political appointees in office.

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by panels of either nine or five members. Opinions tend to be concise and academic. Only the actual decision is published; there are no concurring or dissenting opinions.

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Broadly speaking, the administrative court system reviews administrative acts, the Constitutional Court reviews legislative acts and judicial demarcation conflicts.

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The December Constitution did more than merely revive suspended institutions, however. One of its parts, the Basic Law on the General Rights of Nationals (

470:, although there are exceptions. Some of the larger administrative districts are partitioned into two or more judicial districts. The extreme case is the 1247: 1208: 1503:) that sounded vaguely progressive but did not actually bind the ruling house to any real degree. Franz Joseph was trying to return to absolutist rule. 1707:, had been elected democratically, but the last election had been held in 1911. Political left and political right agreed that Austria should become a 989:

fixes this problem by establishing the Administrative Court and the Constitutional Court, two tribunals that cut across the division. Pointedly called

1756: 1108: 986: 4444: 1005:

courts. The terminology used by most modern English-language literature makes the distinction difficult to see; it remains salient in German texts.

648:. In Graz and Vienna, the civil and criminal chambers set up as two separate courts, meaning that Graz and Vienna each have a civil regional court ( 4701: 558:) to substitute for them. The district prosecutor is not necessarily an attorney, however, and cannot act on their own initiative or authority. 487:) involving matrimonial and family matters, real estate rental or lease matters, real estate boundary or easement disputes, or trespass to land; 1159: 1017: 4066: 3988: 3969: 3931: 3894: 3856: 3837: 533:). Non-adversary proceedings, debt collection, foreclosure, bankruptcy, and land register matters can also be decided by a judiciary clerk ( 5218: 4789: 4676: 1360:

The court system is a hierarchy with five levels: district, district collegiate, regional, higher regional, and supreme; (§1 GVG, §8 StPO)

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Charges of murder, actual terrorist violence, or armed insurrection are jury trials decided by three professional judges and eight jurors (

30: 1703:

been elected using a system of curia suffrage, meaning they had no democratic legitimacy. The House of Deputies, the lower chamber of the

5148: 5085: 4656: 1739:

the unconstitutionality of an administrative decision, it could actually annul it, sending complainant and defendant back to square one.

1532: 329: 4696: 1771:

system of judicial review. Because Austria was in fact the first country ever to adopt this system and because it has since spread to

1155: 935:

tribunals; another panel hears to appeals to antitrust verdicts handed down by the Vienna higher regional court, which has specialist

870: 325:). Criminal defendants accused of political transgressions or of serious crimes with severe penalties have a right to trial by jury. 4085: 4032: 3875: 1068: 511:), for example probate proceedings, adoptions, declarations of death in absentia, or invalidation of lost securities certificates; 4365: 4350: 4335: 4320: 4306: 4291: 4276: 1698:

peoples of Austria broke away from the German-speaking heartland, all essentially at the same time, and started establishing the

1413:

District collegiate courts are trial courts with panels of judges trying more serious transgressions. (§§10−11 GVG, §§10−13 StPO)

4321:"Richter- und Staatsanwaltschaftsdienstgesetz (RStDG), consolidates version as last amended by August 14, 2018 by BGBl. 60/2018" 5355: 5168: 390:

The right to an appeal is taken seriously. Any party to any trial before a general court can file an appeal on facts and law (

5193: 5078: 4935: 4651: 1036: 794:) are going to take place in a district court. In many ways, the regional courts are the backbone of the Austrian judiciary. 215: 123: 3847:

Lachmayer, Konrad (2017). "The Austrian Constitutional Court". In Jakab, András; Dyevre, Arthur; Itzcovich, Giulio (eds.).

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demarcation conflicts between courts, between courts and the administration, and between national and regional governments;

5484: 5365: 4845: 4666: 1302:; court system and bureaucracy cannot squash each other's decisions or otherwise interfere in each other's domains. (§102) 1099:

of legislation. The Austrian method of vesting all power to strike legislation in a single specialist court is called the

948: 262: 162: 493:

other civil trials with the amount in dispute not exceeding €15,000, excepting employment and social assistance disputes;

129:

In addition to the court system proper, the judicial arm of Austrian state power includes the state prosecution service (

5453: 5405: 5280: 5275: 4825: 4742: 4564: 4437: 1410:

District courts are trial courts with single judges handling civil disputes and minor misdemeanors. (§§2−9 GVG, §9 StPO)

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Most of the cases outlined above go before a three-judge panel consisting of one professional judge and two lay judges (

4261: 4252: 4244: 4236: 4228: 4220: 4212: 4204: 4196: 4188: 4180: 4172: 4164: 4156: 4148: 364:

cannot be tried for transgressions that are not specifically defined to be criminal offenses by statutory law, or that

4869: 4624: 5438: 5489: 5240: 5014: 5009: 4999: 4762: 4579: 1704: 1179: 911: 862: 766:

Attached to every regional court dealing with criminal trials, there is a branch of the state prosecution service (

552:) attached to the relevant regional court. In minor cases, the public prosecutor can assign a district prosecutor ( 99: 39: 1429:) represents the State in court where necessary; most notably, the state attorney's offices act as a professional 4727: 4686: 4646: 1474: 1273: 1183: 965: 687:

Suits at employment law or social assistance law are decided by a panel of three judges, one professional judge (

5410: 5415: 5340: 4671: 4594: 4351:"Verfassungsgerichtshofsgesetz 1953 (VfGG), consolidated version as last amended May 15, 2018 by BGBl. 22/2018" 1262: 341: 1531:

in 1866, he was forced to give up for good on his desire to remain the sole sovereign and font of law. In the

1280:, a set of edicts that built on the Pillersdorf Constitution but included a number of additional concessions. 265:. Nominations come from within the judiciary; panels of judges suggest candidates for benches with vacancies. 4096: 1714:

but had fundamentally different ideas regarding many other aspects of their future constitutional framework.

1543:, a fourth and final set of fundamental laws that the Emperor would no longer be able to unilaterally scrap. 5310: 5270: 5250: 5230: 5133: 4969: 4959: 4926: 4906: 4896: 4752: 4732: 4681: 4614: 4584: 4430: 4245:

StGBl 1919/90, Gesetz betreffend den Wahlgerichtshof für die Wahlen zur konstituierenden Nationalversammlung

1251: 1216: 95: 5463: 5448: 5395: 5320: 4292:"Jugendgerichtsgesetz 1988 (JGG), consolidated version as last amended December 28, 2015 by BGBL. 154/2015" 1612:

that was a significant improvement over its 1848 precursor. Other parts of the constitution entrenched the

782:). Regional courts and regional-level state prosecutors organize and supervise most of the pre-trial work ( 566: 5443: 5260: 5245: 5178: 5138: 4921: 4815: 4769: 4554: 4534: 4008: 1258: 1148: 936: 158: 5235: 4405: 1752:

The only other significant change involved the Supreme Court: its name was shortened to its modern form.

