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186:. Online survey response rates are generally low and also vary extremely – from less than 1% in enterprise surveys with e-mail invitations to almost 100% in specific membership surveys. In addition to refusing participation, terminating surveying during the process or not answering certain questions, several other non-response patterns can be observed in online surveys, such as lurking respondents and a combination of partial and item non-response. Response rates can be increased by offering monetary or some other type of incentive to the respondents, by contacting respondents several times (follow-up), and by keeping the questionnaire difficulty as low as possible. There are draw-backs to using an incentive to garner a response. Non-bias responses could be questioned in this type of situation. The most concrete way to gain feedback is to publicize what is done with the results. To take concrete actions based on feedback and to show that to the customer base is extremely motivating to customers to continue to let their voice be heard.
245:
them, but in all cases they are returned to the researcher via mail. Because there is no interviewer presence, the mail mode is not suitable for issues that may require clarification. However, there is no interviewer bias and respondents can answer at their own convenience (allowing them to break up long surveys; also useful if they need to check records to answer a question). To correct nonresponse bias, extrapolation across waves could be done. Response rates can be improved by using mail panels (members of the panel must agree to participate) and prepaid monetary incentives, but response rates are affected by the class of mail through which the survey was sent. Panels can be used in longitudinal designs where the same respondents are surveyed several times.
171:. The difference between probability samples (where the inclusion probabilities for all units of the target population is known in advance) and non-probability samples (which often require less time and effort but generally do not support statistical inference) is crucial. Probability samples are highly affected by problems of non-coverage (not all members of the general population have Internet access) and frame problems (online survey invitations are most conveniently distributed using e-mail, but there are no e-mail directories of the general population that might be used as a sampling frame). Because coverage and frame problems can significantly impact data quality, they should be adequately reported when disseminating the research results.
124:
for the online ones), they found overall that the face-to-face (using show-cards) and web surveys have quite similar levels of measurement quality, whereas the telephone surveys were performing worse. Other studies comparing paper-and-pencil questionnaires with web-based questionnaires showed that employees preferred online survey approaches to the paper-and-pencil format. There are also concerns about what has been called "ballot stuffing" in which employees make repeated responses to the same survey. Some employees are also concerned about privacy. Even if they do not provide their names when responding to a company survey, can they be certain that their anonymity is protected? Such fears prevent some employees from expressing an opinion.
215:. Various robust procedures have been developed for situations where sampling deviate from probability selection, or, when we face non-coverage and non-response problems. The standard statistical inference procedures (e.g. confidence interval calculations and hypothesis testing) still require a probability sample. The actual survey practice, particularly in marketing research and in public opinion polling, which massively neglects the principles of probability samples, increasingly requires from the statistical profession to specify the conditions where non-probability samples may work.
209:. While modern web questionnaires offer a range of design features (different question types, images, multimedia), the use of such elements should be limited to the extent necessary for respondents to understand questions or to stimulate the response. It should not affect their responses, because that would mean lower validity and reliability of data. Appropriate questionnaire design can help lowering the measurement error that can arise also due to the respondents or the survey mode itself (respondent’s motivation, computer literacy, abilities, privacy concerns, etc.).
83:
surveys can deliver 80% of responses in less than 2 hours and often at much lower cost compared to face-to-face surveys, due to the elimination of travel/personnel costs. IM is similar to SMS, except that a mobile number is not required. IM functions are available in standalone software, such as Skype, or embedded on websites such as
Facebook and Google.
70:
and eliminate the laborious "data entry" (of paper form data into a computer), which delays data analysis and understanding. By eliminating paper, mobile data collection can also dramatically reduce costs: one World Bank study in
Guatemala found a 71% decrease in cost while using mobile data collection, compared to the previous paper-based approach.
194:. Due to a phenomenon inherently present in human nature, many people have acquiescent personalities and are more likely to agree with statements than disagree - regardless of the content. Often, those people see the question-asker as an expert in their field which causes them to be more likely to react positively to the question asked.
