Synapsida - Knowledge (XXG)

9130: 1129:, which are associated with the grooming and maintenance of fur. The apparent absence of these glands in non-mammaliaformes may suggest that fur did not originate until that point in synapsid evolution. It is possible that fur and associated features of true warm-bloodedness did not appear until some synapsids became extremely small and nocturnal, necessitating a higher metabolism. The oldest examples of nocturnality in synapsids is believed to have been in species that lived more than 300 million years ago. 976: 8828: 189: 7470: 8840: 7492: 9163: 8834: 1813: 124: 7482: 8307: 788: 2024: 1962: 7487: 8312: 7498: 1900: 1315: 1841: 7477: 2055: 1869: 1782: 1594: 1473: 1460: 1556: 1328: 2086: 1993: 1636: 1678:, first appeared at the same time as the tritheledonts, but was herbivorous. This group became extinct at the end of the Early Cretaceous epoch. Dicynodonts are generally thought to have become extinct near the end of the Triassic period, but there was evidence this group survived, in the form of six fragments of fossil bone that were found in Cretaceous rocks of 2118: 1931: 1404: 1165:"parked" in nests during foraging or other activities and periodically be hydrated, allowing higher clutch sizes than could fit inside a pouch (or pouches) at once, and large eggs, which would be cumbersome to carry in a pouch, would be easier to care for. The basis of Oftedal's speculation is the fact that many species of 763:, the terms are used somewhat differently, as the daughter clades are included. Most papers published during the 21st century have treated "Pelycosaur" as an informal grouping of primitive members. Therapsida has remained in use as a clade containing both the traditional therapsid families and mammals. 3834:

However, more recent examination of the phylogeny of basal synapsids, incorporating newly described basal caseids and eothyridids, returned Caseasauria to its position as the sister to all other synapsids. Brocklehurst et al. (2016) demonstrated that many of the postcranial characters used by Benson

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Over the course of synapsid evolution, progenitor taxa at the start of adaptive radiations have tended to be derived carnivores. Synapsid adaptive radiations have generally occurred after extinction events that depleted the biosphere and left vacant niches open to be filled by newly evolved taxa. In

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carry their eggs and offspring via a temporary pouch), though this would limit the mobility of the parent. The latter may have been the primitive form of egg care in synapsids rather than simply burying the eggs, and the constraint on the parent's mobility would have been solved by having the eggs

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indicate bony armour on the neck and back. However, some recent studies have cast doubt on the placement of Varanopidae in Synapsida, while others have countered and lean towards this traditional placement. Skin impressions indicate some early synapsids basal possessed rectangular scutes on their

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The glands involved in this mechanism would later evolve into true mammary glands with multiple modes of secretion in association with hair follicles. Comparative analyses of the evolutionary origin of milk constituents support a scenario in which the secretions from these glands evolved into a

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and Varanopidae as the most basal synapsids, with Caseasauria occupying a more derived position. Benson attributed this revised phylogeny to the inclusion of postcranial characteristics, or features of the skeleton other than the skull, in his analysis. When only cranial or skull features were

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Mann, Arjan; Gee, Bryan M.; Pardo, Jason D.; Marjanović, David; Adams, Gabrielle R.; Calthorpe, Ami S.; Maddin, Hillary C.; Anderson, Jason S. (5 May 2020). Sansom, Robert (ed.). "Reassessment of historic 'microsaurs' from Joggins, Nova Scotia, reveals hidden diversity in the earliest amniote

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animals traditionally called "reptiles" are more closely related to each other than to synapsids, so the word "reptile" has been re-defined to mean only members of Sauropsida (bird-line Amniota) or even just an under-clade thereof, and synapsids are not part of the sauropsid lineage in a

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as the most basal offshoot of the synapsid lineage. Reisz (1986) removed Varanopidae from Caseasauria, placing it in a more derived position on the stem. While most analyses find Caseasauria to be the most basal synapsid clade, Benson's analysis (2012) placed a clade containing

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During the evolutionary succession from early therapsid to cynodont to eucynodont to mammal, the main lower jaw bone, the dentary, replaced the adjacent bones. Thus, the lower jaw gradually became just one large bone, with several of the smaller jaw bones migrating into the

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Spindler, Frederik; Werneburg, Ralf; Schneider, Joerg W.; Luthardt, Ludwig; Annacker, Volker; Rößler, Ronny (2018). "First arboreal 'pelycosaurs' (Synapsida: Varanopidae) from the early Permian Chemnitz Fossil Lagerstätte, SE Germany, with a review of varanopid phylogeny".

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in the late Carboniferous. The presence of fibrolamellar, a specialised type of bone that can grow quickly while maintaining a stable structure, shows that Ophiacodon would have used its high internal body temperature to fuel a fast growth comparable to modern endotherms.

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to form the articular-quadrate jaw joint. In forms transitional to mammals, the jaw joint is composed of a large, lower jaw bone (similar to the dentary found in mammals) that does not connect to the squamosal, but connects to the quadrate with a receding articular bone.

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Bajdek, Piotr; Qvarnström, Martin; Owocki, Krzysztof; Sulej, Tomasz; Sennikov, Andrey G.; Golubev, Valeriy K.; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz (2016). "Microbiota and food residues including possible evidence of pre-mammalian hair in Upper Permian coprolites from Russia".

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non-mammaliaform synapsids, those taxa that gave rise to rapidly diversifying lineages have been both small and large in body size, although after the Late Triassic, progenitors of new synapsid lineages have generally been small, unspecialised generalists.

1740:(chewing) and specialized teeth that aided chewing. Limbs also evolved to move under the body instead of to the side, allowing them to breathe more efficiently during locomotion. This helped make it possible to support their higher metabolic demands. 1110:

are also hypothesized to have had fur or a fur-like covering based on their inferred warm-blooded metabolism. While more direct evidence of fur in early cynodonts has been proposed in the form of small pits on the snout possibly associated with

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Most uncertainty in the phylogeny of synapsids lies among the earliest members of the group, including forms traditionally placed within Pelycosauria. As one of the earliest phylogenetic analyses, Brinkman & Eberth (1983) placed the family

824: 885:, and others). As they evolved in synapsids, these jaw bones were reduced in size and either lost or, in the case of the articular, gradually moved into the ear, forming one of the middle ear bones: while modern mammals possess the 864:

line, but developed further in the synapsids. Early synapsids could have two or even three enlarged "canines", but in the therapsids, the pattern had settled to one canine in each upper jaw half. The lower canines developed later.

747:: the low-slung stem mammals have given rise to the more erect therapsids, who in their turn have given rise to the mammals. In traditional vertebrate classification, the stem mammals and therapsids were both considered 1731:

Triassic and Jurassic ancestors of living mammals, along with their close relatives, had high metabolic rates. This meant consuming food (generally thought to be insects) in much greater quantity. To facilitate rapid

920:. In contrast, all other jawed vertebrates, including reptiles and nonmammalian synapsids, possess a jaw joint in which one of the smaller bones of the lower jaw, the articular, makes a connection with a bone of the 699:

of Synapsida is not in doubt, and the expressions such as "Synapsida contains the mammals" and "synapsids gave rise to the mammals" both express the same phylogenetic hypothesis. This terminology reflects the modern

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According to Oftedal, early synapsids may have buried the eggs into moisture laden soil, hydrating them with contact with the moist skin, or may have carried them in a moist pouch, similar to that of monotremes

881:, or lower jaw, consists of a single, tooth-bearing bone in mammals (the dentary), whereas the lower jaw of modern and prehistoric reptiles consists of a conglomeration of smaller bones (including the dentary, 5630:

Luo, Zhe-Xi; Meng, Qing-Jin; Grossnickle, David M.; Di, Liu; Neander, April I.; Zhang, Yu-Guang; Ji, Qiang (2017). "New evidence for mammaliaform ear evolution and feeding adaptation in a Jurassic ecosystem".

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Eventually, the two sides of the palate began to curve together, forming a U shape instead of a C shape. The palate also began to extend back toward the throat, securing the entire mouth and creating a full

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Early synapsids, as far back as their known evolutionary debut in the Late Carboniferous period, may have laid parchment-shelled (leathery) eggs, which lacked a calcified layer, as most modern reptiles and

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Modesto, Sean P.; Smith, Roger M. H.; Campione, Nicolás E.; Reisz, Robert R. (2011). "The last 'pelycosaur': a varanopid synapsid from the Pristerognathus Assemblage Zone, Middle Permian of South Africa".

1540:), which contained some members that reached large size (up to a tonne or more). And finally there were the increasingly mammal-like carnivorous, herbivorous, and insectivorous cynodonts, including the 1139:

from Russia and possibly South Africa showcase that at least some synapsids did already have pre-mammalian hair in this epoch. These are the oldest impressions of hair-like structures on synapsids.

811:, which evolved two rather than one opening behind each eye. Originally, the openings in the skull left the inner cranium covered only by the jaw muscles, but in higher therapsids and mammals, the 795:, in the skull behind each eye. This schematic shows the skull viewed from the left side. The middle opening is the orbit of the eye; the opening to the right of it is the temporal fenestra. 5723:

Gaetano, L.C.; Rougier, G.W. (2011). "New materials of Argentoconodon fariasorum (Mammaliaformes, Triconodontidae) from the Jurassic of Argentina and its bearing on triconodont phylogeny".

641:. However, this notion was disproved upon closer inspection of skeletal remains, as synapsids are differentiated from reptiles by their distinctive temporal openings. These openings in the 4038:"Inner ear morphology of diadectomorphs and seymouriamorphs (Tetrapoda) uncovered by high‐resolution x‐ray microcomputed tomography, and the origin of the amniote crown group" 5164:

Ji, Q.; Luo, Z-X; Yuan, Chong-Xi; Tabrum, Alan R. (February 2006). "A swimming mammaliaform from the middle Jurassic and ecomorphological diversification of early mammals".

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tool, as most other fossilized features that make a chronological progression from a reptile-like to a mammalian condition follow the progression of the jaw transition. The

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In addition to the glandular skin covered in fur found in most modern mammals, modern and extinct synapsids possess a variety of modified skin coverings, including

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Meng, Qing-Jin; Grossnickle, David M.; Di, Liu; Zhang, Yu-Guang; Neander, April I.; Ji, Qiang; Luo, Zhe-Xi (2017). "New gliding mammaliaforms from the Jurassic".