5433: 5370: 5325: 5295: 5153: 4911: 4779: 4747: 1680: 1671:

The December Constitution thus created the distinction between general courts and courts of public law.

1540: 1292: 1167: 915: 589: 571: 424: 373: 244: 91: 87: 4835: 1001:, the two tribunals are staffed by lawyer judges and generally behave like courts without technically 857: 5360: 5350: 5300: 5213: 5208: 5198: 5183: 5173: 5158: 5143: 5123: 5118: 5113: 4916: 4901: 4855: 4737: 4661: 4634: 4544: 4387: 3915: 3911: 1508: 1447: 1306: 1299: 1243: 1175: 981: 944: 399:

In addition to the appeal on facts and law against the verdict of the trial court, an appeal at law (

306: 258: 75: 667:

exercising original jurisdiction over all civil and criminal matters not handled by district courts;

5458: 5400: 5345: 5335: 5315: 5305: 5290: 5285: 5265: 5203: 5188: 5163: 4989: 4931: 4881: 4840: 4784: 4715: 4522: 1528: 1174:

The Constitutional Court consists of fourteen members and six substitute members, appointed by the

1027: 907: 420:

The hierarchy of general courts has four levels: district, regional, higher regional, and supreme.

71: 1539:

received near-complete independence. Shortly thereafter, the remainder of the empire received the

5375: 5330: 5255: 5225: 5045: 5038: 4951: 4850: 4820: 4803: 4589: 4569: 4483: 4465: 4457: 1536: 1255: 609: 467: 296: 4237:

StGBl 1919/88, Gesetz über die Errichtung eines deutschösterreichischen Verwaltungsgerichtshofes

4229:

StGBl 1919/48, Gesetz über die Errichtung eines deutschösterreichischen Verfassungsgerichtshofes

1283:

The constitution established a number of principles that remain in force until the present day:

257:

internship-type practical work in an actual courthouse. Appointments to benches are made by the

4366:"Zivilprozessordnung (ZPO), consolidated version as last amended May 15, 2018 by BGBl. 32/2018" 1084:

accusations of misconduct in office against certain elected officials and political appointees;

4964: 4830: 4691: 4619: 4609: 4549: 4473: 4081: 4062: 4028: 3984: 3965: 3927: 3919: 3890: 3871: 3852: 3833: 1684: 1515: 1231: 1212: 1103:

system of judicial review. Because Austria was the first country to adopt this approach when

355: 333: 4307:"OGH-Gesetz (OGHG), consolidated version as last amended December 28, 2007 by BGBl. 112/2007" 5054: 5019: 5004: 4994: 4974: 4941: 4891: 4539: 4512: 4054: 1235: 621: 502:) involving finable offenses or jailable offenses with a jail term of no more than one year; 269: 4984: 4574: 4559: 1844: 1822: 1760: 1691: 1443: 1163: 1096: 952: 645: 380: 225: 51: 4181:

RGBl 1867/145, Staatsgrundgesetz über die Ausübung der Regierungs- und der Vollzugsgewalt

3941: 1748:) was created to handle complaints regarding the upcoming Constituting Assembly election. 629: 1238:, holding unrestricted power over their subjects with no constraints due to any kind of 713:) and are effectively meant to double as court-appointed disinterested expert witnesses. 446:) and a fourth regional court for cases involving employment and social assistance law ( 5059: 4757: 1609: 1266: 17: 1825:". Among authors who speak English as a first language, "general courts" predominates. 931:) of five members each. One panel exclusively deals with appeals decisions reached by 151:). Remand prisons for pre-trial detention or other types of non-correctional custody ( 5478: 4978: 4599: 3983:(in German) (11th ed.). Vienna: Manzsche Verlags- und Universitätsbuchhandlung. 1272:

The appeasement failed to stem the crisis; Ferdinand had to abdicate. His successor,

1203: 763:

Routine company register decisions are made by single judges or by judicial clerks.

4527: 4490: 4101: 1699: 1497:) was abrogated in 1852 and replaced with a number of "constitutional principles" ( 836:

As a special case, the higher regional court in Vienna decides antitrust disputes.

348: 211:) try (some of the) civil cases in which the respondent is a government authority: 35: 4117: 4018:(in German). No. 3–4/2006. Austrian Ministry of the Interior. pp. 75–81. 1652:

the government to be in the wrong, not by actually voiding its wrongful decisions.

280: 261:, although the president can and does delegate most of this responsibility to the 1694:

was not a collapse so much as an explosion. Hungary broke away from Austria. The

4042: 1613: 1104: 1088: 932: 142: 79: 63: 3868:

Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries

4336:"Strafprozeßordnung 1975 (StPO) as last amended May 17, 2017 by BGBl. 32/2018" 4277:"Bundesverfassungsgesetz (B-VG) as last amended May 15, 2018 by BGBl. 22/2018" 4205:

StGBl 1918/5, Gesetz über die Staats- und Regierungsform von Deutschösterreich

1519: 1430: 1420:

Higher regional courts and the Supreme Court only have appellate jurisdiction.

605: 601: 585: 1555:

The system of general courts now had the same four rungs it still has today:

527:

Trials before the district court are bench trials decided by a single judge (

272:

in peacetime; members of the military are tried by the regular court system.

4886: 4604: 4221:

StGBl 1919/41, Gesetz betreffend die Errichtung eines Obersten Gerichtshofes

1794:

The Revisions of 1925 and 1929 made no further changes to the court system.

1708: 1239: 813: 694: 597: 316: 59: 4173:

RGBl 1867/143, Staatsgrundgesetz über die Einsetzung eines Reichsgerichtes

4517: 4500: 1784: 1711: 1477:

spent much of his early reign trying to reassert unqualified sovereignty.

1128: 625: 90:

of the other two branches of government and is committed to guaranteeing

5070: 1095:

The Constitutional Court is the only court in Austria with the power of

1057:

liability claims against Austria, its provinces, and its municipalities;

466:). Most judicial districts are coextensive with one of the country's 94 4495: 4453: 1788: 1772: 1469: 1132: 1116: 1064: 723:

here). In other cases, the panel consists of three professional judges.