314:
Researchers can combine several above methods for the data collection. For example, researchers can invite shoppers at malls, and send willing participants questionnaires by emails. With the introduction of computers to the survey process, survey mode now includes combinations of different approaches
82:
SMS surveys can reach any handset, in any language and in any country. As they are not dependent on internet access and the answers can be sent when its convenient, they are a suitable mobile survey data collection channel for many situations that require fast, high volume responses. As a result, SMS
123:
Some studies have compared the quality of face-to-face surveys and/or telephone surveys with that of online surveys, for single questions, but also for more complex concepts measured with more than one question (also called
Composite Scores or Index). Focusing only on probability-based surveys (also
69:
Mobile data collection or mobile surveys is an increasingly popular method of data collection. Over 50% of surveys today are opened on mobile devices. The survey, form, app or collection tool is on a mobile device such as a smart phone or a tablet. These devices offer innovative ways to gather data,
73:
Apart from the high mobile phone penetration, further advantages are quicker response times and the possibility to reach previously hard-to-reach target groups. In this way, mobile technology allows marketers, researchers and employers to create real and meaningful mobile engagement in environments
227:
Telephone surveys use interviewers to encourage the sample persons to respond, which leads to higher response rates. There are some potential for interviewer bias (e.g., some people may be more willing to discuss a sensitive issue with a female interviewer than with a male one). Depending on local
177:
to online surveys. Due to the lack of sampling frames many online survey invitations are published in the form of an URL link on web sites or in other media, which leads to sample selection bias that is out of research control and to non-probability samples. Traditional solicitation modes, such as
133:
Web surveys are faster, simpler, and cheaper. However, lower costs are not so straightforward in practice, as they are strongly interconnected to errors. Because response rate comparisons to other survey modes are usually not favourable for online surveys, efforts to achieve a higher response rate
244:
Depending on local bulk mail postage, mail surveys may be relatively lower cost compared to other modes. The field method tends to be longer - often several months - before the surveys are returned and statistical analysis can begin. The questionnaire may be handed to the respondents or mailed to
929:
Revilla, M., and W.E. Saris (2015). "Estimating and comparing the quality of different scales of an online survey using an MTMM approach". In Engel, U. (Ed), Survey
Measurements: Techniques, Data Quality and sources of Error. Chapter 5, pp. 53-74. Campus. Frankfurt. New York. ISBN 9783593502809.
625:
Revilla, M., Toninelli, D., Ochoa, C., and G. Loewe (2015). “Who has access to mobile devices in an online opt-in panel? An analysis of potential respondents for mobile surveys”. In D. Toninelli, R. Pinter, and P. de
Pedraza (eds), Mobile Research Methods: Opportunities and challenges of mobile
248:
Visual presentation of survey questions make a difference in how respondents answer them; with four primary design elements: words (meaning), numbers (sequencing), symbols (e.g. arrow), and graphics (e.g. text boxes). In translated surveys, writing practice (e.g. Spanish words are lengthier and
56:
The choice between administration modes is influenced by several factors, including 1) costs, 2) coverage of the target population (including group-specific preferences for certain modes), 3) flexibility of asking questions, 4) respondents’ willingness to participate and 5) response accuracy.
1103:
Dwivedi, Yogesh K.; Ismagilova, Elvira; Hughes, D. Laurie; Carlson, Jamie; Filieri, Raffaele; Jacobson, Jenna; Jain, Varsha; Karjaluoto, Heikki; Kefi, Hajer; Krishen, Anjala S.; Kumar, Vikram; Rahman, Mohammad M.; Raman, Ramakrishnan; Rauschnabel, Philipp A.; Rowley, Jennifer (2021-08-01).
44:. These are methods that are used to collect information from a sample of individuals in a systematic way. First there was the change from traditional paper-and-pencil interviewing (PAPI) to computer-assisted interviewing (CAI). Now, face-to-face surveys (CAPI), telephone surveys (
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are also used extensively for carrying out surveys but the quality is considered inferior because the panelists are regular contributors and tend to be fatigued. However, when estimating the measurement quality (defined as product of reliability and validity) using a
115:
301:
is used regularly in marketing and sales to gather experience feedback. When used for collecting survey responses, chatbot surveys should be kept short, trained to speak in a friendly human tone, and use easy-to-navigate interface with more advanced
982:
Revilla, M. (2015). “Comparison of the quality estimates in a mixed-mode and a unimode design: an experiment from the
European Social Survey”, Quality and Quantity. 2015, 49(3): 1219-1238. Published online first 13 of June 2014. DOI:
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Audio computer-assisted self-interviewing (audio CASI): The respondent operates the computer, the computer displays the question on the screen and plays recordings of the questions to the respondents, who then enters his/her
178:
telephone or mail invitations to web surveys, can help overcoming probability sampling issues in online surveys. However, such approaches are faced with problems of dramatically higher costs and questionable effectiveness.