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approach to animal relationships, according to which the only valid groups are those that include all of the descendants of a common ancestor: these are known as

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Whether through climate change, vegetation change, ecological competition, or a combination of factors, most of the remaining large cynodonts (belonging to the

743:, while therapsids tended to have a more erect pose and possibly hair, at least in some forms. In traditional taxonomy, the Synapsida encompasses two distinct 901:

synapsids (like all other tetrapods) possess only a stapes. The malleus is derived from the articular (a lower jaw bone), while the incus is derived from the

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Unlike the dicynodonts, which were large, the cynodonts became progressively smaller and more mammal-like as the Triassic progressed, though some forms like

1380:. It was one of many types of primitive synapsids that are now informally grouped together as stem mammals or sometimes as protomammals (previously known as 1233:

bearing exquisitely preserved, fur-covered wing membranes that stretch across the limbs and tail. Their fingers are elongated, similar to those of bats and

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Espen M. Knutsen; Emma Oerlemans (2019). "The last dicynodont? Re-assessing the taxonomic and temporal relationships of a contentious Australian fossil".

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groups lasted into the later Permian but, by the middle of the Late Permian, all had either died off or evolved into their successors, the therapsids.

4171:"Researches on the structure, organisation, and classification of the fossil reptilia. Part X. On the complete skeleton of an anomodont reptile ( 1756:

of synapsids, showing a long stem lineage including Mammalia and successively more basal clades such as Theriodontia, Therapsida and Sphenacodontia:

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Although Synapsida and Therapsida include modern mammals, in practical usage, those two terms are used almost exclusively when referring to the more

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The animals (basal amniotes) from which non-mammalian synapsids evolved were traditionally called "reptiles". Therefore, synapsids were described as

6260: 4071:"The first age of reptiles? Comparing reptile and synapsid diversity, and the influence of lagerstätten, during the Carboniferous and early Permian" 739:), comprising the other six more primitive families of synapsids. Stem mammals were all rather lizard-like, with sprawling gait and possibly horny 1152:

do. This may also explain why there is no fossil evidence for synapsid eggs to date. Because they were vulnerable to desiccation, secretions from

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complex, nutrient-rich milk long before true mammals arose (with some of the constituents possibly predating the split between the synapsid and

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periods, ranging up to 6 metres (20 ft) in length. They were sprawling, bulky, possibly cold-blooded, and had small brains. Some, such as

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Niedźwiedzki, G.; Bojanowski, M. (2012). "A supposed eupelycosaur body impression from the early Permian of the Intra-Sudetic basin, Poland".

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Benson, R.J. (2012). "Interrelationships of basal synapsids: cranial and postcranial morphological partitions suggest different topologies".

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has expanded to close the opening. This has left the lower margin of the opening as an arch extending from the lower edges of the braincase.

6128:"A Re-Description of 'Mycterosaurus' smithae, an Early Permian Eothyridid, and Its Impact on the Phylogeny of Pelycosaurian-Grade Synapsids" 4787:"A redescription of Orovenator mayorum (Sauropsida, Diapsida) using high‐resolution μ CT , and the consequences for early amniote phylogeny" 1257:

with delicate wrinkles and that is very extensive, "sandwiching" the poorly preserved hands and feet and extending to the base of the tail.

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Bramble, D. M.; Jenkins, F. A. (1993). "Mammalian locomotor-respiratory integration: Implications for diaphragmatic and pulmonary design".

4175:, Wiedersheim), from the Bunter sandstone of Reihen, near Basel, giving new evidence of the relation of the Anomodontia to the Monotremata" 1185:

were almost certainly able to produce this, which allowed a progressive decline of yolk mass and thus egg size, resulting in increasingly

1115:, such pits are also found in some reptiles that lack whiskers. There is evidence that some other non-mammalian cynodonts more basal than 571:

at the end of the Permian. Most lineages of pelycosaur-grade synapsids were replaced at the end of the Early Permian by the more advanced

7572: 6088: 1080:, a therapsid from the Upper Permian, preserves smooth skin with what appear to be glandular depressions, an animal noted as being semi- 807:

on the lateral surface of the skull. It may have provided new attachment sites for jaw muscles. A similar development took place in the

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mammals would only achieve powered flight and gliding long after these early aeronauts became extinct, with the earliest-known gliding

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beneath each; this accounts for their name. The distinctive temporal fenestra developed about 318 million years ago during the

6058: 4577: 4470: 9129: 5119: 5049: 1532:, which only lasted the first 20 million years of the Triassic period. The second were specialised, beaked herbivores known as 1074:

first appeared, as the fossils only rarely provide direct evidence for soft tissues. An exceptionally well-preserved skull of

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terms have now fallen out of favor and are only used informally (if at all) in modern literature. It is now known that all

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hatchlings as milk became the primary source of nutrition, which is all evidenced by the small body size, the presence of

4388: 719:(reptiles) has been revised into a monophyletic group and is considered entirely distinct from Synapsida, falling within 6253: 6192: 2519: 1384:). The early synapsids spread and diversified, becoming the largest terrestrial animals in the latest Carboniferous and 5375:"Morphology and composition of bone-bearing coprolites from the Late Permian Beaufort Group, Karoo Basin, South Africa" 675:

terms "mammal-like reptile" and "pelycosaur" are seen as outdated and disfavored in technical literature, and the term

4493:"Dimetrodon is not a dinosaur: Using tree thinking to understand the ancient relatives of mammals and their evolution" 3867: 3659: 8839: 8827: 735:, an advanced group of synapsids and the branch within which mammals evolved, and stem mammals, (previously known as 7491: 1528:

After the Permian extinction, the synapsids did not count more than three surviving clades. The first comprised the

1053:, which are an epidermal feature (like mammalian hair or avian feathers). Recently, skin impressions from the genus 1014:

The ancestral skin type of synapsids has been subject to discussion. The type specimen of the oldest known synapsid

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Grossnickle, David; Hellert, Spencer; Kammerer, Christian; Angielczyk, Kenneth D.; Lloyd, Graeme (1 October 2022).

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were absent in the newly discovered postcranial material of eothyridids, and were therefore acquired convergently.

3635: 3378: 2465: 188: 4417:"The Making of Calibration Sausage Exemplified by Recalibrating the Transcriptomic Timetree of Jawed Vertebrates" 4036:

Klembara, Jozef; Hain, Miroslav; Ruta, Marcello; Berman, David S.; Pierce, Stephanie E.; Henrici, Amy C. (2019).

3296: 2423: 874: 760: 660:(early) synapsids. More recent studies have debunked this notion as well, and reptiles are now classified within 7651: 6358: 4211: 3492: 499:

period, when synapsids and sauropsids diverged, but was subsequently merged with the orbit in early mammals.

7678: 7565: 6246: 3887: 3456: 3157: 3140: 2766: 2599: 2574: 2399: 909: 45: 7481: 9183: 9031: 8833: 8306: 7486: 5209: 3361: 2807: 1626:. The remaining Mesozoic synapsids were small, ranging from the size of a shrew to the badger-like mammal 692: 274: 169: 9256: 8938: 8912: 3915: 3877: 3540: 3432: 3320: 3116: 3015: 2683: 2346: 1505:, the latter of which appeared later in the early Triassic. However, they were accompanied by the early 1440:). After flourishing for many millions of years, these successful animals were all but wiped out by the 1263:, a close relative, shares a similar femur adapted for flight stresses, indicating a similar lifestyle. 898: 767: 648:

Synapsids were subsequently considered to be a later reptilian lineage that became mammals by gradually

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Oftedal, Olav T. (2002-07-01). "The origin of lactation as a water source for parchment-shelled eggs".

975: 7352: 5582: 9243: 9230: 8996: 8964: 7476: 6848: 6232: 6198: 6139: 5997: 5852: 5695: 5640: 5386: 5238: 5173: 5115:"The origin and early radiation of the therapsid mammal-like reptiles: A palaeobiological hypothesis" 4115: 3557: 2617: 1309: 1169:

can carry eggs or tadpoles attached to the skin, or embedded within cutaneous "pouches" and how most

1153: 8311: 7175: 629:, the mammalian synapsids diversified again to become the largest land and marine animals on Earth. 9054: 7434: 7310: 7112: 5214: 3927: 3262: 3092: 3068: 2967: 2634: 2294: 7345: 7338: 7239: 7083: 9284: 9166: 8713: 8572: 8525: 7558: 7398: 7224: 6796: 6105: 5968: 5915: 5876: 5787: 5750: 5664: 5564: 5458: 5374: 5262: 5197: 5146: 5066: 5028: 4993: 4658: 4514: 4151: 3872: 3611: 3516: 3039: 2790: 1670:, which first appeared near the end of the Triassic, was carnivorous and persisted well into the 1377: 744: 615: 519: 496: 405: 183: 7268: 7097: 4469:(research publ. ann.). Bloemfontein, ZA: The National Museum . 19 September 2013. Archived from 4349: 4104:"Successive climate crises in the deep past drove the early evolution and radiation of reptiles" 637:

At the turn of the 20th century synapsids were thought to be one of the four main subclasses of

9261: 6789: 6228: 4867:"Varanopid from the Carboniferous of Nova Scotia reveals evidence of parental care in amniotes" 4373: 1428:. They included herbivores and carnivores, ranging from small animals the size of a rat (e.g.: 8653: 8626: 7276: 7203: 7001: 6982: 6739: 6202: 6167: 6066: 6013: 5988: 5933: 5868: 5656: 5556: 5548: 5510: 5502: 5450: 5442: 5402: 5254: 5189: 5138: 5093: 4958: 4927: 4886: 4847: 4808: 4767: 4718: 4681: 4607: 4586: 4572: 4555: 4448: 4329: 4315: 4261: 4251: 4143: 2543: 1652:

During the Jurassic and Cretaceous, the remaining non-mammalian cynodonts were small, such as

800: 792: 607:(mammals and their closer ancestors), were the only synapsids to survive beyond the Triassic. 480: 5425:

Oftedal, Olav T. (2002-07-01). "The mammary gland and its origin during synapsid evolution".

4014: 8683: 8422: 8282: 7925: 7514: 7254: 7232: 6961: 6761: 6188: 6157: 6147: 6097: 6005: 5960: 5923: 5907: 5860: 5815:"Survival of the novel: derived faunivores are the forerunners of major synapsid radiations" 5740: 5732: 5703: 5648: 5540: 5492: 5434: 5394: 5355: 5321: 5300: 5246: 5181: 5128: 5058: 5020: 4985: 4917: 4878: 4839: 4798: 4757: 4749: 4710: 4650: 4545: 4504: 4438: 4428: 4294: 4186: 4133: 4123: 4082: 4049: 3995: 3836: 3597: 3337: 2914: 2724: 1895: 1667: 1611: 1449: 1445: 1397: 1393: 1126: 938: 937:

Over time, as synapsids became more mammalian and less 'reptilian', they began to develop a

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became some of the largest and most numerous land vertebrates, only rivaled in size by

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Hopson, James A. (1987). "The Mammal-Like Reptiles: A Study of Transitional Fossils".