180: 118: 83: 910:, the court produces appraisals of draft legislation presented to the 4505: 1642:), stipulated by the Basic Law on the Creation of an Imperial Court ( 1075: 969: 821: 773: 637: 613: 471: 433: 189:). There is no such thing, for example, as an Austrian county court. 105:

Structurally, the Austrian judiciary is divided into general courts (

67: 4422: 1514:

The return to absolutism ultimately failed. The continuing rise of

947:, but the president can and usually does delegate this task to the 843:

Each higher regional court has a chief public prosecutor's office (

379:

cannot be prosecuted twice for the same crime, alleged or actual ("

228:

of legislation and constitutional review of administrative actions;

4478: 3887:

The Constitution of the Republic of Austria: A Contextual Analysis

1780: 1776: 1695: 1523: 1468: 1202: 1124: 1120: 1107:

created the Constitutional Court in its modern form with the 1920

1026: 856: 633: 565: 368:

not specifically defined to be criminal offenses by statutory law

279: 29: 788:) in Austria, even in cases in which the main court proceedings ( 542:

While there are permanent district judges, there are no district

490:

most simple debt collection, foreclosure, and bankruptcy matters;

817: 809: 641: 617: 593: 437: 285: 5074: 4426: 2922: 2920: 1087:

complaints alleging violations of constitutional rights or the

4189:

RGBl 1867/101, Gesetz über die Verantwortlichkeit der Minister

4149:

RGBl 1848/150, Reichsverfassung für das Kaiserthum Oesterreich

1605:

Staatsgrundgesetz über die allgemeinen Rechte der Staatsbürger

1683:

remained in force essentially unaltered until the end of the

1645:

Staatsgrundgesetz über die Einrichtung eines Reichsgerichtes

1223:

In its modern form, the Austrian judiciary goes back to the

943:

The responsibility for appointing justices is vested in the

1759:

of 1920 finally gave the Constitutional Court the power of

4027:(in German) (2nd ed.). Vienna: Böhlau Studienbücher. 4197:

StGBl 1918/1, Grundlegende Einrichtungen der Staatsgewalt

3163: 1791:, it is also called the "Austrian" or "European" model. 1729:

The Imperial Court was renamed to Constitutional Court (

1242:

social compact and with no interference from any of the

827:

Higher regional courts decide appeals on facts and law (

4213:

StGBl 1918/38, Grundgesetz über die richterliche Gewalt

3964:(in German) (6th ed.). Vienna: Österreich Verlag. 1627:), stipulated by the 1867 Basic Law on Judicial Power ( 906:). On the request of the president of the court or the 171:), a cabinet-level division of the national executive. 546:. Criminal trials are prosecuted by a state attorney ( 237:) exercises judicial review of administrative actions. 4157:

RGBl 1849/278, Grundzüge der neuen Gerichtsverfassung

1860:, literally "prosecutorial trial". There has been no 1276:

succeeded in ending the protests by promulgating the

1261:

tried to appease the revolutionaries by enacting the

951:. The court maintains a special personnel committee ( 4165:

RGBl 1850/25, Neue provisorische Strafproceß-Ordnung

2671: 833:) in cases originally tried before regional courts. 5424: 5386: 5106: 4950: 4868: 4802: 4714: 4633: 4464: 1834:

Sometimes translated as "public courts"; see above.