758:
Toninelli, D.; Revilla, M. (2016). "Smartphones vs PCs: Does the Device Affect the Web Survey
Experience and the Measurement Error for Sensitive Topics? A Replication of the Mavletova & Couper's 2013 Experiment".
108:, some studies found a quite reasonable quality and even that the quality of a series of questions in an online opt-in panel (Netquest) was very similar to the measurement quality for the same questions asked in the
155:
Online questionnaires may be improved by applying usability testing, where usability is measured with reference to the speed with which a task can be performed, the frequency of errors and user satisfaction with the
502:
Agley, Jon; Meyerson, Beth; Eldridge, Lori; Smith, Carriann; Arora, Prachi; Richardson, Chanel; Miller, Tara (February 2019). "Just the fax, please: Updating electronic/hybrid methods for surveying pharmacists".
48:), and mail surveys (CASI, CSAQ) are increasingly replaced by web surveys. In addition, remote interviewers could possibly keep the respondent engaged while reducing cost as compared to in-person interviewers.
140:
Interaction between the respondent and the questionnaire is more dynamic compared to e-mail or paper surveys. Online surveys are also less intrusive, and they suffer less from social desirability effects.
265:
Video interviewing is similar to face-to-face interviewing except that the interviewer and respondent are not physically in the same location, but are communicating via video conferencing such as
152:
Online surveys can be tailored to the situation (e.g., respondents may be allowed save a partially completed form, the questionnaire may be preloaded with already available information, etc.).
99:
online survey research accounted for 20% of global data-collection expenditure in 2006. They offer capabilities beyond those available for any other type of self-administered questionnaire.
1886:
149:
Questions with long lists of answer choices can be used to provide immediate coding of answers to certain questions that are usually asked in an open-ended fashion in paper questionnaires.
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The face-to-face mode is suitable for locations where telephone or mail are not developed. Like the telephone mode, the interviewer presence runs the risk of interviewer bias.
338:(IVR): The computer plays recordings of the questions to respondents over the telephone, who then respond by using the keypad of the telephone or speaking their answers aloud.
74:
different from the traditional one in front of a desktop computer. However, even when using mobile devices to answer the web surveys, most respondents still answer from home.
474:
1074:"Researching Internet-Based Populations: Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Survey Research, Online Questionnaire Authoring Software Packages, and Web Survey Services"
249:
require more printing space) and text orientation (e.g. Arabic is read from right to left) must be considered in questionnaire visual design to minimize data missingness.
200:. Lack of familiarity with the platform used can cause participants and clients confusion, or limit who may be willing and able to navigate surveys on digital platforms.
1947:
1906:
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1901:
1199:
1967:
95:) surveys are becoming an essential research tool for a variety of research fields, including marketing, social and official statistics research. According to
1154:
Salant, Priscilla, and Don A. Dillman. "How to
Conduct your own Survey: Leading professional give you proven techniques for getting reliable results." (1995).
1916:
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US Navy 030618-N-2893B-001 Information
Technician 1st Class Annette Leasure takes a few minutes to fill out the BUPERS Online Uniform Survey Questionnaire
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236:(CATI). Because it is audio-based, this mode cannot be used for non-audio information such as graphics, demonstrations, or taste/smell samples.
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322:(CAPI): The computer displays the questions on screen, the interviewer reads them to the respondent, and then enters the respondent's answers.
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2003:
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Revilla, Melanie A. (30 December 2012). "Measurement invariance and quality of composite scores in a face-to-face and a web survey".
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The entire data collection period is significantly shortened, as all data can be collected and processed in little more than a month.
1993:
1988:
731:
Mavletova, Aigul; Couper, Mick P. (22 November 2013). "Sensitive Topics in PC Web and Mobile Web
Surveys: Is There a Difference?".