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Steen, Margaret C. (1934). "The amphibian fauna from the South Joggins. Nova Scotia".

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increasingly mammalian features, hence the name "mammal-like reptiles" (also known as

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and likely sharing similar roles both as wing supports and to hang on tree branches.

1194: 1190: 1071: 1050: 954: 925: 912:. In this form of jaw joint, the dentary forms a connection with a depression in the 902: 812: 588: 584: 348: 163: 145: 81: 6109: 5880: 5754: 5462: 5201: 5032: 4866: 4828:"The phylogeny of early amniotes and the affinities of Parareptilia and Varanopidae" 4827: 4518: 1578:

remained large. The first mammaliaforms evolved from the cynodonts during the early

995:(protective structures of the dermis often with a horny covering), hair or fur, and 123: 9156: 9146: 9110: 8970: 8927: 8901: 8763: 8699: 8504: 8490: 8483: 8406: 8378: 8105: 8021: 7960: 7904: 7897: 7855: 7848: 7841: 7790: 7534: 7519: 7331: 7247: 7217: 7168: 6954: 6926: 6854: 6635: 6600: 6511: 6435: 6309: 5668: 5568: 5150: 4228: 2900: 2023: 2005: 1961: 1957: 1943: 1926: 1495: 1477: 1425: 1223: 1173:

curl around their eggs to keep them moist, both groups also having glandular skin.

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and give birth to live young rather than laying eggs with the exception being the

1658:. No cynodont grew larger than a cat. Most Jurassic and Cretaceous cynodonts were 536:

sense. Therefore, calling synapsids "mammal-like reptiles" is incorrect under the

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bones allowed the attachment of larger jaw muscles, hence a more efficient bite.

9215: 8985: 8953: 8756: 8735: 8511: 8371: 8364: 8329: 8272: 8262: 8190: 8098: 7993: 7821: 7799: 7780: 7317: 7283: 7189: 7182: 7134: 7090: 7046: 7032: 6917: 6898: 6836: 6704: 6669: 6607: 6593: 3701: 2890: 2505: 2328: 2246: 2242: 2081: 2019: 1988: 1899: 1808: 1777: 1737: 1691: 1663: 1659: 1628: 1598: 1560: 1541: 1501: 1464: 1362: 1229: 1016: 963: 787: 460: 373: 323: 294: 56: 6238: 1840: 1314: 9100: 9090: 9043: 8870: 8857: 8791: 8721: 8669: 8453: 8385: 8232: 8147: 8132: 8042: 8035: 8007: 7932: 7918: 7539: 7416: 6940: 6824: 6775: 6628: 6522: 6468: 5864: 5544: 5497: 5480: 5438: 5062: 4882: 4843: 4550: 4533: 4509: 4492: 4433: 3862: 3683: 3477: 2447: 2067: 2054: 1912: 1868: 1781: 1721: 1717: 1679: 1654: 1640: 1623: 1533: 1515: 1385: 1381: 1373: 1349: 1338: 1295: 1290: 1270: 1206: 1170: 1107: 1099: 836:

Synapsids are characterized by having differentiated teeth. These include the

736: 720: 661: 653: 618: 580: 568: 512: 484: 440: 139: 101: 66: 9206: 5964: 5552: 5506: 5446: 5406: 4962: 4931: 4890: 4851: 4812: 4738:"The integumentary skeleton of tetrapods: origin, evolution, and development" 4722: 4087: 4070: 664:(sauropsids), the sister group to synapsids, thus making synapsids their own 8887: 8742: 8443: 8168: 8028: 7939: 7883: 7876: 7814: 7161: 7039: 6947: 6803: 6782: 6768: 6753: 6697: 6676: 6586: 6566: 6457: 6446: 6009: 5185: 2256: 2085: 1992: 1753: 1749: 1733: 1725: 1698: 1593: 1587: 1555: 1545: 1506: 1472: 1459: 1368: 1327: 1278: 1186: 1178: 1149: 1136: 1085: 1042: 1033: 1029: 1025: 988: 980: 913: 882: 732: 701: 696: 691:, it is now understood that synapsids comprise an independent branch of the 657: 649: 622: 611: 572: 533: 507: 464: 448: 200: 106: 28: 6171: 5937: 5911: 5872: 5660: 5560: 5514: 5454: 5305: 5288: 5258: 5193: 5142: 4922: 4771: 4559: 4452: 4298: 4191: 4147: 4128: 1635: 945:. In early synapsids, a secondary palate began to form on the sides of the 823: 6235:

genera in the evolutionary sequence linking primitive synapsids to mammals

6126:

Neil Brocklehurst; Robert Reisz; Vincent Fernandez; Jörg Fröbisch (2016).

6017: 4906:"Can maxillary canal morphology inform varanopid phylogenetic affinities?" 2117: 1930: 1007:). While the skin of reptiles is rather thin, that of mammals has a thick 860:, forming a form of protocanines. This trait was subsequently lost in the 9200: 8728: 8582: 8497: 8252: 8242: 8175: 8161: 8084: 8077: 7832: 7807: 7611: 7605: 7018: 6968: 6906: 6817: 6327: 6300: 4905: 2953: 2255:

included, Caseasauria remained the most basal synapsid clade. Below is a

2112: 1687: 1615: 1614:) and dicynodonts (of the family Kannemeyeriidae) had disappeared by the 1603: 1565: 1510: 1490: 1436: 1430: 1408: 1344: 1254: 1217: 1182: 1089: 1060: 1037:

undersides and tails. The pelycosaur scutes probably were nonoverlapping

1000: 878: 853: 828: 716: 665: 596: 592: 560: 472: 468: 331: 230: 220: 151: 96: 91: 76: 71: 61: 49: 24: 5708: 5683: 5652: 5250: 4947:"Pennsylvanian Pelycosaurs from Linton, Ohio and Nýřany, Czechoslovakia" 1420:

The therapsids, a more advanced group of synapsids, appeared during the

1403: 957:. The maxilla is also closed completely. In fossils of one of the first 7911: 7620: 7440: 7367: 6933: 6871: 5919: 5745: 5346: 4946: 4785:

Ford, David P.; Benson, Roger B. J. (May 2019). Mannion, Philip (ed.).

4662: 4467:"Greatest mass extinction responsible for the making of modern mammals" 4054: 4037: 3857: 3852: 2307: 1161: 1112: 1066:

It is currently unknown exactly when mammalian characteristics such as

1059:

suggest that at least varanopsids developed scales similar to those of

946: 886: 861: 857: 845: 808: 638: 564: 452: 444: 256: 111: 86: 20: 5359: 4803: 4714: 4602:

Angielczch, Kennenth; Kammerer, Christian F.; Frobisch, Jorg. (2013).

4374:"New proto-mammal fossil sheds light on evolution of earliest mammals" 4283:"First Record of a Basal Synapsid ('Mammal-Like Reptile') in Gondwana" 1084:. The oldest known fossil showing unambiguous imprints of hair is the 967:

has a full and completely closed palate, forming a clear progression.

9060: 8050: 7599: 7404: 6294: 1709: 1705: 1579: 1266: 1234: 1193:, and limited tooth replacement in advanced cynodonts, as well as in 1046: 1038: 1008: 1004: 908:

Mammalian jaw structures are also set apart by the dentary-squamosal

894: 841: 476: 210: 9177: 6032: 4654: 4207: 4170: 7869: 5289:"Selective factors associated with the origin of fur and feathers" 1716:) species, and the largest animal ever known to have existed (the 1634: 1592: 1554: 1471: 1458: 1402: 1326: 1313: 992: 974: 921: 890: 822: 786: 740: 709: 642: 567:

period, 299 to 251 million years ago, equalled only by some large

436: 5682:

Meng, J.; Hu, Y.-M.; Wang, Y.-Q.; Wang, X.-L.; Li, C.-K. (2007).

755:

Practical versus phylogenetic usage of "synapsid" and "therapsid"

9248: 7444: 5684:"Corrigendum: A Mesozoic gliding mammal from northeastern China" 1489:

Only a few therapsids went on to be successful in the new early

856:

reptilians in the form of enlargement of the first teeth on the

456: 9181: 8855: 8327: 7729: 7592: 7554: 6287: 6242: 4904:

Benoit, Julien; Ford, David; Miyamae, Juri; Ruf, Irina (2021).

4865:

Maddin, Hillary C.; Mann, Arjan; Hebert, Brian (January 2020).

4699: 4697: 1424:

and included the largest terrestrial animals in the Middle and

791:

The synapsids are distinguished by a single hole, known as the

1713: 1274: 1067: 731:

The synapsids are traditionally divided for convenience, into

5770:

Small marsupial glider from the Paleocene of Itaboraí, Brazil

1434:), to large, bulky herbivores a ton or more in weight (e.g.: 7550: 5011:

Carroll, R.L. (1969). "Problems of the origin of reptiles".

1690:. However, these fossils were re-described in 2019 as being 1468:

was an enigmatic synapsid from the Middle Permian of Russia.

1041:

structures with a horny overlay, like those found in modern

961:, the beginnings of a palate are clearly visible. The later 575:. Synapsid numbers and variety were severely reduced by the 1704:

Today, the 5,500 species of living synapsids, known as the

1682:, Australia. If true, it would mean there is a significant 4625:

Biology of Mineralized Tissues: Prenatal Skull Development

5481:"The evolution of milk secretion and its ancient origins" 4019:

New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin

999:-like structures (often formed from modified hair, as in 6065:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 3–30. 1525:, were as big as or bigger than the largest therapsids. 540:

definition of "reptile", so they are now referred to as

5900:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1240:

Within true mammals, aerial locomotion first occurs in

1024:. Among the early synapsids, only two species of small 5896:"The last dicynodont: an Australian Cretaceous relict" 5794:. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. October 29, 2015 5210:"Jurassic "beaver" found; rewrites history of mammals" 1519:, were small and lightly built, while others, such as 131:

Examples of synapsids (left to right, top to bottom):

5772:. Meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. 5088:

Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution

4736:

Vickaryous, Matthew K. & Sire, Jean-Yves (2009).