1115:system. Because the approach has since spread to 865:, seat of the Supreme Court of Justice since 1881 3924:Österreichisches Staatsrecht. Band 1: Grundlagen 1230:Throughout the 18th and early 19th century, the 3870:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 2707: 1664:Gesetz über die Verantwortlichkeit der Minister 4061:(in German) (7th ed.). Vienna: Facultas. 3926:(in German) (2nd ed.). Vienna: Springer. 1630:Staatsgrundgesetz über die richterliche Gewalt 5086: 4438: 4025:Österreichische und deutsche Rechtsgeschichte 2578: 964:The Supreme Court of Justice convenes in the 42:, the seat of one of the country's top courts 8: 1861: 1855: 1848: 1816: 1743: 1730: 1662: 1656: 1643: 1637: 1628: 1622: 1603: 1593: 1584: 1575: 1569: 1560: 1498: 1492: 1486: 1452: 1424: 1400: 1391: 1382: 1373: 1364: 1351: 1345: 1339: 1333: 1316: 1310: 1111:, the approach is sometimes also called the 1048: 1042: 996: 990: 956: 926: 901: 894: 888: 882: 876: 844: 828: 803: 789: 783: 777: 767: 744: 731: 727:involved; the following is a rough outline: 718: 708: 698: 688: 671: 655: 649: 579: 553: 547: 534: 528: 515: 506: 497: 482: 461: 447: 441: 406: 400: 391: 320: 310: 300: 248: 232: 219: 206: 202:) try criminal cases and (most) civil cases; 197: 184: 166: 152: 146: 136: 130: 112: 106: 1815:Some authors, mostly Austrians, translate " 1321:proper in German) is no longer used. (§103) 361:cannot be forced to incriminate themselves; 5093: 5079: 5071: 4874: 4808: 4720: 4639: 4445: 4431: 4423: 3781: 3673: 3658: 3313: 2953: 1461:was meant to be the monitoring authority. 4080:(in German). Vienna: Wilhelm Braumüller. 4002:(in German). Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. 4000:Judicial Review in the Contemporary World 3802: 3751: 3727: 3721: 3703: 3697: 3679: 3646: 3610: 3598: 3583: 3550: 3535: 3529: 3505: 3499: 3475: 3460: 3439: 3424: 3403: 3379: 3355: 3331: 3283: 3268: 3247: 3241: 3217: 3202: 3181: 3151: 3103: 3019: 2938: 2557:, Dienst- und Disziplinargerichtsbarkeit. 1067:and the legality of ordinances and other 925:The court is partitioned into 18 panels ( 460:There are currently 115 district courts ( 3787: 3766: 3634: 3577: 3289: 3157: 3109: 3055: 3025: 2989: 2959: 2926: 2896: 2872: 2848: 2824: 2800: 2776: 2266: 2242: 2212: 2164: 2140: 2110: 2080: 2050: 2020: 1990: 1966: 1930: 1900: 1423:A professional body of state attorneys ( 1344:) of 1849 and the Penal Procedure Code ( 1327:Political trials are jury trials. (§103) 4097:"Adamovich: Das ist ja alles kein Spaß" 3745: 2656: 1878: 1808: 802:There are four higher regional courts ( 98:. It has broad and effective powers of 3307: 2644: 1722:The Administrative Court was retained. 1018:Supreme Administrative Court (Austria) 4262:BGBl 1920/1, Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz 4095:Weissensteiner, Nina (July 2, 2016). 4049:(in German). Berlin: Julius Springer. 3981:Österreichische Verfassungsgeschichte 3139: 3079: 3049: 3013: 2983: 2260: 2236: 2206: 2188: 2134: 2104: 2074: 2044: 2014: 1945: 1924: 1894: 1583:Higher regional courts (still called 985:legality of administrative acts. The 342:presumed innocent until proven guilty 7: 3849:Comparative Constitutional Reasoning 3622: 3562: 3511: 3481: 3445: 3409: 3385: 3361: 3337: 3253: 3223: 3187: 2755: 2692: 2650: 2602: 2572: 2554: 2530: 1595:Oberster Gerichts- und Kassationshof 1518:and continuing demands by Austria's 1402:Oberster Gerichts- und Kassationshof 1162:, the Constitutional Court is not a 1031:The seat of the Constitutional Court 663:Regional courts are responsible for 477:District courts are responsible for 1533:Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 676:) against district court decisions; 657:Landesgericht für Strafrechtssachen 651:Landesgericht für Zivilrechtssachen 330:European Convention on Human Rights 231:a system of administrative courts ( 192:The court system has two branches: 161:. The judiciary is assisted by the 27:Overview of court system in Austria 4697:Western European broadleaf forests 3220:, pp. 119, 122, 125, 127−128. 1324:Trials are oral and public. (§103) 1178:on nomination of the cabinet, the 871:Supreme Court of Justice (Austria) 670:hearing appeals on facts and law ( 514:most adversary non-trial matters ( 25: 2740: 2548: 1481:Since the March Constitution was 1451:Austria, the main seat of power ( 654:) and a criminal regional court ( 584:) in Austria; their seats are in 336:. Among other things, defendants 179:The administration of justice in 4078:Kompetenzverteilung in der Krise 3145: 3124: 3097: 3073: 3043: 3007: 2977: 2911: 2890: 2866: 2842: 2818: 2794: 2770: 2734: 2719: 2686: 2626: 2620: 2596: 2524: 2509: 2497: 2485: 2461: 2449: 2437: 2425: 2413: 2401: 2389: 2377: 2365: 2353: 2332: 2284: 2230: 2182: 2158: 2128: 2098: 2068: 2038: 2008: 1984: 1960: 1918: 1888: 2473: 2338: 2317: 2305: 2290: 1250:compelled a first step towards 840:judges in all criminal trials. 370:at the time they were committed 4652:Alps conifer and mixed forests 3851:. Cambridge University Press. 3830:Austrian Legal System and Laws 1269:that was modern for the time. 1037:Constitutional Court (Austria) 875:The Supreme Court of Justice ( 578:There are 18 regional courts ( 523:maintaining the land register. 78:responsible for upholding the 1: 4264:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4256:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4247:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4239:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4231:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4223:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4215:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4207:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4199:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4191:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4183:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4175:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4167:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4159:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4151:. Retrieved October 6, 2018. 4009:"Österreichs höchste Richter" 3586:, pp. 189, 191−192, 194. 3160:, pp. 442−444, 480, 483. 2980:, Art. 139 (1) 3, 140 (1) 1c. 1246:of their various realms. The 1211:set Austria on the path from 1166:. It only hears cases it has 679:keeping the company register. 208:Gerichte öffentlichten Rechts 117:). The general courts handle 3388:, pp. 370−371, 385−387. 3164:Weissensteiner, July 2, 2016 3052:, pp. 363−370, 379−382. 2017:, pp. 271−272, 560−561. 1568:Regional courts (now called 1372:District collegiate courts ( 1298:Judiciary and executive are 1160:Supreme Administrative Court 505:most non-adversary matters ( 292:Trials are oral and public. 143:correctional officers' corps 114:Gerichte öffentlichen Rechts 111:) and courts of public law ( 4625:Military history of Austria 4615:Allied-administered Austria 3979:Brauneder, Wilhelm (2009). 