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call charge structure and coverage, this method can be cost efficient and may be appropriate for large national (or international)
146:
Pop-up instructions can be provided for individual questions to provide help with questions exactly where assistance is required.
1674:
1401:
Dandapani, Arundati (2020-04-30). "Redesigning Conversations with Artificial Intelligence (Chapter 11)". In Sha, Mandy (ed.).
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Burger, Christoph; Riemer, Valentin; Grafeneder, Jürgen; Woisetschläger, Bianca; Vidovic, Dragana; Hergovich, Andreas (2010).
586:
1301:"Class of Mail Does Affect Response Rates to Mailed Questionnaires: Evidence from Meta-Analysis (with a Reply by Lee Harvey)"
671:
281:
Virtual-world interviews take place online in a space created for virtual interaction with other users or players, such as
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105:
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2031:
1327:"A Comparison of Results from a Spanish and English Mail Survey: Effects of Instruction Placement on Item Missingness"
360:
1020:
Revilla, Melanie (31 December 2010). "Quality in Unimode and Mixed-Mode designs: A Multitrait-Multimethod approach".
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that change how respondents answer. The most common modes of administration are listed under the following headings.
405:
Vehovar, V.; Lozar Manfreda, K. (2008). "Overview: Online Surveys". In Fielding, N.; Lee, R. M.; Blank, G. (eds.).
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1980:
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946:"Can a non-probabilistic online panel achieve question quality similar to that of the European Social Survey?"
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1106:"Setting the future of digital and social media marketing research: Perspectives and research propositions"
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691:"Reaching the Mobile Respondent: Determinants of High-Level Mobile Phone Use Among a High-Coverage Group"
475:"Technology options for engaging respondents in self-administered questionnaires and remote interviewing"
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Groves, R.M.; Fowler, F. J.; Couper, M.P.; Lepkowski, J.M.; Singer, E.; Tourangeau, R. (2009).
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Complex skip patterns can be implemented in ways that are mostly invisible to the respondent.
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10.4324/9780429294914/sociolinguistics-survey-translation-yuling-pan-mandy-sha-hyunjoo-park
445:. Wiley Handbooks in Survey Methodology. Vol. 567. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
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650:"Do You Know Which Device Your Respondent Has Used to Take Your Online Survey?"
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to represent themselves and interact by a chat feature or by real voice audio.
134:(e.g., with traditional solicitation methods) may substantially increase costs.
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1348:
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944:
Revilla, Melanie; Saris, Willem; Loewe, Germán; Ochoa, Carlos (26 May 2015).
709:
557:. Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. pp. 183–209.
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These issues, and potential remedies, are discussed in a number of sources.
29:
524:
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research methodologies, pp. 119-139 (Chapter 8). London: Ubiquity Press.
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878:"Quality of Different Scales in an Online Survey in Mexico and Colombia"
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1952:
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Kalton, Graham. Introduction to survey sampling. Vol. 35. Sage, 1983.
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579:"Mobile-ready. Event driven. Feature rich. Online customer surveys"
114:
341:
Web surveys: The computer administers the questions online. See
45:
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or mixed-mode designs. Some of the most common methods are:
1887:
Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey
672:"Mobile engagement becomes standard operating procedure"
555:
Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion
853:
Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method
876:
Revilla, Melanie; Ochoa, Carlos (14 December 2015).
1953:
European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research
1940:
1831:
1795:
1720:
1640:
1548:
1498:
855:(2nd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
32:, and official statistics. The methods involved in
1404:The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research
36:are any of a number of ways in which data can be
20:in the 1930s, surveys became a standard tool for
1948:American Association for Public Opinion Research
1907:National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
1198:J. Scott Armstrong and Terry S. Overton (1977).
436:
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1110:International Journal of Information Management
846:
844:
842:
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1902:List of household surveys in the United States
1331:Survey Methods: Insights from the Field (SMIF)
505:Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy
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1968:World Association for Public Opinion Research
1475:
1200:"Estimating Nonresponse Bias in Mail Surveys"
285:. Both the respondent and interviewer choose
8:
1917:Suffolk University Political Research Center
407:The SAGE Handbook of Online Research Methods
161:Key methodological issues of online surveys
1482:
1468:
1460:
1365:The Sociolinguistics of Survey Translation
1078:Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
600:Schuster, Christian; Perez Brito, Carlos.