848:. The trend towards differentiation is found in some 625:. When all non-avian dinosaurs were wiped out by the 9106: 9096: 9086: 9017: 8982: 8950: 8924: 8898: 8883: 8680: 8665: 8623: 8608: 8598: 8588: 8578: 8568: 8464: 8449: 8439: 8345: 8278: 8268: 8258: 8248: 8238: 8228: 7990: 7777: 7761: 7145: 7071: 6997: 6881: 6719: 6549: 6529: 6518: 6507: 6496: 6485: 6474: 6464: 6453: 6442: 6431: 4826:

Ford, David P.; Benson, Roger B. J. (January 2020).

4260:. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman & Co. p. 397. 1106:(see below, however). More primitive members of the 384: 370: 362: 344: 336: 328: 320: 311: 300: 290: 9190: 9075: 9042: 9016: 9007: 8981: 8949: 8923: 8897: 8868: 8790: 8679: 8652: 8622: 8553: 8463: 8420: 8344: 8217: 8189: 8122: 8067: 7989: 7978: 7831: 7789: 7776: 7742: 7689: 7662: 7635: 7415: 7379: 7366: 7293: 7144: 7070: 6996: 6916: 6880: 6869: 6834: 6718: 6645: 6576: 6548: 6416: 6369: 6342: 5788:"Ancestry of mammalian 'warm-bloodedness' revealed" 3952: 3939: 3920: 1720:). Humans are synapsids, as well. Most mammals are 5085: 1156:-like glands may have helped keep the eggs moist. 5379:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5373:Smith, Roger M.H.; Botha-Brink, Jennifer (2011). 4680:(5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 949:, still leaving the mouth and nostril connected. 479:. Unlike other amniotes, synapsids have a single 6033:"Synapsida. Mammals and their extinct relatives" 4208:"Synapsida: Mammals and their extinct relatives" 723:, the sister group of Synapsida within Amniota. 1481:was the most common synapsid shortly after the 1205:Aerial locomotion first began in non-mammalian 5533:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia 5427:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia 4629:Columbia University College of Dental Medicine 656:). These became the traditional terms for all 7566: 6254: 6121: 6119: 5768:Szalay, FS; Sargis, EJ; Stafford, BJ (2000). 5607:"Life History and Ecology of the Monotremata" 4246: 4244: 4242: 8: 4310: 4308: 3883:Timeline of the evolutionary history of life 1366:coexisted with the earliest known sauropsid 471:, but the only group that survived into the 4235:(6th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders. 3981: 3979: 3945: 3933: 9178: 9013: 8876: 8865: 8852: 8658: 8561: 8432: 8428: 8341: 8337: 8324: 8214: 7999: 7986: 7786: 7754: 7750: 7739: 7726: 7668: 7641: 7632: 7589: 7573: 7559: 7551: 7376: 7153: 6890: 6877: 6558: 6545: 6424: 6413: 6348: 6339: 6284: 6261: 6247: 6239: 4350:"Jaws to ears in the ancestors of mammals" 4179:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 1564:was the largest predatory cynodont of the 1548:age, an early representative of which was 1348:were early synapsids that lived until the 122: 35: 6161: 6151: 5927: 5744: 5707: 5496: 5304: 5132: 4921: 4802: 4761: 4631:post-graduate dental lecture series, 2007 4606:. Springer Science & Business Media. 4549: 4534:"The phylogenetic definition of Reptilia" 4508: 4442: 4432: 4206:Laurin, Michel; Reisz, Robert R. (2011). 4190: 4137: 4127: 4086: 4053: 3957:) "having a fused arch"; synonymous with 1582:age of the Late Triassic, about 225 mya. 1392:, had large sails that might have helped 832:, an early synapsid with multiple canines 6059:"The origin and radiation of therapsids" 4410: 4408: 4376:. University of Chicago. August 7, 2013. 4102:Simões, T.; Kammerer, C. (August 2022). 2259:modified from Benson's analysis (2012): 4604:Early Evolutionary History of Synapsida 4223: 4221: 3975: 3899: 1049:. These differed in structure from the 595:) are known to have continued into the 425:" (Cladistically including therapsids) 9295:Extant Pennsylvanian first appearances 5282: 5280: 5278: 5276: 4532:Modesto, S.P.; Anderson, J.S. (2004). 983:has the densest fur of modern mammals. 633:Linnaean and cladistic classifications 5526: 5524: 5474: 5472: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5092:(3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. 4257:Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution 1513:). Some of these archosaurs, such as 627:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 7: 9300:Taxa named by Henry Fairfield Osborn 6231:- includes description of important 1694:in age, and possibly belonging to a 1590:and allowing sophisticated hearing. 6089:Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 3675: 3651: 3627: 3603: 3532: 3508: 3484: 3472: 3448: 3424: 3353: 3312: 3288: 3278: 3254: 3132: 3108: 3084: 3060: 3031: 3007: 2983: 2959: 2906: 2896: 2886: 2782: 2758: 2699: 2675: 2668: 2590: 2566: 2559: 2535: 2511: 2439: 2415: 2391: 2381: 2374: 2320: 2313: 2269: 2262: 2104: 2073: 2042: 2011: 1980: 1949: 1918: 1887: 1856: 1828: 1800: 1769: 1759: 1323:, one of the oldest synapsids found 1253:has an exquisitely preserved furry 991:(bony armor embedded in the skin), 610:During the Triassic, the sauropsid 510:synapsids were also referred to as 459:). The synapsids were the dominant 5820:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 5774:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 5725:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 5025:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1969.tb01218.x 4676:Hildebran, M.; Goslow, G. (2001). 4389:"The Stem-Mammals--a Brief Primer" 4287:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 4281:D. W. Dilkes, R. R. Reisz (1996). 4075:Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 4015:"Diadectomorphs, amniotes or not?" 4000:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1934.tb01644.x 1622:that killed off most of the large 1620:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 506:in classical systematics, and non- 14: 5894:Thulborn, T.; Turner, S. (2003). 5324:. Field Museum of Natural History 5287:Ruben, J.A.; Jones, T.D. (2000). 4497:Evolution: Education and Outreach 3835:(2012) to unite Caseasauria with 1644:was a cynodont that lived in the 1483:Permian–Triassic extinction event 1444:about 250 mya, the largest known 1289:Recently, it has been found that 577:Permian–Triassic extinction event 9162: 9161: 9128: 8838: 8832: 8826: 8310: 8305: 7496: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7468: 6031:Laurin, M.; Reisz, R.R. (2011). 5134:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.01076.x 4754:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.01043.x 4678:Analysis of Vertebrate Structure 4393:Scientific American Blog Network 4210:(Version 14 ed.). The 2116: 2084: 2053: 2022: 1991: 1960: 1929: 1898: 1867: 1839: 1811: 1780: 1442:Permian–Triassic mass extinction 727:Primitive and advanced synapsids 187: 6229:Transitional Vertebrate Fossils 6061:. In Chinsamy-Turan, A. (ed.). 5776:. Supplement 73A. Vol. 20. 5320:Gaare, Megan (7 October 2014). 5120:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 4491:Angielczyk, Kenneth D. (2009). 1412:was a tapinocephalian from the 4871:Nature Ecology & Evolution 4832:Nature Ecology & Evolution 1752:of the most commonly accepted 1602:was the largest mammal of the 1: 5823:(Program and Abstracts, 2022) 5322:"An Early Nocturnal Ancestor" 4910:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 4169:Seeley, Harry Govier (1895). 873:The jaw transition is a good 6397:Reptiliomorpha / Pan-Amniota 6194:Evolution of the Vertebrates 6153:10.1371/journal.pone.0156810 6102:10.1080/14772019.2011.631042 6037:The Tree of Life Web Project 5737:10.1080/02724634.2011.589877 5479:Oftedal, O.T. (2012-03-01). 5399:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.09.006 4990:10.1080/10420940.2012.702549 4643:The American Biology Teacher 4324:(3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: 2520:Archaeovenator hamiltonensis 1394:raise their body temperature 1360:The earliest known synapsid 1051:scales of lizards and snakes 770:members that lie outside of 5583:"Monotremes and marsupials" 3953: 3940: 3921: 3868:List of prehistoric mammals 3660:Cryptovenator hirschbergeri 1028:have been found to possess 941:, separating the mouth and 751:of the subclass Synapsida. 599:period. The cynodont group 559:Synapsids were the largest 9316: 6197:(2nd ed.). New York: 5207:See also the news item at 3636:Secodontosaurus obtusidens 3379:Edaphosaurus novomexicanus 2466:Stereophallodon ciscoensis 1736:, these synapsids evolved 1624:non-dinosaurian archosaurs 1509:(soon to give rise to the 1452:, possibly related to the 1307: 1293:was developed as early as 18: 9141: 9126: 8879: 8864: 8851: 8824: 8661: 8564: 8435: 8431: 8340: 8336: 8323: 8303: 8213: 8002: 7757: 7753: 7738: 7725: 7671: 7644: 7631: 7588: 7509: 7465: 7156: 6893: 6561: 6544: 6427: 6412: 6393: 6351: 6338: 6283: 6199:John Wiley & Sons Inc 5865:10.1007/s00114-011-0856-2 5498:10.1017/S1751731111001935 5063:10.1007/s12542-018-0405-9 4883:10.1038/s41559-019-1030-z 4844:10.1038/s41559-019-1047-3 4551:10.1080/10635150490503026 4510:10.1007/s12052-009-0117-4 4434:10.3389/fgene.2021.521693 4069:Brocklehurst, N. (2021). 