1866:in Austria since the 1870s. 1012:Administrative court system 720:fachmännischer Laienrichter 517:streitige Außerstreitsachen 56:österreischische Judikative 5506: 4406:"Richterinnen und Richter" 4076:Pernthaler, Peter (1989). 3998:Cappelatti, Mauro (1970). 1863:inquisitorisches Verfahren 1850:inquisitorisches Verfahren 1742:A special Election Court ( 1621:The Administrative Court ( 1254:. Under intense pressure, 1135:, some people call it the 1041:The Constitutional Court ( 1034: 1015: 868: 449:Arbeits- und Sozialgericht 386:have a right to an appeal. 5032: 4877: 4811: 4723: 4642: 3885:Stelzer, Manfred (2011). 3154:, pp. 83−84, 98−101. 1335:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz 1063:the constitutionality of 250:feste Geschäftseinteilung 4647:Administrative divisions 4595:Federal State of Austria 4007:Graf, Philipp J (2006). 3922:; Frank, Stefan (2011). 3866:Lijphart, Arend (1999). 3364:, pp. 361, 363−364. 3250:, pp. 125, 127−128. 3082:, pp. 334, 346−350. 3010:, Art. 139 (1), 140 (1). 2986:, pp. 370−372, 381. 2672:Richterinnen und Richter 2191:, pp. 272, 564−565. 2107:, pp. 272, 563−564. 2023:, pp. 272, 439−433. 1390:Higher regional courts ( 1375:Bezirkskollegialgerichte 1263:Pillersdorf Constitution 1156:Supreme Court of Justice 1091:by the executive branch. 887:) hears appeals at law ( 853:Supreme Court of Justice 710:fachkundige Laienrichter 468:administrative districts 4682:Pannonian mixed forests 4585:First Austrian Republic 2605:, Gesetzesbegutachtung. 1217:constitutional monarchy 896:Nichtigkeitsbeschwerden 808:). They are located in 96:equality before the law 18:Supreme Court (Austria) 5149:Bosnia and Herzegovina 4555:Siege of Vienna (1529) 4535:Margraviate of Austria 4047:Allgemeine Staatslehre 4016:Öffentliche Sicherheit 3960:Berka, Walter (2016). 3828:Foster, Nigel (2013). 1862: 1856: 1849: 1817: 1744: 1732:Verfassungsgerichtshof 1731: 1663: 1657: 1644: 1638: 1629: 1624:Verwaltungsgerichtshof 1623: 1604: 1594: 1585: 1576: 1570: 1561: 1499: 1493: 1487: 1478: 1453: 1425: 1401: 1392: 1383: 1374: 1365: 1352: 1346: 1340: 1334: 1317: 1311: 1220: 1076:international treaties 1049: 1044:Verfassungsgerichtshof 1043: 1032: 997: 991: 980:The Austrian model of 957: 937:exclusive jurisdiction 927: 902: 895: 889: 883: 877: 866: 846:Oberstaatsanwaltschaft 845: 829: 804: 798:Higher regional courts 790: 784: 778: 768: 745: 732: 719: 709: 703:). The lay judges are 699: 689: 672: 656: 650: 580: 575: 554: 548: 535: 529: 516: 507: 498: 496:most criminal trials ( 483: 462: 448: 442: 408:Nichtigkeitsbeschwerde 407: 401: 392: 321: 311: 301: 289: 249: 233: 221:Verfassungsgerichtshof 220: 207: 205:courts of public law ( 198: 185: 167: 153: 147: 137: 131: 113: 107: 55: 43: 5101:Judiciaries of Europe 4388:"Geschäftsverteilung" 4023:Hoke, Rudolf (1996). 3916:Funk, Bernd-Christian 1681:December Constitution 1547:December Constitution 1541:December Constitution 1500:Verfassungsgrundsätze 1472: 1293:judicial independence 1234:had tried to rule as 1206: 1168:original jurisdiction 1069:secondary legislation 1030: 860: 569: 425:original jurisdiction 374:nulla poena sine lege 283: 186:im Namen der Republik 154:Polizeianhaltezentren 33: 5485:Judiciary of Austria 4702:World Heritage Sites 4545:Archduchy of Austria 4410:Oberster Gerichtshof 4392:Oberster Gerichtshof 4122:Oberster Gerichtshof 3946:Oberster Gerichtshof 3484:, pp. 400, 403. 3112:, pp. 222, 442. 3016:, pp. 367, 381. 2929:, pp. 442, 450. 2575:, Zentralbibliothek. 2356:, §§285c-285d, §286. 1818:ordentliche Gerichte 1636:The Imperial Court ( 1509:separation of powers 1465:Return to absolutism 1448:separation of powers 1318:Inquisitionsprozesse 1307:inquisitorial trials 1305:Criminal trials are 1081:election complaints; 1023:Constitutional Court 987:Constitution of 1920 982:separation of powers 976:Courts of public law 878:Oberster Gerichtshof 785:Ermittlungsverfahren 347:have the right to a 307:inquisitorial trials 216:Constitutional Court 199:ordentliche Gerichte 124:Constitutional Court 108:ordentliche Gerichte 76:branch of government 48:judiciary of Austria 5387:States with limited 4936:freedom of religion 4523:Ostrogothic Kingdom 4294:. December 28, 2015 4118:"Zentralbibliothek" 3889:. Hart Publishing. 3805:, pp. 209−215. 3790:, pp. 224−225. 3601:, pp. 201–202. 3565:, pp. 394−395. 3448:, pp. 403−404. 3442:, pp. 160−161. 3412:, pp. 397−400. 3406:, pp. 174−175. 3382:, pp. 154−155. 3358:, pp. 145−146. 3340:, pp. 359−360. 3310:, pp. 256−257. 3271:, pp. 127−128. 3256:, pp. 356−357. 3226:, pp. 345−353. 3190:, pp. 341−345. 3184:, pp. 112−114. 3058:, pp. 450−457. 2992:, pp. 459−462. 2962:, pp. 224−225. 2899:, pp. 473−474. 2875:, pp. 469−473. 2827:, pp. 449−467. 2803:, pp. 446−449. 2779:, pp. 445−446. 2708:Geschäftsverteilung 2428:, §31 (3), §32 (1). 2308:, §477, §494, §496. 2263:, pp. 568−569. 2245:, pp. 438−439. 2239:, pp. 566−568. 2167:, pp. 429−430. 2137:, pp. 561−562. 1933:, pp. 269−270. 1927:, pp. 269−271. 1757:Kelsen constitution 1755:The new, permanent 1529:Austro-Prussian War 1431:prosecution service 1347:Strafprozessordnung 1252:constitutional rule 1248:Revolutions of 1848 1209:Revolutions of 1848 1109:Kelsen constitution 949:minister of justice 908:minister of justice 334:liberal democracies 302:streitige Verfahren 263:minister of justice 234:Verwaltungsgerichte 163:Ministry of Justice 86:. The judiciary is 72:Republic of Austria 4846:Telecommunications 4590:Austrian Civil War 4570:Congress of Vienna 4565:March Constitution 4484:Kingdom of Noricum 3920:Holzinger, Gerhart 3817:Books and articles 1798:Later developments 1726:National Assembly. 1586:Oberlandesgerichte 1537:Kingdom of Hungary 1479: 1426:Staatsanwaltschaft 1393:Oberlandesgerichte 1278:March Constitution 1225:March Constitution 1221: 1199:March Constitution 1033: 995:instead of simply 867: 805:Oberlandesgerichte 769:Staatsanwaltschaft 610:Krems an der Donau 576: 297:adversarial trials 290: 132:Staatsanwaltschaft 82:and administering 44: 5490:Courts in Austria 5472: 5471: 5068: 5067: 5028: 5027: 4864: 4863: 4798: 4797: 4790:Political parties 4743:Foreign relations 4710: 4709: 4620:History of Vienna 4550:Habsburg monarchy 4474:Hallstatt culture 4323:. August 14, 2018 4068:978-3-7089-0152-7 3990:978-3-214-14876-8 3971:978-3-7046-7281-0 3933:978-3-211-89396-8 3912:Adamovich, Ludwig 3896:978-1-8411-3852-7 3858:978-1-107-08558-9 3839:978-1-135-33658-5 3106:, pp. 85−86. 2579:Zentralbibliothek 2551:, §82, §90, §111. 2533:, Oberstes Organ. 1803:Translation notes 1685:Habsburg monarchy 1658:Staatsgerichtshof 1655:The State Court ( 1559:District courts ( 1516:civic nationalism 1381:Regional courts ( 1363:District courts ( 1236:absolute monarchs 1053:) adjudicates on 966:Palace of Justice 903:Zentralbibliothek 893:in civil trials, 863:Palace of Justice 508:Außerstreitsachen 405:in civil trials, 295:Civil trials are 168:Justizministerium 40:Palace of Justice 16:(Redirected from 5497: 5425:Dependencies and 5366:Northern Ireland 5107:Sovereign states 5095: 5088: 5081: 5072: 5048: 5041: 4875: 4809: 4721: 4640: 4540:Duchy of Austria 4447: 4440: 4433: 4424: 4419: 4417: 4416: 4401: 4399: 4398: 4376: 4374: 4373: 4361: 4359: 4358: 4346: 4344: 4343: 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2717: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2695:, Fünfer Senate. 