1412:
1338:
1325:Wang, Kevin; Sha, M. Mandy (2013-03-01).
1218:
1131:
1121:
903:
893:
486:
950:International Journal of Market Research
916:– via journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de.
602:"Evaluating Cash Transfers in Guatemala"
330:Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
234:computer assisted telephone interviewing
1927:Quinnipiac University Polling Institute
1051:. New York: Prentice Hall. p. 40.
660:(6) – via www.surveypractice.org.
441:Bethlehem, J.; Biffignandi, S. (2012).
382:
320:Computer-assisted personal interviewing
1912:New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study
1859:Comparative Study of Electoral Systems
1362:Pan, Yuling; Sha, Mandy (2019-07-09).
1308:Journal of the Market Research Society
473:Cook, Sarah; Sha, Mandy (2016-03-15).
106:multitrait-multimethod approach (MTMM)
1442:. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
1259:"Monetary Incentives in Mail Surveys"
1047:Schultz & Schultz, Duane (2010).
589:from the original on 23 October 2015.
7:
882:Journal of Politics in Latin America
468:
466:
464:
462:
16:With the application of probability
1958:International Statistical Institute
648:Callegaro, Mario (3 October 2013).
1849:American National Election Studies
1839:List of comparative social surveys
814:"Getting More Data for Less Money"
488:10.3768/rtipress.2016.op.0026.1603
409:. London: SAGE. pp. 177–194.
343:computer-assisted web interviewing
112:, which is a face-to-face survey.
14:
674:. Survey Anyplace. Archived from
636:https://dx.doi.org/10.5334/bar.h
1407:. RTI Press. pp. 221–230.
1123:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102168
930:Available at press.uchicago.edu
1175:Survey Costs and Survey Errors
1072:Wright, Kevin (1 April 2005).
698:Social Science Computer Review
1:
1414:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004
1207:Journal of Marketing Research
517:10.1016/j.sapharm.2018.10.028
366:Comparison of survey software
773:10.18148/srm/2016.v10i2.6274
553:; Mellenbergh, G.J. (eds.).
232:using traditional phones or
128:Advantages of online surveys
110:European Social Survey (ESS)
1892:International Social Survey
1299:J. Scott Armstrong (1990).
1257:J. Scott Armstrong (1975).
1034:10.18148/srm/2010.v4i3.4278
1007:10.18148/srm/2013.v7i1.5098
745:10.18148/srm/2013.v7i3.5458
2048:
895:10.1177/1866802X1500700305
336:Interactive voice response
1976:
1922:The Phillips Academy Poll
1750:Exploratory data analysis
1603:Sample size determination
1049:Psychology and work today
983:10.1007/s11135-014-0044-5
57:Different methods create
1340:10.13094/SMIF-2013-00006
1266:Public Opinion Quarterly
710:10.1177/0894439309353099
52:Modes of data collection
1863:Emerson College Polling
1755:Multivariate statistics
1598:Nonprobability sampling
1022:Survey Research Methods
995:Survey Research Methods
761:Survey Research Methods
733:Survey Research Methods
443:Handbook of Web Surveys
304:Artificial Intelligence
213:Post-survey adjustments
1872:European Social Survey
1854:Asian Barometer Survey
1745:Descriptive statistics
1630:Cross-sequential study
1583:Simple random sampling
851:Dillman, D.A. (2006).
549:(2008). "Surveys". In
371:Data collection system
120:
101:Online consumer panels
34:survey data collection
1882:General Social Survey
1765:Statistical inference
1625:Cross-sectional study
1173:Groves, R.M. (1989).
962:10.2501/IJMR-2015-034
638:. License: CC-BY 4.0.
118:
1803:Audience measurement
1740:Level of measurement
1573:Sampling for surveys
1963:Pew Research Center
1932:World Values Survey
1675:Specification error
1593:Stratified sampling
1177:. New York: Wiley.
2032:Survey methodology
1770:Statistical models
1670:Non-sampling error
1568:Statistical sample
1508:Collection methods
1440:Survey Methodology
786:Global, OnePoint.
