344:
that are fused into a tubular or narrowly bell-shaped corolla with pointed, recurved teeth that are 2 millimetres long. Petals come in mainly two colours – typically cream to yellow or pink to purplish. Inside are 5 stamens and 1 stigma. The calyx has a tubular segment of about 2 millimetres and narrow, pointed teeth of about 4 millimetres. The fruits are segmented into 4 egg-shaped, shiny black nutlets that are 5–6 millimetres long. The plant produces significant nectar when compared to other UK plants tested. Although, it has a long tube, meaning only insects with long tongues can reach the nectar, some bees have been known to bite into the side of the flower to access the nectar – a foraging behaviour known as
46:
327:. The internally white roots are covered with black bark. Above ground the plant is covered in long, downward-pointing, tapering hairs that are bristly on the stems and softer on the leaves. Along the erect stems grow large simple, mostly stalked leaves in an alternate pattern. They are oval-lanceolate and 4 to 25 centimetres long. In the upper parts they are narrower, without stalks, and with margins that extend down the stems. The
33:
343:
that are initially coiled and later open out. They bear two rows of hermaphrodite flowers on nodding stalks that are 2 to 6 millimetres long. The small flowers measure 8–20 millimetres in length and 12 to 18 millimetres across the corolla. The flowers are radially symmetrical with five equal petals
322:
Comfrey is found in moist grasslands or along riverbanks and ditches in western Asia, Europe, and North
America. It is a perennial herb that is cold hardy down to −35 °C (−31 °F) and drought-tolerant. The plant can grow 1–5 feet (0.3–1.5 m) tall with branched, strongly winged stems.
501:
found the research quality was too low to allow conclusions about its efficacy and safety. In Europe as of 2015, there were no comfrey products for oral use, and those for topical uses to treat bruises or joint pain were evaluated as having risk of liver toxicity.
522:
banned the sale of comfrey products for internal use and use on open wounds due to its potential toxicities. A 2018 review on pyrrolizidine alkaloids present in comfrey indicated widespread potential toxicity to humans and
989:
Vogl, Sylvia; Picker, Paolo; Mihaly-Bison, Judit; Fakhrudin, Nanang; Atanasov, Atanas G.; Heiss, Elke H.; Wawrosch, Christoph; Reznicek, Gottfried; Dirsch, Verena M.; Saukel, Johannes; Kopp, Brigitte (2013).
1090:"Analysis of herbal teas made from the leaves of comfrey (Symphytum officinale): Reduction of N-oxides results in order of magnitude increases in the measurable concentration of pyrrolizidine alkaloids"
314:
of leaves and roots to treat sprains, bruises or bone fractures. Also the roots could be mashed then packed around a broken limb, when dried they formed a hardened 'plaster cast'.
1129:
364:, leaf bases are not decurrent, stem internodes are not winged, and the surfaces of the seeds are brown, dull, and finely granular instead of shiny black. Additionally,
1500:
992:"Ethnopharmacological in vitro studies on Austria's folk medicine—An unexplored lore in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of 71 Austrian traditional herbal drugs"
1088:
Oberlies, Nicholas H.; Kim, Nam-Cheol; Brine, Dolores R.; Collins, Bradley J; Handy, Robert W.; Sparacino, Charles M.; Wani, Mansukh C.; Wall, Monroe E. (2007).
1575:
278:
It is native to Europe, growing in damp, grassy places. It is found throughout
Ireland and Britain on river banks and ditches. It occurs in North America as an
1155:
514:
which are toxic compounds readily absorbed via the stomach or skin, and have potential to increase the risk of fatal liver toxicity. In 2001, the US
1438:
1513:
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633:
624:
700:
1683:
1611:
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1593:
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1806:
780:
1487:
1745:
1541:
833:
730:
1662:
1133:
1518:
1562:
629:
515:
1709:
1327:
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is generally more bristly, flowers later (between June and August), and its flowers tend to be more blue or violet.
1750:
1696:
1580:
45:
1536:
950:
441:
1616:
1298:
1239:
519:
1701:
869:
450:, also known as Blue Comfrey, or Russian comfrey, which is widespread in the British Isles, interbreeds with
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1417:
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1260:
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162:
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233:
1801:
387:
232:(from the Latin confervere to 'heal' or literally to 'boil together', referring to uses in ancient
1554:
298:
Over centuries, comfrey was cultivated in Asia, Europe, and the United
Kingdom as a vegetable and
1796:
1768:
279:
237:
186:
40:
1760:
1688:
1156:"FTC Announces a Second Case Focusing on Safety Risks of Comfrey Products Promoted via Internet"
772:
585:
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667:
528:
1624:
486:, an English herbalist (1545–1612), mentions "the slimie substance of the roote made in a
217:
83:
1130:"FDA Advises Dietary Supplement Manufacturers to Remove Comfrey Products From the Market"
1675:
654:
Van Der Kooi, Casper J.; Pen, I.; Staal, M.; Stavenga, D. G.; Elzenga, J. T. M. (2015).