2681: 2675: 2669: 2663: 2639: 2633: 2615: 2609: 2591: 2585: 2567: 2561: 2543: 2537: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2501: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2447: 2441: 2435: 2429: 2423: 2417: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2363: 2357: 2351: 2345: 2327: 2321: 2315: 2309: 2303: 2297: 2279: 2273: 2255: 2249: 2225: 2219: 2201: 2195: 2177: 2171: 2153: 2147: 2123: 2117: 2093: 2087: 2063: 2057: 2033: 2027: 2003: 1997: 1979: 1973: 1955: 1949: 1943: 1937: 1913: 1907: 1883: 1867: 1865: 1859: 1857:Anklageverfahren 1852: 1841: 1835: 1832: 1826: 1820: 1813: 1747: 1734: 1705:Imperial Council 1666: 1660: 1647: 1641: 1632: 1626: 1607: 1597: 1588: 1579: 1573: 1564: 1502: 1496: 1490: 1456: 1428: 1404: 1395: 1386: 1377: 1368: 1355: 1349: 1343: 1337: 1320: 1314: 1180:National Council 1164:court of appeals 1149:executive branch 1074:the legality of 1052: 1046: 1000: 994: 960: 930: 912:National Council 905: 898: 892: 886: 880: 848: 832: 807: 793: 787: 781: 771: 748: 735: 722: 712: 702: 692: 675: 659: 653: 622:Ried im Innkreis 583: 570:The seat of the 557: 551: 538: 532: 519: 510: 501: 486: 465: 451: 445: 423:For most cases, 410: 404: 395: 354:cannot be tried 328:Pursuant to the 324: 314: 312:Anklageverfahren 304: 284:The seat of the 270:military justice 252: 236: 223: 210: 201: 196:general courts ( 188: 170: 159:executive branch 157:) belong to the 156: 150: 140: 135:), the prisons ( 134: 116: 110: 60:system of courts 38:in the Austrian 21: 5505: 5504: 5500: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5495: 5494: 5475: 5474: 5473: 5468: 5426: 5420: 5406:Northern Cyprus 5388: 5382: 5281:North Macedonia 5102: 5099: 5069: 5064: 5051: 5044: 5037: 5024: 5015:Public holidays 5010:National anthem 4946: 4887:Austrian people 4860: 4794: 4706: 4629: 4575:Austria-Hungary 4560:Austrian Empire 4513:Germanic tribes 4460: 4451: 4414: 4412: 4404: 4396: 4394: 4386: 4383: 4371: 4369: 4364: 4356: 4354: 4349: 4341: 4339: 4334: 4326: 4324: 4319: 4311: 4309: 4305: 4297: 4295: 4290: 4282: 4280: 4275: 4272: 4260: 4251: 4243: 4235: 4227: 4219: 4211: 4203: 4195: 4187: 4179: 4171: 4163: 4155: 4147: 4144: 4139: 4127: 4125: 4116: 4108: 4106: 4094: 4088: 4075: 4069: 4053: 4041: 4035: 4022: 4011: 4006: 3997: 3991: 3978: 3972: 3959: 3951: 3949: 3940: 3934: 3910: 3907: 3897: 3884: 3878: 3865: 3859: 3846: 3840: 3827: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3782:Cappelatti 1970 3777: 3773: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3669: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3645: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3621: 3617: 3609: 3605: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3573: 3569: 3561: 3557: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3471: 3467: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3435: 3431: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3314:Pernthaler 1989 3303: 3299: 3295: 3279: 3275: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3213: 3209: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3135: 3131: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3046:, Art. 139−140. 3039: 3035: 3031: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2954:Cappelatti 1970 2949: 2945: 2937: 2933: 2925: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2893:, Art. 142−143. 2886: 2882: 2878: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2821:, Art. 139−140. 2814: 2810: 2806: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2766: 2762: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2682: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2520: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2496: 2492: 2484: 2480: 2472: 2468: 2460: 2456: 2448: 2444: 2436: 2432: 2424: 2420: 2412: 2408: 2400: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2328: 2324: 2316: 2312: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1956: 1952: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1871: 1870: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1829: 1823:ordinary courts 1814: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1761:judicial review 1745:Wahlgerichtshof 1692:Austria-Hungary 1677: 1608:) was a second 1592:Supreme Court ( 1562:Bezirksgerichte 1549: 1467: 1459:the legislature 1444:judicial review 1399:Supreme Court ( 1366:Bezirksgerichte 1312:Anklageprozesse 1300:separate powers 1201: 1196: 1184:Federal Council 1097:judicial review 1039: 1025: 1020: 1014: 978: 873: 855: 800: 646:Wiener Neustadt 564: 562:Regional courts 463:Bezirksgerichte 458: 456:District courts 418: 381:non bis in idem 278: 226:judicial review 177: 138:Justizanstalten 100:judicial review 74:as well as the 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5503: 5501: 5493: 5492: 5487: 5477: 5476: 5470: 5469: 5467: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5430: 5428: 5427:other entities 5422: 5421: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5392: 5390: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5356:United Kingdom 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5169:Czech Republic 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5110: 5108: 5104: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5097: 5090: 5083: 5075: 5066: 5065: 5063: 5062: 5057: 5050: 5049: 5042: 5034: 5033: 5030: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4956: 4954: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4944: 4939: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4878: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4862: 4861: 4859: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4812: 4806: 4800: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4793: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4766: 4765: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4728:Climate change 4724: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4643: 4637: 4631: 4630: 4628: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4580:German Austria 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4510: 4509: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4488: 4487: 4486: 4476: 4470: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4452: 4450: 4449: 4442: 4435: 4427: 4421: 4420: 4402: 4382: 4379: 4378: 4377: 4368:. May 17, 2018 4362: 4353:. May 15, 2018 4347: 4338:. May 17, 2017 4332: 4317: 4303: 4288: 4279:. May 15, 2018 4271: 4268: 4267: 4266: 4258: 4249: 4241: 4233: 4225: 4217: 4209: 4201: 4193: 4185: 4177: 4169: 4161: 4153: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4134: 4133: 4114: 4092: 4086: 4073: 4067: 4055:Öhlinger, Theo 4051: 4039: 4033: 4020: 4004: 3995: 3989: 3976: 3970: 3957: 3938: 3932: 3906: 3903: 3902: 3901: 3895: 3882: 3876: 3863: 3857: 3844: 3838: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3807: 3803:Brauneder 2009 3795: 3792: 3791: 3785: 3778: 3771: 3769:, p. 271. 