3947: 3934: 3910: 3698: 3680: 3673: 3656: 3649: 3632: 3625: 3608: 3601: 3554: 3537: 3530: 3513: 3506: 3489: 3482: 3470: 3453: 3446: 3429: 3422: 3375: 3358: 3351: 3334: 3317: 3310: 3297:Ianthasaurus hardestiorum 3293: 3286: 3276: 3259: 3252: 3154: 3137: 3130: 3113: 3106: 3089: 3082: 3065: 3058: 3036: 3029: 3012: 3005: 2988: 2981: 2964: 2957: 2928: 2911: 2904: 2894: 2884: 2804: 2787: 2780: 2763: 2756: 2721: 2704: 2697: 2680: 2673: 2666: 2631: 2614: 2595: 2588: 2571: 2564: 2557: 2540: 2533: 2516: 2509: 2462: 2444: 2437: 2424:Varanosaurus acutirostris 2420: 2413: 2396: 2389: 2379: 2372: 2343: 2325: 2318: 2311: 2291: 2274: 2267: 2109: 2102: 2078: 2071: 2047: 2040: 2016: 2009: 1985: 1978: 1954: 1947: 1923: 1916: 1892: 1885: 1861: 1854: 1833: 1826: 1805: 1798: 1774: 1767: 1098:and several contemporary 761:phylogenetic nomenclature 411: 404: 287: 282: 184:Scientific classification 182: 130: 121: 38: 9290:Tetrapod unranked clades 6223:Synapsida - Pelycosauria 5965:10.1016/j.gr.2019.07.011 4321:Vertebrate Palaeontology 4231:; Parsons, T.S. (1985). 4212:Tree of Life Web Project 4088:10.3389/fevo.2021.669765 4013:David S. Berman (2013). 3493:Raranimus dashankouensis 1708:, include both aquatic ( 1493:landscape; they include 483:, an opening low in the 435:is one of the two major 19:Not to be confused with 6010:10.1126/science.8211141 5545:10.1023/A:1022848632125 5439:10.1023/a:1022896515287 5186:10.1126/science.1123026 4951:Journal of Paleontology 4791:Papers in Palaeontology 4707:Papers in Palaeontology 4578:Vertebrate Paleontology 4415:Marjanović, D. (2021). 4173:Aristodesmus rutimeyeri 3888:Vertebrate paleontology 3457:Pantelosaurus saxonicus 3158:Cotylorhynchus hancocki 3141:Cotylorhynchus bransoni 2767:Ruthiromia elcobriensis 2600:Elliotsmithia longiceps 2575:Mycterosaurus longiceps 2400:Archaeothyris florensis 1372:which lived during the 621:, and gave rise to the 561:terrestrial vertebrates 6063:Forerunners of Mammals 5912:10.1098/rspb.2002.2296 5084:Kardong, K.V. (2002). 4945:Reisz, Robert (1975). 4923:10.4202/app.00816.2020 4354:evolution.berkeley.edu 4299:10.1098/rspb.1996.0170 4192:10.1098/rspl.1895.0070 4129:10.1126/sciadv.abq1898 3362:Edaphosaurus boanerges 2808:Aerosaurus greenleorum 1649: 1607: 1569: 1486: 1469: 1417: 1353: 1324: 984: 833: 796: 447:, the other being the 170:Tachyglossus aculeatus 9257:Paleobiology Database 5611:www.ucmp.berkeley.edu 4583:Blackwell Science Ltd 4421:Frontiers in Genetics 4326:Blackwell Science Ltd 3963:(Greek, "beast-face") 3932:'together' + 3878:Mammal classification 3541:Biseridens qilianicus 3433:Haptodus garnettensis 3321:Glaucosaurus megalops 3117:Cotylorhynchus romeri 3016:Trichasaurus texensis 2684:Varanops brevirostris 2347:Protorothyris archeri 1638: 1618:age, even before the 1596: 1558: 1475: 1462: 1406: 1330: 1317: 1102:, both non-mammalian 1032:; fossilized rows of 978: 826: 790: 579:. Only the therapsid 443:animals in the group 5792:www.sciencedaily.com 5306:10.1093/icb/40.4.585 3558:Titanophoneus potens 2618:Heleosaurus scholtzi 1310:Evolution of mammals 1304:Evolutionary history 799:Synapsids evolved a 504:mammal-like reptiles 6144:2016PLoSO..1156810B 6057:Kemp, T.S. (2011). 6002:1993Sci...262..235B 5857:2011NW.....98.1027M 5845:Naturwissenschaften 5709:10.1038/nature05639 5700:2007Natur.446Q.102M 5653:10.1038/nature23483 5645:2017Natur.548..326L 5391:2011PPP...312...40S 5251:10.1038/nature23476 5243:2017Natur.548..291M 5215:National Geographic 5178:2006Sci...311.1123J 5113:Kemp, T.S. (2006). 4293:(1374): 1165–1170. 4233:The Vertebrate Body 4120:2022SciA....8.1898S 3263:Ianthodon schultzei 3093:Angelosaurus romeri 3069:Ennatosaurus tecton 2968:Oromycter dolesorum 2635:Mesenosaurus romeri 2295:Limnoscelis paludis 1662:, though some were 687:) is used instead. 7225:Opisthodontosaurus 6853:possibly includes 5013:Biological Reviews 4742:Journal of Anatomy 4581:, 3rd ed. Oxford: 4573:Benton, Michael J. 4538:Systematic Biology 4316:Benton, Michael J. 4252:Carroll, Robert L. 4055:10.1111/pala.12448 3988:Journal of Zoology 3873:Lists of synapsids 3612:Cutleria wilmarthi 3517:Biarmosuchus tener 3040:Euromycter rutenus 2791:Aerosaurus wellesi 1686:of Dicynodonts in 1650: 1608: 1570: 1487: 1470: 1418: 1378:Late Carboniferous 1354: 1325: 985: 905:(a cranial bone). 834: 797: 497:Late Carboniferous 16:Clade of tetrapods 9272: 9271: 9184:Taxon identifiers 9175: 9174: 9137: 9136: 9124: 9123: 9120: 9119: 9071: 9070: 8847: 8846: 8822: 8821: 8818: 8817: 8814: 8813: 8810: 8809: 8654:Sphenacodontoidea 8627:Palaeohatteriidae 8549: 8548: 8416: 8415: 8319: 8318: 8301: 8300: 8297: 8296: 8293: 8292: 8209: 8208: 8185: 8184: 7974: 7973: 7970: 7969: 7721: 7720: 7717: 7716: 7713: 7712: 7709: 7708: 7548: 7547: 7505: 7504: 7463: 7462: 7459: 7458: 7455: 7454: 7362: 7361: 7002:Protorothyrididae 6992: 6991: 6983:Stephanospondylus 6865: 6864: 6714: 6713: 6408: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6389: 6388: 6072:978-0-253-35697-0 5996:(5131): 235–240. 5953:Gondwana Research 5906:(1518): 985–993. 5639:(7667): 326–329. 5360:10.1111/let.12156 5237:(7667): 291–296. 4804:10.1002/spp2.1236 4715:10.1002/spp2.1316 4612:978-94-007-6841-3 3931: 3919: 3831: 3830: 3822: 3821: 3813: 3812: 3804: 3803: 3795: 3794: 3786: 3785: 3777: 3776: 3768: 3767: 3759: 3758: 3750: 3749: 3741: 3740: 3732: 3731: 3723: 3722: 3714: 3713: 3587: 3586: 3578: 3577: 3569: 3568: 3408: 3407: 3399: 3398: 3390: 3389: 3241: 3240: 3232: 3231: 3223: 3222: 3214: 3213: 3205: 3204: 3196: 3195: 3187: 3186: 3178: 3177: 3169: 3168: 2943: 2942: 2873: 2872: 2864: 2863: 2855: 2854: 2846: 2845: 2837: 2836: 2828: 2827: 2819: 2818: 2745: 2744: 2736: 2735: 2655: 2654: 2646: 2645: 2544:Pyozia mesenensis 2495: 2494: 2486: 2485: 2477: 2476: 2358: 2357: 2237: 2236: 2228: 2227: 2219: 2218: 2210: 2209: 2201: 2200: 2192: 2191: 2183: 2182: 2174: 2173: 2165: 2164: 2156: 2155: 2147: 2146: 2138: 2137: 2129: 2128: 801:temporal fenestra 793:temporal fenestra 783:Temporal openings 671:As a result, the 603:, which includes 523:synapsids. These 481:temporal fenestra 430: 429: 278: 9307: 9265: 9264: 9252: 9251: 9239: 9238: 9226: 9225: 9224: 9211: 9210: 9209: 9179: 9165: 9164: 9132: 9108: 9098: 9088: 9019: 9014: 8984: 8952: 8926: 8900: 8885: 8877: 8866: 8853: 8842: 8836: 8830: 8684:Sphenacodontidae 8682: 8667: 8659: 8625: 8610: 8600: 8590: 8580: 8570: 8562: 8466: 8451: 8441: 8433: 8429: 8423:Haptodontiformes 8347: 8342: 8338: 8325: 8314: 8309: 8283:Protoclepsydrops 8280: 8270: 8260: 8250: 8240: 8230: 8215: 8000: 7992: 7987: 7926:Lalieudorhynchus 7787: 7779: 7763: 7755: 7751: 7740: 7727: 7669: 7642: 7633: 7626: 7625: 7590: 7575: 7568: 7561: 7552: 7515:Labyrinthodontia 7500: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7473: 7472: 7424: 7420: 7388: 7384: 7377: 7373: 7353:Tramuntanasaurus 7255:Rhiodenticulatus 7233:Protocaptorhinus 7154: 7147: 7073: 6999: 6962:Kuwavaatakdectes 6891: 6883: 6878: 6762:Karpinskiosaurus 6721: 6559: 6551: 6546: 6531: 6520: 6509: 6498: 6487: 6476: 6466: 6455: 6444: 6433: 6425: 6414: 6349: 6340: 6333: 6332: 6285: 6277: 6273: 6263: 6256: 6249: 6240: 6212: 6176: 6175: 6165: 6155: 6123: 6114: 6113: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6043: 6028: 6022: 6021: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5948: 5942: 5941: 5931: 5891: 5885: 5884: 5839: 5833: 5832: 5830: 5828: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5799: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5765: 5759: 5758: 5748: 5720: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5679: 5673: 5672: 5627: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5594: 5593: 5587:www.life.umd.edu 5579: 5573: 5572: 5528: 5519: 5518: 5500: 5476: 5467: 5466: 5422: 5411: 5410: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5340: 5334: 5333: 5331: 5329: 5317: 5311: 5310: 5308: 5284: 5271: 5270: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5205: 5172:(5764): 1123–7. 5161: 5155: 5154: 5136: 5127:(4): 1231–1247. 5110: 5104: 5103: 5091: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5043: 5037: 5036: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4925: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4862: 4856: 4855: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4806: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4765: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4701: 4692: 4691: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4638: 4632: 4621: 4615: 4600: 4594: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4553: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4512: 4488: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4478: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4446: 4436: 4412: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4399: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4360: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4312: 4303: 4302: 4278: 4272: 4271: 4248: 4237: 4236: 4225: 4216: 4215: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4194: 4166: 4160: 4159: 4141: 4131: 4114:(33): eabq1898. 