356:Survey methodology
310:Mixed-mode surveys
261:Video interviewing
121:
42:statistical survey
22:empirical research
2019:
2018:
1735:Contingency table
1710:Processing errors
1695:Non-response bias
1685:Measurement error
1665:Systematic errors
1449:978-1-118-21134-2
1424:978-1-934831-24-3
1387:978-0-429-29491-4
1184:978-0-471-67851-9
1058:978-0-205-68358-1
862:978-0-470-03856-7
812:Selanikio, Joel.
632:978-1-909188-53-2
564:978-90-79418-01-5
547:Mellenbergh, G.J.
452:978-1-118-12172-6
416:978-1-4129-2293-7
191:Acquiescence bias
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1730:Categorical data
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1972:
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1897:LatinobarĂłmetro
1827:
1813:Market research
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1716:
1690:Response errors
1636:
1610:Research design
1578:Random sampling
1544:
1528:Semi-structured
1500:Data collection
1494:
1492:survey research
1488:
1458:
1457:
1450:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1425:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1361:
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1356:
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1323:
1319:
1303:
1298:
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1261:
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1243:
1229:10.2307/3150783
1202:
1197:
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1185:
1172:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1085:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1019:
1018:
1014:
992:
991:
987:
981:
977:
943:
942:
938:
926:
925:
921:
875:
874:
870:
863:
850:
849:
832:
822:
820:
811:
810:
806:
796:
794:
792:OnePoint Global
785:
784:
780:
757:
756:
752:
730:
729:
725:
693:
688:
687:
683:
670:
669:
665:
654:Survey Practice
647:
646:
642:
624:
620:
610:
608:
599:
598:
594:
577:
576:
572:
565:
545:
544:
540:
501:
500:
496:
472:
471:
460:
453:
440:
439:
424:
417:
404:
403:
384:
379:
352:
312:
295:
279:
263:
255:
242:
230:sampling frames
225:
198:Platform Issues
163:
130:
89:
80:
67:
54:
26:social sciences
12:
11:
5:
2045:
2043:
2035:
2034:
2024:
2023:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1823:Public opinion
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1799:
1797:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1726:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1707:
1705:Pseudo-opinion
1702:
1700:Coverage error
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1655:Standard error
1652:
1650:Sampling error
1646:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1588:Quota sampling
1585:
1580:
1570:
1565:
1563:Sampling frame
1560:
1554:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1515:
1510:
1504:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1479:
1472:
1464:
1456:
1455:
1448:
1430:
1423:
1393:
1386:
1354:
1317:
1291:
1278:10.1086/268203
1249:
1246:on 2010-06-20.
1220:10.1.1.36.7783
1213:(3): 396–402.
1190:
1183:
1165:
1156:
1147:
1095:
1064:
1057:
1039:
1028:(3): 151–164.
1012:
985:
975:
956:(3): 395–412.
936:
919:
888:(3): 157–177.
868:
861:
830:
804:
778:
767:(2): 153–169.
750:
739:(3): 191–205.
723:
704:(3): 336–349.
681:
678:on 2014-02-08.
663:
640:
618:
592:
570:
563:
538:
511:(2): 226–227.