3759: 3756: 3755: 3754:, p. 223. 3752:Brauneder 2009 3749: 3742: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3725: 3718: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3706:, p. 202. 3704:Brauneder 2009 3701: 3694: 3687: 3684: 3683: 3682:, p. 201. 3680:Brauneder 2009 3677: 3674:StGBl 1919/212 3670: 3663: 3659:StGBl 1919/212 3651: 3639: 3627: 3625:, p. 395. 3615: 3603: 3599:Brauneder 2009 3591: 3588: 3587: 3584:Brauneder 2009 3581: 3574: 3567: 3555: 3543: 3540: 3539: 3538:, p. 161. 3536:Brauneder 2009 3533: 3526: 3519: 3516: 3515: 3514:, p. 400. 3509: 3508:, p. 160. 3506:Brauneder 2009 3503: 3496: 3489: 3486: 3485: 3479: 3472: 3465: 3453: 3450: 3449: 3443: 3440:Brauneder 2009 3436: 3429: 3427:, p. 157. 3425:Brauneder 2009 3417: 3414: 3413: 3407: 3404:Brauneder 2009 3400: 3393: 3390: 3389: 3383: 3380:Brauneder 2009 3376: 3369: 3366: 3365: 3359: 3356:Brauneder 2009 3352: 3345: 3342: 3341: 3335: 3334:, p. 134. 3332:Brauneder 2009 3328: 3321: 3318: 3317: 3311: 3304: 3297: 3294: 3293: 3287: 3280: 3273: 3269:Brauneder 2009 3261: 3258: 3257: 3251: 3248:Brauneder 2009 3245: 3238: 3231: 3228: 3227: 3221: 3218:Brauneder 2009 3214: 3207: 3205:, p. 117. 3203:Brauneder 2009 3195: 3192: 3191: 3185: 3182:Brauneder 2009 3178: 3171: 3168: 3167: 3161: 3155: 3152:Lachmayer 2017 3149: 3143: 3142:, p. 344. 3136: 3129: 3117: 3114: 3113: 3107: 3104:Lachmayer 2017 3101: 3094: 3087: 3084: 3083: 3077: 3070: 3063: 3060: 3059: 3053: 3047: 3040: 3033: 3030: 3029: 3028:, p. 214. 3023: 3020:Lachmayer 2017 3017: 3011: 3004: 2997: 2994: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2974: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2957: 2950: 2943: 2939:Lachmayer 2017 2931: 2916: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2894: 2887: 2880: 2877: 2876: 2870: 2863: 2856: 2853: 2852: 2851:, p. 468. 2846: 2839: 2832: 2829: 2828: 2822: 2815: 2808: 2805: 2804: 2798: 2791: 2784: 2781: 2780: 2774: 2767: 2760: 2748: 2745: 2744: 2738: 2737:, Art. 86 (2). 2731: 2724: 2722:, Art. 86 (1). 2712: 2700: 2697: 2696: 2690: 2683: 2676: 2664: 2661: 2660: 2659:, p. 188. 2654: 2648: 2641: 2634: 2631: 2630: 2624: 2617: 2610: 2607: 2606: 2600: 2593: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2576: 2569: 2562: 2559: 2558: 2552: 2545: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2514: 2502: 2490: 2478: 2466: 2454: 2442: 2430: 2418: 2406: 2394: 2382: 2370: 2358: 2346: 2343: 2342: 2336: 2329: 2322: 2310: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2288: 2281: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2269:, p. 437. 2264: 2257: 2250: 2247: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2227: 2220: 2217: 2216: 2215:, p. 425. 2210: 2209:, p. 566. 2203: 2196: 2193: 2192: 2186: 2179: 2172: 2169: 2168: 2162: 2155: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2143:, p. 432. 2138: 2132: 2125: 2118: 2115: 2114: 2113:, p. 434. 2108: 2102: 2095: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2083:, p. 270. 2078: 2077:, p. 274. 2072: 2065: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2053:, p. 272. 2048: 2047:, p. 272. 2042: 2041:, Art. 90 (2). 2035: 2028: 2025: 2024: 2018: 2012: 2011:, Art. 90 (1). 2005: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1993:, p. 269. 1988: 1981: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1969:, p. 270. 1964: 1957: 1950: 1948:, p. 270. 1938: 1935: 1934: 1928: 1922: 1915: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1903:, p. 269. 1898: 1897:, p. 273. 1892: 1885: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1836: 1827: 1807: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1770: 1750: 1749: 1740: 1738: 1727: 1723: 1676: 1675:First Republic 1673: 1669: 1668: 1653: 1651: 1634: 1610:bill of rights 1600: 1599: 1590: 1581: 1577:Landesgerichte 1566: 1548: 1545: 1484: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1439: 1438: 1434: 1421: 1418: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1406: 1397: 1388: 1384:Landesgerichte 1379: 1370: 1329: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1303: 1296: 1291:Justices have 1289: 1267:bill of rights 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1138: 1114: 1102: 1093: 1092: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1072: 1061: 1058: 1035:Main article: 1024: 1021: 1016:Main article: 1013: 1010: 1004: 977: 974: 869:Main article: 854: 851: 799: 796: 791:Hauptverfahren 753: 752: 751: 750: 741: 737: 724: 714: 706: 681: 680: 677: 668: 581:Landesgerichte 574:regional court 563: 560: 545: 530:Bezirksrichter 525: 524: 521: 512: 503: 499:Strafverfahren 494: 491: 488: 484:Zivilverfahren 481:civil trials ( 472:City of Vienna 457: 454: 443:Handelsgericht 428:hear appeals. 417: 416:General courts 414: 388: 387: 384: 377: 371: 367: 362: 359: 352: 345: 288:regional court 277: 274: 241: 240: 239: 238: 229: 203: 176: 173: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5502: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5482: 5480: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5439:Faroe Islands 5437: 5435: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5411:South Ossetia 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5385: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5241:Liechtenstein 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5105: 5096: 5091: 5089: 5084: 5082: 5077: 5076: 5073: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5047: 5043: 5040: 5036: 5035: 5031: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4980: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4957: 4955: 4953: 4949: 4943: 4940: 4937: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4907:Ethnic groups 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4867: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4813: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4801: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4764: 4761: 4760: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4644: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4632: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4600:Austrofascism 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4514: 4511: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4493: 4492: 4489: 4485: 4482: 4481: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4448: 4443: 4441: 4436: 4434: 4429: 4428: 4425: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4384: 4380: 4367: 4363: 4352: 4348: 4337: 4333: 4322: 4318: 4308: 4304: 4293: 4289: 4278: 4274: 4273: 4269: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4136: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4104: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4089: 4087:3-7003-0811-6 4083: 4079: 4074: 4070: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4034:3-205-98179-0 4030: 4026: 4021: 4017: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3973: 3967: 3963: 3958: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3898: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3879: 3877:0-300-07893-5 3873: 3869: 3864: 3860: 3854: 3850: 3845: 3841: 3835: 3832:. Routledge. 