4108:Science Advances 4099: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4010: 4004: 4003: 3983: 3964: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3926: 3924: 3914: 3912: 3904: 3837:Sphenacodontidae 3676: 3652: 3628: 3604: 3598:Sphenacodontidae 3533: 3509: 3485: 3473: 3449: 3425: 3354: 3338:Lupeosaurus kayi 3313: 3289: 3279: 3255: 3133: 3109: 3085: 3061: 3032: 3008: 2984: 2960: 2915:Eothyris parkeyi 2907: 2897: 2887: 2783: 2759: 2725:Varanodon agilis 2700: 2676: 2669: 2591: 2567: 2560: 2536: 2512: 2440: 2416: 2392: 2382: 2375: 2321: 2314: 2270: 2263: 2120: 2105: 2088: 2074: 2057: 2043: 2026: 2012: 1995: 1981: 1964: 1950: 1933: 1919: 1902: 1896:Sphenacodontidae 1888: 1871: 1857: 1843: 1829: 1815: 1801: 1784: 1770: 1760: 1668:Tritheledontidae 1612:Traversodontidae 1456:volcanic event. 1416:of South Africa. 1277:evolving in the 1209:cynodonts, with 1127:Harderian glands 939:secondary palate 803:behind each eye 689:Phylogenetically 616:kannemeyeriiform 487:behind each eye 451:(which includes 420: 386: 380:Haptodontiformes 372: 364: 346: 338: 330: 322: 313: 305:Protoclepsydrops 302: 292: 273: 192: 191: 126: 116: 53: 42:Temporal range: 36: 9315: 9314: 9310: 9309: 9308: 9306: 9305: 9304: 9275: 9274: 9273: 9268: 9260: 9255: 9247: 9242: 9234: 9229: 9220: 9219: 9214: 9205: 9204: 9199: 9186: 9176: 9171: 9133: 9116: 9067: 9038: 9003: 8977: 8945: 8919: 8893: 8873: 8860: 8843: 8806: 8786: 8750:Secodontosaurus 8675: 8648: 8618: 8593:Hypselohaptodus 8558: 8545: 8533:Remigiomontanus 8459: 8425: 8412: 8393:Stereophallodon 8349:Ophiacodontidae 8332: 8315: 8289: 8205: 8181: 8118: 8063: 7983: 7966: 7827: 7772: 7747: 7734: 7705: 7685: 7658: 7652:Tetrapodomorpha 7637:Tetrapodomorpha 7627: 7595: 7594: 7584: 7579: 7549: 7544: 7501: 7467: 7451: 7422: 7418: 7411: 7386: 7382: 7371: 7370: 7358: 7289: 7211:Labidosauriscus 7140: 7120:Petrolacosaurus 7066: 7012:Anthracodromeus 6988: 6912: 6874: 6861: 6830: 6723:Seymouriamorpha 6710: 6647:Chroniosuchidae 6641: 6572: 6540: 6534:Gephyrostegidae 6490:Solenodonsaurus 6421: 6400: 6385: 6365: 6359:Tetrapodomorpha 6344:Tetrapodomorpha 6334: 6290: 6289: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6270:Reptiliomorpha 6267: 6219: 6209: 6187: 6184: 6182:Further reading 6179: 6138:(6): e0156810. 6125: 6124: 6117: 6085: 6084: 6080: 6073: 6056: 6055: 6051: 6041: 6039: 6030: 6029: 6025: 5985: 5984: 5980: 5950: 5949: 5945: 5893: 5892: 5888: 5851:(12): 1027–34. 5841: 5840: 5836: 5826: 5824: 5812: 5811: 5807: 5797: 5795: 5786: 5785: 5781: 5767: 5766: 5762: 5722: 5721: 5717: 5681: 5680: 5676: 5629: 5628: 5624: 5615: 5613: 5605: 5604: 5600: 5591: 5589: 5581: 5580: 5576: 5530: 5529: 5522: 5478: 5477: 5470: 5424: 5423: 5414: 5372: 5371: 5367: 5342: 5341: 5337: 5327: 5325: 5319: 5318: 5314: 5286: 5285: 5274: 5228: 5227: 5223: 5208: 5206: 5163: 5162: 5158: 5112: 5111: 5107: 5100: 5083: 5082: 5078: 5045: 5044: 5040: 5010: 5009: 5005: 4975: 4974: 4970: 4944: 4943: 4939: 4903: 4902: 4898: 4864: 4863: 4859: 4825: 4824: 4820: 4784: 4783: 4779: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4703: 4702: 4695: 4688: 4675: 4674: 4670: 4655:10.2307/4448410 4640: 4639: 4635: 4622: 4618: 4601: 4597: 4571: 4567: 4531: 4530: 4526: 4490: 4489: 4485: 4476: 4474: 4465: 4464: 4460: 4414: 4413: 4406: 4397: 4395: 4387:Naish, Darren. 4386: 4385: 4381: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4358: 4356: 4348: 4347: 4343: 4336: 4328:. p. 122. 4314: 4313: 4306: 4280: 4279: 4275: 4268: 4250: 4249: 4240: 4227: 4226: 4219: 4205: 4204: 4200: 4168: 4167: 4163: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4035: 4034: 4030: 4012: 4011: 4007: 3985: 3984: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3967: 3944:, 'arch') > 3905: 3901: 3896: 3849: 3832: 3823: 3814: 3805: 3796: 3787: 3778: 3769: 3760: 3751: 3742: 3733: 3724: 3715: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3409: 3400: 3391: 3242: 3233: 3224: 3215: 3206: 3197: 3188: 3179: 3170: 2944: 2932:Oedaleops campi 2874: 2865: 2856: 2847: 2838: 2829: 2820: 2746: 2737: 2708:Watongia meieri 2656: 2647: 2496: 2487: 2478: 2386:Ophiacodontidae 2359: 2252:Ophiacodontidae 2238: 2229: 2220: 2211: 2202: 2193: 2184: 2175: 2166: 2157: 2148: 2139: 2130: 2099:Probainognathia 1837:Ophiacodontidae 1746: 1676:Tritylodontidae 1672:Middle Jurassic 1538:Kannemeyeriidae 1530:therocephalians 1450:Earth's history 1312: 1306: 1287: 1250:Volaticotherium 1242:volaticotherian 1203: 1145: 1077:Estemmenosuchus 973: 935: 871: 850:labyrinthodonts 821: 785: 780: 778:Characteristics 757: 729: 635: 601:Probainognathia 587:(consisting of 414: 366:Ophiacodontidae 272: 186: 176:Panthera tigris 117: 115: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 52:, 318–0 Ma 44: 43: 40: 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9313: 9311: 9303: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9277: 9276: 9270: 9269: 9267: 9266: 9253: 9240: 9227: 9212: 9196: 9194: 9188: 9187: 9182: 9173: 9172: 9170: 9169: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9142: 9139: 9138: 9135: 9134: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9121: 9118: 9117: 9115: 9114: 9104: 9094: 9083: 9081: 9078:Incertae sedis 9073: 9072: 9069: 9068: 9066: 9065: 9064: 9063: 9057: 9048: 9046: 9040: 9039: 9037: 9036: 9035: 9034: 9025: 9023: 9011: 9009:Eutheriodontia 9005: 9004: 9002: 9001: 9000: 8999: 8990: 8988: 8979: 8978: 8976: 8975: 8974: 8973: 8967: 8958: 8956: 8947: 8946: 8944: 8943: 8942: 8941: 8932: 8930: 8921: 8920: 8918: 8917: 8916: 8915: 8906: 8904: 8895: 8894: 8892: 8891: 8880: 8874: 8869: 8862: 8861: 8856: 8849: 8848: 8845: 8844: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8819: 8816: 8815: 8812: 8811: 8808: 8807: 8805: 8804: 8803: 8802: 8796: 8794: 8788: 8787: 8785: 8784: 8776: 8768: 8760: 8753: 8746: 8739: 8732: 8725: 8718: 8710: 8707:Ctenospondylus 8703: 8696: 8688: 8686: 8677: 8676: 8674: 8673: 8662: 8656: 8650: 8649: 8647: 8646: 8639: 8636:Palaeohatteria 8631: 8629: 8620: 8619: 8617: 8616: 8606: 8596: 8586: 8576: 8565: 8559: 8556:Sphenacodontia 8554: 8551: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8544: 8543: 8536: 8529: 8522: 8519:Melanedaphodon 8515: 8508: 8501: 8494: 8487: 8480: 8477:Bohemiclavulus 8472: 8470: 8468:Edaphosauridae 8461: 8460: 8458: 8457: 8447: 8436: 8426: 8421: 8418: 8417: 8414: 8413: 8411: 8410: 8403: 8396: 8389: 8382: 8375: 8368: 8361: 8353: 8351: 8334: 8333: 8328: 8321: 8320: 8317: 8316: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8298: 8295: 8294: 8291: 8290: 8288: 8287: 8276: 8266: 8256: 8246: 8236: 8225: 8223: 8220:Incertae sedis 8211: 8210: 8207: 8206: 8204: 8203: 8202: 8201: 8195: 8193: 8187: 8186: 8183: 8182: 8180: 8179: 8172: 8165: 8158: 8151: 8144: 8136: 8128: 8126: 8124:Varanodontinae 8120: 8119: 8117: 8116: 8109: 8102: 8095: 8088: 8081: 8073: 8071: 8069:Mesenosaurinae 8065: 8064: 8062: 8061: 8058:Thrausmosaurus 8054: 8047: 8039: 8032: 8025: 8018: 8015:Archaeovenator 8011: 8003: 7997: 7984: 7981:Eupelycosauria 7979: 7976: 7975: 7972: 7971: 7968: 7967: 7965: 7964: 7957: 7950: 7943: 7936: 7929: 7922: 7915: 7908: 7901: 7894: 7891:Cotylorhynchus 7887: 7880: 7873: 7866: 7859: 7852: 7845: 7837: 7835: 7829: 7828: 7826: 7825: 7818: 7811: 7804: 7795: 7793: 7784: 7774: 7773: 7771: 7770: 7766:Diadectomorpha 7758: 7748: 7743: 7736: 7735: 7730: 7723: 7722: 7719: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7711: 7710: 7707: 7706: 7704: 7703: 7702: 7701: 7695: 7693: 7687: 7686: 7684: 7683: 7682: 7681: 7679:Reptiliomorpha 7672: 7666: 7664:Reptiliomorpha 7660: 7659: 7657: 7656: 7655: 7654: 7645: 7639: 7629: 7628: 7624: 7623: 7614: 7608: 7602: 7593: 7586: 7585: 7580: 7578: 7577: 7570: 7563: 7555: 7546: 7545: 7543: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7530:Batrachosauria 7527: 7525:Anthracosauria 7522: 7517: 7510: 7507: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7453: 7452: 7450: 7449: 7448: 7447: 7437: 7428: 7426: 7413: 7412: 7410: 7409: 7408: 7407: 7401: 7392: 7390: 7374: 7364: 7363: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7356: 7349: 7342: 7335: 7328: 7325:Labidosaurikos 7321: 7314: 7307: 7299: 7297: 7295:Moradisaurinae 7291: 7290: 7288: 7287: 7280: 7273: 7265: 7258: 7251: 7244: 7236: 7229: 7221: 7214: 7207: 7200: 7197:Gecatogomphius 7193: 7186: 7179: 7176:Captorhinoides 7172: 7165: 7157: 7151: 7142: 7141: 7139: 7138: 7131: 7123: 7116: 7109: 7106:Halgaitosaurus 7102: 7094: 7087: 7079: 7077: 7068: 7067: 7065: 7064: 7061:Thuringothyris 7057: 7050: 7043: 7036: 7029: 7022: 7015: 7007: 7005: 6994: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6987: 6986: 6979: 6972: 6965: 6958: 6951: 6944: 6937: 6930: 6922: 6920: 6914: 6913: 6911: 6910: 6903: 6894: 6888: 6885:Diadectomorpha 6875: 6870: 6867: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6860: 6859: 6858: 6857: 6851: 6842: 6840: 6832: 6831: 6829: 6828: 6821: 6814: 6807: 6800: 6793: 6786: 6779: 6772: 6765: 6758: 6750: 6747:Discosauriscus 6743: 6736: 6733:Ariekanerpeton 6728: 6726: 6716: 6715: 6712: 6711: 6709: 6708: 6701: 6694: 6687: 6684:Madygenerpeton 6680: 6673: 6666: 6659: 6651: 6649: 6643: 6642: 6640: 6639: 6632: 6625: 6618: 6615:Hassiacoscutum 6611: 6604: 6597: 6590: 6582: 6580: 6578:Bystrowianidae 6574: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6562: 6556: 6542: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6527: 6516: 6505: 6494: 6483: 6472: 6462: 6451: 6440: 6428: 6422: 6419:Reptiliomorpha 6417: 6410: 6409: 6406: 6405: 6402: 6401: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6383: 6382: 6381: 6375: 6373: 6371:Reptiliomorpha 6367: 6366: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6361: 6352: 6346: 6336: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6321: 6312: 6303: 6297: 6288: 6281: 6280: 6268: 6266: 6265: 6258: 6251: 6243: 6237: 6236: 6226: 6218: 6217:External links 6215: 6214: 6213: 6207: 6189:Colbert, E. H. 6183: 6180: 6178: 6177: 6115: 6096:(4): 601–624. 