32:
1670:
1213:
1178:
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1016:
991:
498:
345:
241:
70:
1790:
655:
397:
340:
178:
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1365:
386:
refers to its use for medicinal preparations. The official first formal scientific
221:
129:
1652:
1332:
936:
656:"Competition for pollinators and intra-communal spectral dissimilarity of flowers"
494:
may be used with the intent to heal broken bones, giving it the name "knitbone".
1714:
1319:
1177:
Moreira, Rute; Pereira, David; Valentão, Patrícia; Andrade, Paula (5 June 2018).
1737:
1567:
1549:
1528:
1464:
1292:
908:
483:
382:
119:
1309:
1179:"Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Food Safety"
1056:
1007:
497:
A 2013 review of clinical studies assessing the possible effect of comfrey on
475:
1404:
1283:
1204:
826:
Pflanzensoziologische
Exkursionsflora für Deutschland und angrenzende Gebiete
1386:
1245:
524:
299:
287:
214:
139:
1222:
1115:
1074:
1025:
679:
1727:
1722:
1588:
1342:
1277:
1195:
945:
559:
491:
463:
311:
109:
96:
1629:
915:(3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 557.
1443:
1106:
1089:
487:
479:
324:
671:
1469:
1254:
323:
The root system has a pronounced, deep-reaching (up to 1.8 metres)
240:
use of comfrey is discouraged due to its strong potential to cause
1492:
1391:
478:
or tincture) or externally (as ointment, compresses, or alcoholic
454:, and represents the economically most important kind of comfrey.
57:
283:
1378:
1258:
1132:. US Food and Drug Administration. 6 July 2001. Archived from
510:
Comfrey is mildly toxic. Like most
Boraginaceae, it contains
16:
Species of flowering plant in the borage family
Boraginaceae
769:
Reader's Digest Field Guide to the Wild
Flowers of Britain
855:
1041:"Topical herbal therapies for treating osteoarthritis"
596:. Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team
701:"Assessment report on Symphytum officinale L., radix"
247:
To differentiate it from other members of the genus
1267:
819:
817:
850:Symphytum officinale L. s. l., Arznei-Beinwell.
339:The plant flowers from May to June with forked
870:"Which flowers are the best source of nectar?"
8:
828:(in German) (8 ed.). pp. 787–788.
1183:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
1158:. US Federal Trade Commission. 13 July 2001
1045:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1255:
1039:Cameron, M.; Chrubasik, S. (31 May 2013).
224:. Along with thirty four other species of
31:
20:
1212:
1194:
1105:
1064:
1015:
763:
761:
759:
757:
755:
798:The Vegetative Key to the British Flora
739:Plant Finder, Missouri Botanical Garden
706:. European Medicines Agency. 5 May 2015
634:United States Department of Agriculture
625:Germplasm Resources Information Network
554:
552:
550:
548:
546:
544:
540:
482:) for treatment of various disorders.
897:. University of California, Berkeley.
796:Poland, John; Clement, E. J. (2009).
695:
693:
691:
689:
594:The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov)
7:
1751:b74e1b69-2896-4d13-bd2c-0000896288f6
1604:80c1eaa9-95b7-4dc9-90e0-f7285017db37
725:
723:
721:
286:. The flowers are mostly visited by
1250:University of California, Berkeley
430:A common hybrid is formed between
331:is 2n = 24, 26, 36, 40, 48 or 54.
14:
966:Comfrey: Past, Present and Future
964:Hills, Lawrence D. (2011-10-20).
1702:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:120815-1
872:. Conservation Grade. 2014-10-15
310:, reflect its historical use by
44:
490:of ale" would help back pains.
913:New Flora of the British Isles
800:. Young Writers. p. 161.
259:. Other English names include
1:
630:Agricultural Research Service
996:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
516:Food and Drug Administration
506:Toxicity and adverse effects
423:(F. W. Schmidt) Čelak (syn.
1812:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
251:, this species is known as
1828:
891:"Symphytum key to species"
527:, and the opportunity for
403:Subspecies include subsp.
302:. Its early common names,
1057:10.1002/14651858.CD010538
1008:10.1016/j.jep.2013.06.007
951:Missouri Botanical Garden
824:Erich Oberdorfer (2001).
236:). Internal or long-term
192:
185:
168:
161:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
1807:Plants described in 1753
520:Federal Trade Commission
1094:Public Health Nutrition
512:pyrrolizidine alkaloids
407:(A. Kern.) Nyman (syn.
380:The latin name epithet
352:Species differentiation
335:Inflorescence and fruit
531:from these compounds.
318:Description and botany
968:. Faber & Faber.
775:. 1981. p. 242.
400:, Tomus I, page 136.