3831: 3826: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3804: 3799: 3796: 3789: 3788:Lijphart 1999 3786: 3784:, p. 46. 3783: 3780: 3779: 3775: 3772: 3768: 3767:Öhlinger 2007 3763: 3760: 3753: 3750: 3747: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3736: 3729: 3728:StGBl 1919/41 3726: 3723: 3722:StGBl 1918/38 3720: 3719: 3715: 3712: 3705: 3702: 3699: 3698:StGBl 1919/90 3696: 3695: 3691: 3688: 3681: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3671: 3667: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3652: 3648: 3647:StGBl 1919/48 3643: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3616: 3612: 3611:StGBl 1919/88 3607: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3592: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3576: 3575: 3571: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3556: 3552: 3551:RGBl 1867/101 3547: 3544: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3530:RGBl 1867/145 3528: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3513: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3500:RGBl 1867/143 3498: 3497: 3493: 3490: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3476:RGBl 1867/143 3474: 3473: 3469: 3466: 3462: 3461:RGBl 1867/143 3457: 3454: 3447: 3444: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3418: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3394: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3377: 3373: 3370: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3354: 3353: 3349: 3346: 3339: 3336: 3333: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3322: 3316:, p. 42. 3315: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3298: 3291: 3288: 3285: 3284:RGBl 1849/278 3282: 3281: 3277: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3262: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3242:RGBl 1848/150 3240: 3239: 3235: 3232: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3196: 3189: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3172: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3158:Öhlinger 2007 3156: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3130: 3126: 3121: 3118: 3111: 3110:Öhlinger 2007 3108: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3088: 3081: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3071: 3067: 3064: 3057: 3056:Öhlinger 2007 3054: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3037: 3034: 3027: 3026:Öhlinger 2007 3024: 3022:, p. 82. 3021: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2998: 2991: 2990:Öhlinger 2007 2988: 2985: 2982: 2979: 2976: 2975: 2971: 2968: 2961: 2960:Lijphart 1999 2958: 2956:, p. 46. 2955: 2952: 2951: 2947: 2944: 2941:, p. 75. 2940: 2935: 2932: 2928: 2927:Öhlinger 2007 2923: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2905: 2898: 2897:Öhlinger 2007 2895: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2881: 2874: 2873:Öhlinger 2007 2871: 2868: 2865: 2864: 2860: 2857: 2850: 2849:Öhlinger 2007 2847: 2844: 2841: 2840: 2836: 2833: 2826: 2825:Öhlinger 2007 2823: 2820: 2817: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2802: 2801:Öhlinger 2007 2799: 2796: 2793: 2792: 2788: 2785: 2778: 2777:Öhlinger 2007 2775: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2764: 2761: 2758:, p. 76. 2757: 2752: 2749: 2742: 2739: 2736: 2733: 2732: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2704: 2701: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2677: 2673: 2668: 2665: 2658: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2647:, p. 38. 2646: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2635: 2628: 2625: 2622: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2611: 2604: 2601: 2598: 2595: 2594: 2590: 2587: 2580: 2577: 2574: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2563: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2542: 2539: 2532: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2522: 2518: 2515: 2511: 2506: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2491: 2487: 2482: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2458: 2455: 2451: 2446: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2419: 2415: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2359: 2355: 2350: 2347: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2320:, §482, §484. 2319: 2314: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2299: 2292: 2289: 2286: 2283: 2282: 2278: 2275: 2268: 2267:Öhlinger 2007 2265: 2262: 2259: 2258: 2254: 2251: 2244: 2243:Öhlinger 2007 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2228: 2224: 2221: 2214: 2213:Öhlinger 2007 2211: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2200: 2197: 2190: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2180: 2176: 2173: 2166: 2165:Öhlinger 2007 2163: 2160: 2157: 2156: 2152: 2149: 2142: 2141:Öhlinger 2007 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2126: 2122: 2119: 2112: 2111:Öhlinger 2007 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2082: 2081:Öhlinger 2007 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2066: 2062: 2059: 2052: 2051:Öhlinger 2007 2049: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2029: 2022: 2021:Öhlinger 2007 2019: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1999: 1992: 1991:Öhlinger 2007 1989: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1975: 1968: 1967:Öhlinger 2007 1965: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1954: 1951: 1947: 1942: 1939: 1932: 1931:Öhlinger 2007 1929: 1926: 1923: 1921:, Art. 87−88. 1920: 1917: 1916: 1912: 1909: 1902: 1901:Öhlinger 2007 1899: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1887: 1886: 1882: 1879: 1873: 1864: 1858: 1851: 1846: 1840: 1837: 1831: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1812: 1809: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1768: 1764: 1762: 1758: 1753: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1733: 1728: 1724: 1721: 1720: 1719: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1706: 1701: 1700:nation states 1697: 1693: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1674: 1672: 1665: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1646: 1640: 1639:Reichsgericht 1635: 1631: 1625: 1620: 1619: 1618: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1596: 1591: 1587: 1582: 1578: 1572: 1571:Kreisgerichte 1567: 1563: 1558: 1557: 1556: 1553: 1546: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1510: 1504: 1501: 1495: 1489: 1482: 1476: 1471: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1455: 1449: 1445: 1435: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1412: 1409: 1403: 1398: 1394: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1362: 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