6078: 6071: 6049: 6023: 5978: 5943: 5886: 5834: 5805: 5779: 5760: 5731:(4): 829–843. 5715: 5674: 5622: 5598: 5574: 5539:(3): 253–266. 5520: 5491:(3): 355–368. 5468: 5433:(3): 225–252. 5412: 5385:(1–2): 40–53. 5365: 5354:(4): 455–477. 5335: 5312: 5299:(4): 585–596. 5272: 5221: 5156: 5105: 5098: 5076: 5057:(2): 315–364. 5038: 5019:(3): 393–432. 5003: 4984:(3): 150–155. 4968: 4957:(3): 522–527. 4937: 4896: 4857: 4818: 4797:(2): 197–239. 4777: 4748:(4): 441–464. 4728: 4693: 4686: 4668: 4633: 4623:Salentijn, L. 4616: 4595: 4565: 4544:(5): 815–821. 4524: 4503:(2): 257–271. 4483: 4458: 4404: 4379: 4365: 4341: 4334: 4304: 4273: 4266: 4238: 4217: 4198: 4161: 4094: 4061: 4028: 4005: 3994:(3): 465–504. 3974: 3972: 3969: 3966: 3965: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3848: 3845: 3841:Edaphosauridae 3829: 3828: 3825: 3824: 3820: 3819: 3816: 3815: 3811: 3810: 3807: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3792: 3789: 3788: 3784: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3775: 3774: 3771: 3770: 3766: 3765: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3756: 3753: 3752: 3748: 3747: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3738: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3729: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3720: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3697: 3694: 3693: 3690: 3689: 3679: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3668: 3665: 3664: 3655: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3644: 3641: 3640: 3631: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3620: 3617: 3616: 3607: 3602: 3600: 3594: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3584: 3581: 3580: 3576: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3567: 3566: 3563: 3562: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3546: 3545: 3536: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3525: 3522: 3521: 3512: 3507: 3505: 3502: 3501: 3498: 3497: 3488: 3483: 3481: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3465: 3462: 3461: 3452: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3428: 3423: 3421: 3419:Sphenacodontia 3415: 3414: 3411: 3410: 3406: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3396: 3393: 3392: 3388: 3387: 3384: 3383: 3374: 3371: 3370: 3367: 3366: 3357: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3346: 3343: 3342: 3333: 3330: 3329: 3326: 3325: 3316: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3305: 3302: 3301: 3292: 3287: 3285: 3283:Edaphosauridae 3277: 3275: 3272: 3271: 3268: 3267: 3258: 3253: 3251: 3248: 3247: 3244: 3243: 3239: 3238: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3229: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3220: 3217: 3216: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3202: 3199: 3198: 3194: 3193: 3190: 3189: 3185: 3184: 3181: 3180: 3176: 3175: 3172: 3171: 3167: 3166: 3163: 3162: 3153: 3150: 3149: 3146: 3145: 3136: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3125: 3122: 3121: 3112: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3101: 3098: 3097: 3088: 3083: 3081: 3078: 3077: 3074: 3073: 3064: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3053: 3050: 3049: 3045:"Casea" rutena 3035: 3030: 3028: 3025: 3024: 3021: 3020: 3011: 3006: 3004: 3001: 3000: 2997: 2996: 2987: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2976: 2973: 2972: 2963: 2958: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2946: 2945: 2941: 2940: 2937: 2936: 2927: 2924: 2923: 2920: 2919: 2910: 2905: 2903: 2895: 2893: 2885: 2883: 2880: 2879: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2870: 2867: 2866: 2862: 2861: 2858: 2857: 2853: 2852: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2843: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2834: 2831: 2830: 2826: 2825: 2822: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2813: 2812: 2803: 2800: 2799: 2796: 2795: 2786: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2775: 2772: 2771: 2762: 2757: 2755: 2752: 2751: 2748: 2747: 2743: 2742: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2733: 2730: 2729: 2720: 2717: 2716: 2713: 2712: 2703: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2689: 2688: 2679: 2674: 2672: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2652: 2649: 2648: 2644: 2643: 2640: 2639: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2606: 2605: 2594: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2583: 2580: 2579: 2570: 2565: 2563: 2558: 2556: 2553: 2552: 2549: 2548: 2539: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2528: 2525: 2524: 2515: 2510: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2492: 2489: 2488: 2484: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2475: 2474: 2471: 2470: 2461: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2453: 2443: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2432: 2429: 2428: 2419: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2395: 2390: 2388: 2380: 2378: 2373: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2355: 2352: 2351: 2342: 2339: 2338: 2335: 2334: 2324: 2319: 2317: 2312: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2300: 2299: 2290: 2287: 2286: 2283: 2282: 2278:Tseajaia campi 2273: 2268: 2266: 2261: 2235: 2234: 2231: 2230: 2226: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2216: 2213: 2212: 2208: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2198: 2195: 2194: 2190: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2181: 2180: 2177: 2176: 2172: 2171: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2154: 2153: 2150: 2149: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2132: 2131: 2127: 2126: 2123: 2122: 2108: 2103: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2091: 2090: 2077: 2072: 2070: 2064: 2063: 2060: 2059: 2046: 2041: 2039: 2037:Eutheriodontia 2033: 2032: 2029: 2028: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1984: 1979: 1977: 1971: 1970: 1967: 1966: 1953: 1948: 1946: 1940: 1939: 1936: 1935: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1891: 1886: 1884: 1882:Sphenacodontia 1878: 1877: 1874: 1873: 1865:Edaphosauridae 1860: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1845: 1832: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1821: 1818: 1817: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1795:Eupelycosauria 1791: 1790: 1787: 1786: 1773: 1768: 1766: 1758: 1745: 1742: 1712:) and flying ( 1646:Early Jurassic 1575:Trucidocynodon 1454:Siberian Traps 1422:Middle Permian 1414:Middle Permian 1336:(background), 1333:Cotylorhynchus 1308:Main article: 1305: 1302: 1286: 1283: 1260:Argentoconodon 1245:eutriconodonts 1212:Arboroharamiya 1202: 1199: 1191:epipubic bones 1144: 1143:Mammary glands 1141: 1072:mammary glands 972: 969: 934: 931: 918:glenoid cavity 875:classification 870: 867: 820: 817: 784: 781: 779: 776: 772:Mammaliaformes 756: 753: 728: 725: 715:Additionally, 679:(or sometimes 634: 631: 605:Mammaliaformes 428: 427: 409: 408: 402: 401: 400: 399: 398: 397: 396: 395: 393:Sphenacodontia 390: 388:Edaphosauridae 377: 368: 358:Eupelycosauria 355: 354: 353: 342: 334: 318: 315:Diadectomorpha 309: 298: 285: 284: 280: 279: 267: 260: 259: 254: 247: 246: 244:Reptiliomorpha 241: 234: 233: 228: 224: 223: 218: 214: 213: 208: 204: 203: 198: 194: 193: 180: 179: 134:Cotylorhynchus 128: 127: 119: 118: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 54: 41: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9312: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9282: 9280: 9263: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9245: 9241: 9237: 9232: 9228: 9223: 9217: 9213: 9208: 9202: 9198: 9197: 9195: 9193: 9189: 9185: 9180: 9168: 9160: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9152:Phthinosuchia 9150: 9148: 9144: 9143: 9140: 9131: 9113: 9112: 9105: 9103: 9102: 9095: 9093: 9092: 9085: 9084: 9082: 9080: 9079: 9074: 9062: 9058: 9056: 9052: 9051: 9050: 9049: 9047: 9045: 9041: 9033: 9032:Therocephalia 9029: 9028: 9027: 9026: 9024: 9022: 9021:Therocephalia 9015: 9012: 9010: 9006: 8998: 8994: 8993: 8992: 8991: 8989: 8987: 8980: 8972: 8968: 8966: 8962: 8961: 8960: 8959: 8957: 8955: 8948: 8940: 8936: 8935: 8934: 8933: 8931: 8929: 8922: 8914: 8910: 8909: 8908: 8907: 8905: 8903: 8896: 8890: 8889: 8882: 8881: 8878: 8875: 8872: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8854: 8850: 8841: 8837: 8835: 8829: 8800: 8799: 8798: 8797: 8795: 8793: 8789: 8782: 8781: 8780:Tetraceratops 8777: 8774: 8773: 8772:Tappenosaurus 8769: 8766: 8765: 8761: 8759: 8758: 8754: 8752: 8751: 