1653:Symphytum_officinale
1594:Symphytum~officinale
1299:Symphytum officinale
1269:Symphytum officinale
1241:Symphytum officinale
1196:10.3390/ijms19061668
939:Symphytum officinale
733:Symphytum officinale
618:Symphytum officinale
588:Symphytum officinale
472:traditional medicine
468:Symphytum officinale
458:Traditional medicine
432:Symphytum officinale
390:appeared in 1753 in
234:traditional medicine
210:Symphytum officinale
196:Symphitum officinale
172:Symphytum officinale
25:Symphytum officinale
1136:on 14 November 2017
470:roots were used in
388:species description
1107:10.1079/phn2004624
280:introduced species
154:S. officinale
1784:
1783:
1638:Open Tree of Life
1261:Taxon identifiers
975:978-0-571-28091-9
922:978-0-521-70772-5
807:978-0-9560144-0-5
672:10.1111/plb.12328
562:. Drugs.com. 2018
474:internally (as a
411:auct. non Kern.,
393:Species Plantarum
228:, it is known as
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1568:NBNSYS0000003984
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1153:
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1139:
1137:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1051:(5): CD010538.
1038:
1037:
1033:
988:
987:
983:
976:
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958:
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773:Reader's Digest
767:
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1774:wfo-0000432219
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242:liver toxicity
220:in the family
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428:
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419:, and subsp.
418:
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413:S. tanaicense
410:
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1134:the original
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593:
587:
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425:S. bohemicum
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257:true comfrey
256:
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222:Boraginaceae
209:
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140:
130:Boraginaceae
103:
90:
77:
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1676:kew-2475636
1550:NatureServe
1465:iNaturalist
1293:Wikispecies
1189:(6): 1668.
856:FloraWeb.de
484:John Gerard
199:(orth.var.)
120:Boraginales
84:Angiosperms
1802:Demulcents
1791:Categories
1758:WisFlora:
1671:Plant List
1350:Calflora:
1162:16 January
1140:16 January
953:. 4000088.
876:2017-10-18
835:3800131315
744:16 January
710:16 January
600:7 December
582:USDA, NRCS
566:16 January
535:References
476:herbal tea
447:uplandicum
437:S. asperum
417:officinale
415:), subsp.
405:uliginosum
383:officinale
370:uplandicum
362:uplandicum
288:bumblebees
1797:Symphytum
1431:200019185
1418:200019185
1246:CalPhotos
1205:1422-0067
639:1 January
560:"Comfrey"
525:livestock
492:Poultices
443:Symphytum
421:bohemicum
366:Symphytum
312:poultices
249:Symphytum
226:Symphytum
215:perennial
148:Species:
141:Symphytum
54:Kingdom:
1746:VicFlora
1735:VASCAN:
1723:Tropicos
1650:PalDat:
1589:NSWFlora
1555:2.157243
1506:10202962
1493:120815-1
1340:BioLib:
1278:Wikidata
1223:29874826
1116:15482618
1075:23728701
1026:23770053
946:Tropicos
911:(2010).
680:25754608
584:(n.d.).
464:folklore
445:×
376:Taxonomy
360:×
304:knitbone
269:consound
265:knitbone
187:Synonyms
126:Family:
110:Asterids
97:Eudicots
1728:4000088
1537:MoBotPF
1444:7558421
1284:Q157561
1244:in the
1214:6032134
1066:4105203
1017:3791396
488:possett
480:extract
325:taproot
308:boneset
294:History
261:boneset
238:topical
230:comfrey
136:Genus:
116:Order:
58:Plantae
1684:PLANTS
1643:533778
1601:NZOR:
1581:278672
1542:277977
1405:161757
1379:582578
1333:116641
1317:APDB:
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1501:IRMNG
1480:13086
1477:IPA:
1470:55724
1457:36020
1400:EUNIS
1392:SYMOF
1366:53QG6
1343:40689
1320:77503
1307:APA:
704:(PDF)
356:With
341:cymes
213:is a
104:Clade
91:Clade
78:Clade
65:Clade
1761:5183
1738:3841
1697:POWO
1689:SYOF
1663:4318
1630:7531
1617:2719
1576:NCBI
1514:ITIS
1488:IPNI
1452:GRIN
1439:GBIF
1387:EPPO
1353:7903
1328:APNI
1310:5586
1219:PMID
1201:ISSN
1164:2019
1142:2019
1112:PMID
1071:PMID
1022:PMID
970:ISBN
917:ISBN
853:In:
830:ISBN
802:ISBN
777:ISBN
746:2019
712:2019
676:PMID
641:2018
602:2015
568:2019
518:and
434:and
284:weed
282:and
1769:WFO
1710:RHS
1563:NBN
1529:597
1426:FoC
1413:FNA
1374:EoL
1361:CoL
1209:PMC
1191:doi
1102:doi
1061:PMC
1053:doi
1012:PMC
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