494:
458:
451:
422:
415:
381:
380:
378:
375:
374:
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368:
363:
358:
351:
348:
347:
346:
339:
333:
327:
323:
311:
308:
294:
291:
278:
277:Virtual worlds
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210:
201:
195:
187:
179:
172:
162:
159:
158:
157:
153:
150:
147:
144:
141:
138:
135:
129:
126:
88:
87:Online surveys
85:
79:
78:SMS/IM surveys
76:
66:
65:Mobile surveys
63:
53:
50:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2044:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1867:Eurobarometer
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1844:Afrobarometer
1842:
1840:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1832:Major surveys
1830:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1760:Psychometrics
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1722:Data analysis
1719:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1660:Sampling bias
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1642:Survey errors
1639:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1608:
1604:
1601:
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1594:
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1579:
1576:
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1556:
1555:
1553:
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1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1513:Questionnaire
1511:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1485:
1480:
1478:
1473:
1471:
1466:
1465:
1462:
1451:
1445:
1441:
1434:
1431:
1426:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1405:
1397:
1394:
1389:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1295:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1253:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1201:
1194:
1191:
1186:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1166:
1160:
1157:
1151:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1099:
1096:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1060:
1054:
1050:
1043:
1040:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1013:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
989:
986:
979:
976:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
940:
937:
932:
931:
923:
920:
915:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
887:
883:
879:
872:
869:
864:
858:
854:
847:
845:
843:
841:
839:
837:
835:
831:
819:
815:
808:
805:
793:
789:
788:"SMS surveys"
782:
779:
774:
770:
766:
762:
754:
751:
746:
742:
738:
734:
727:
724:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
692:
685:
682:
677:
673:
667:
664:
659:
655:
651:
644:
641:
637:
633:
629:
622:
619:
607:
603:
596:
593:
588:
584:
580:
574:
571:
566:
560:
556:
552:
548:
542:
539:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
498:
495:
489:
484:
480:
476:
469:
467:
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459:
454:
448:
444:
437:
435:
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427:
423:
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412:
408:
401:
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397:
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393:
391:
389:
387:
383:
376:
372:
369:
367:
364:
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359:
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353:
349:
344:
340:
337:
334:
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328:
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321:
318:
317:
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309:
307:
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292:
290:
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284:
276:
274:
272:
268:
260:
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250:
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222:
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214:
211:
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205:Questionnaire
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132:
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117:
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75:
71:
64:
62:
60:
51:
49:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
23:
19:
1941:Associations
1818:Opinion poll
1796:Applications
1620:Cohort study
1533:Unstructured
1507:
1439:
1433:
1403:
1396:
1364:
1357:
1330:
1320:
1311:
1307:
1294:
1269:
1265:
1252:
1241:the original
1210:
1206:
1193:
1174:
1168:
1159:
1150:
1113:
1109:
1098:
1086:. Retrieved
1081:
1077:
1067:
1048:
1042:
1025:
1021:
1015:
1001:(1): 17–28.
998:
994:
988:
978:
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871:
852:
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817:
807:
795:. Retrieved
791:
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753:
736:
732:
726:
701:
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676:the original
666:
657:
653:
643:
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609:. Retrieved
605:
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508:
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497:
478:
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313:
296:
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264:
256:
253:Face-to-face
247:
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226:
218:
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189:
183:Non-response
181:
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166:
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59:mode effects
55:
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1877:Gallup Poll
1680:Frame error
1615:Panel study
1550:Methodology
1272:: 111–116.
1133:10454/18041
905:10230/28347
611:27 November
283:Second Life
175:Invitations
2009:Statistics
1999:Psychology
1808:Demography
1785:Structural
1780:Log-linear
1523:Structured
1368:. London:
1314:: 469–472.
1116:: 102168.
823:9 November
551:Adèr, H.J.
377:References
361:Assessment
156:interface.
2004:Sociology
1985:Projects
1775:Graphical
1518:Interview
1370:Routledge
1349:2296-4754
1286:146397107
1215:CiteSeerX
1142:0268-4012
1084:(3): 1034
970:167732979
583:QuestBack
479:RTI Press
223:Telephone
38:collected
30:marketing
2026:Category
1994:Politics
1989:Business
1981:Category
914:56357343
718:61640965
587:Archived
533:53281364
525:30416040
350:See also
326:answers.
293:Chatbots
168:Sampling
93:Internet
91:Online (
18:sampling
1490:Social
1237:3150783
1088:6 March
797:27 June
634:. DOI:
345:(CAWI).
299:chatbot
287:avatars
1558:Census
1538:Couple
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332:(CATI)
207:design
97:ESOMAR
40:for a
1304:(PDF)
1282:S2CID
1262:(PDF)
1244:(PDF)
1233:JSTOR
1203:(PDF)
966:S2CID
910:S2CID
818:Magpi
714:S2CID
694:(PDF)
606:Magpi
529:S2CID
271:Teams
1444:ISBN
1419:ISBN
1382:ISBN
1345:ISSN
1179:ISBN
1138:ISSN
1090:2018
1053:ISBN
857:ISBN
825:2016
799:2016
628:ISBN
613:2016
559:ISBN
521:PMID
447:ISBN
411:ISBN
267:Zoom
240:Mail
46:CATI
1409:doi
1374:doi
1335:doi
1274:doi
1225:doi
1128:hdl
1118:doi
1030:doi
1003:doi
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513:doi
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