8747: 8745: 8744: 8740: 8738: 8737: 8733: 8731: 8730: 8726: 8724: 8723: 8719: 8716: 8715: 8711: 8709: 8708: 8704: 8702: 8701: 8697: 8695: 8694: 8693:Cryptovenator 8690: 8689: 8687: 8685: 8678: 8672: 8671: 8664: 8663: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8651: 8645: 8644: 8643:Pantelosaurus 8640: 8638: 8637: 8633: 8632: 8630: 8628: 8621: 8615: 8614: 8613:Tetraceratops 8607: 8605: 8604: 8603:Kenomagnathus 8597: 8595: 8594: 8587: 8585: 8584: 8577: 8575: 8574: 8567: 8566: 8563: 8560: 8557: 8552: 8542: 8541: 8540:Xyrospondylus 8537: 8535: 8534: 8530: 8528: 8527: 8523: 8521: 8520: 8516: 8514: 8513: 8509: 8507: 8506: 8502: 8500: 8499: 8495: 8493: 8492: 8488: 8486: 8485: 8481: 8479: 8478: 8474: 8473: 8471: 8469: 8462: 8456: 8455: 8448: 8446: 8445: 8438: 8437: 8434: 8430: 8427: 8424: 8419: 8409: 8408: 8404: 8402: 8401: 8400:Stereorhachis 8397: 8395: 8394: 8390: 8388: 8387: 8383: 8381: 8380: 8376: 8374: 8373: 8369: 8367: 8366: 8362: 8360: 8359: 8358:Archaeothyris 8355: 8354: 8352: 8350: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8326: 8322: 8313: 8308: 8285: 8284: 8277: 8275: 8274: 8267: 8265: 8264: 8257: 8255: 8254: 8247: 8245: 8244: 8237: 8235: 8234: 8227: 8226: 8224: 8222: 8221: 8216: 8212: 8199: 8198: 8197: 8196: 8194: 8192: 8188: 8178: 8177: 8173: 8171: 8170: 8166: 8164: 8163: 8159: 8157: 8156: 8155:Tambacarnifex 8152: 8150: 8149: 8145: 8142: 8141: 8140:Mycterosaurus 8137: 8135: 8134: 8130: 8129: 8127: 8125: 8121: 8115: 8114: 8113:Microvaranops 8110: 8108: 8107: 8103: 8101: 8100: 8096: 8094: 8093: 8092:Elliotsmithia 8089: 8087: 8086: 8082: 8080: 8079: 8075: 8074: 8072: 8070: 8066: 8060: 8059: 8055: 8053: 8052: 8048: 8045: 8044: 8040: 8038: 8037: 8033: 8031: 8030: 8026: 8024: 8023: 8019: 8017: 8016: 8012: 8010: 8009: 8005: 8004: 8001: 7998: 7995: 7988: 7985: 7982: 7977: 7963: 7962: 7958: 7956: 7955: 7954:Ruthenosaurus 7951: 7949: 7948: 7947:Phreatophasma 7944: 7942: 7941: 7937: 7935: 7934: 7930: 7928: 7927: 7923: 7921: 7920: 7916: 7914: 7913: 7909: 7907: 7906: 7902: 7900: 7899: 7895: 7893: 7892: 7888: 7886: 7885: 7881: 7879: 7878: 7874: 7872: 7871: 7867: 7865: 7864: 7863:Callibrachion 7860: 7858: 7857: 7853: 7851: 7850: 7846: 7844: 7843: 7839: 7838: 7836: 7834: 7830: 7824: 7823: 7819: 7817: 7816: 7812: 7810: 7809: 7805: 7802: 7801: 7797: 7796: 7794: 7792: 7788: 7785: 7782: 7775: 7768: 7767: 7760: 7759: 7756: 7752: 7749: 7746: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7728: 7724: 7699: 7698: 7697: 7696: 7694: 7692: 7688: 7680: 7676: 7675: 7674: 7673: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7661: 7653: 7649: 7648: 7647: 7646: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7622: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7609: 7607: 7603: 7601: 7597: 7596: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7576: 7571: 7569: 7564: 7562: 7557: 7556: 7553: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7512: 7511: 7508: 7499: 7495: 7493: 7488: 7483: 7478: 7471: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7436: 7432: 7431: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7425: 7414: 7406: 7402: 7400: 7396: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7391: 7389: 7378: 7375: 7372:(crown group) 7369: 7365: 7355: 7354: 7350: 7348: 7347: 7343: 7341: 7340: 7336: 7334: 7333: 7329: 7327: 7326: 7322: 7320: 7319: 7315: 7313: 7312: 7311:Captorhinikos 7308: 7306: 7305: 7304:Balearosaurus 7301: 7300: 7298: 7296: 7292: 7286: 7285: 7281: 7279: 7278: 7274: 7271: 7270: 7266: 7264: 7263: 7262:Rhodotheratus 7259: 7257: 7256: 7252: 7250: 7249: 7245: 7242: 7241: 7237: 7235: 7234: 7230: 7227: 7226: 7222: 7220: 7219: 7215: 7213: 7212: 7208: 7206: 7205: 7201: 7199: 7198: 7194: 7192: 7191: 7187: 7185: 7184: 7180: 7178: 7177: 7173: 7171: 7170: 7166: 7164: 7163: 7159: 7158: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7149:Captorhinidae 7143: 7137: 7136: 7132: 7129: 7128: 7127:Spinoaequalis 7124: 7122: 7121: 7117: 7115: 7114: 7113:Kadaliosaurus 7110: 7108: 7107: 7103: 7100: 7099: 7095: 7093: 7092: 7088: 7086: 7085: 7081: 7080: 7078: 7076: 7075:Araeoscelidia 7069: 7063: 7062: 7058: 7056: 7055: 7054:Protorothyris 7051: 7049: 7048: 7044: 7042: 7041: 7037: 7035: 7034: 7030: 7028: 7027: 7026:Cephalerpeton 7023: 7021: 7020: 7016: 7014: 7013: 7009: 7008: 7006: 7003: 6995: 6985: 6984: 6980: 6978: 6977: 6976:Phanerosaurus 6973: 6971: 6970: 6966: 6964: 6963: 6959: 6957: 6956: 6952: 6950: 6949: 6945: 6943: 6942: 6938: 6936: 6935: 6931: 6929: 6928: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6919: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6904: 6901: 6900: 6896: 6895: 6892: 6889: 6886: 6879: 6876: 6873: 6868: 6856: 6852: 6850: 6846: 6845: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6833: 6827: 6826: 6822: 6820: 6819: 6815: 6813: 6812: 6811:Spinarerpeton 6808: 6806: 6805: 6801: 6799: 6798: 6794: 6792: 6791: 6787: 6785: 6784: 6780: 6778: 6777: 6773: 6771: 6770: 6766: 6764: 6763: 6759: 6756: 6755: 6751: 6749: 6748: 6744: 6742: 6741: 6737: 6735: 6734: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6717: 6707: 6706: 6702: 6700: 6699: 6695: 6693: 6692: 6691:Phratochronis 6688: 6686: 6685: 6681: 6679: 6678: 6674: 6672: 6671: 6667: 6665: 6664: 6663:Chroniosuchus 6660: 6658: 6657: 6656:Chroniosaurus 6653: 6652: 6650: 6648: 6644: 6638: 6637: 6633: 6631: 6630: 6626: 6624: 6623: 6622:Jiyuanitectum 6619: 6617: 6616: 6612: 6610: 6609: 6605: 6603: 6602: 6598: 6596: 6595: 6591: 6589: 6588: 6584: 6583: 6581: 6579: 6575: 6569: 6568: 6564: 6563: 6560: 6557: 6554: 6553:Chroniosuchia 6547: 6543: 6536: 6535: 6528: 6525: 6524: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6501:Termonerpeton 6495: 6492: 6491: 6484: 6481: 6480: 6479:Silvanerpeton 6473: 6471: 6470: 6463: 6460: 6459: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6441: 6438: 6437: 6430: 6429: 6426: 6423: 6420: 6415: 6411: 6399: 6398: 6392: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6376: 6374: 6372: 6368: 6360: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6353: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6329: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6319:Sarcopterygii 6316: 6313: 6311: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6298: 6296: 6292: 6291: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6264: 6259: 6257: 6252: 6250: 6245: 6244: 6241: 6234: 6230: 6227: 6224: 6221: 6220: 6216: 6210: 6208:0-471-16466-6 6204: 6200: 6196: 6195: 6190: 6186: 6185: 6181: 6173: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6122: 6120: 6116: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6090: 6082: 6079: 6074: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6053: 6050: 6038: 6034: 6027: 6024: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5990: 5982: 5979: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5947: 5944: 5939: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5890: 5887: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5838: 5835: 5822: 5821: 5816: 5809: 5806: 5793: 5789: 5783: 5780: 5775: 5771: 5764: 5761: 5756: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5719: 5716: 5710: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5694:(7131): 102. 5693: 5689: 5685: 5678: 5675: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5626: 5623: 5612: 5608: 5602: 5599: 5588: 5584: 5578: 5575: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5527: 5525: 5521: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5475: 5473: 5469: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5421: 5419: 5417: 5413: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5369: 5366: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5348: 5339: 5336: 5323: 5316: 5313: 5307: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5225: 5222: 5217: 5216: 5211: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5160: 5157: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5121: 5116: 5109: 5106: 5101: 5099:0-07-112235-4 5095: 5090: 5089: 5080: 5077: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5051: 5042: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5007: 5004: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4972: 4969: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4941: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4900: 4897: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4861: 4858: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4822: 4819: 4814: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4781: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4729: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4689: 4687:0-471-29505-1 4683: 4679: 4672: 4669: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4637: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4599: 4596: 4592: 4591:0-632-05637-1 4588: 4584: 4580: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4566: 4561: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4528: 4525: 4520: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4487: 4484: 4473:on 2019-03-28 4472: 4468: 4462: 4459: 4454: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4411: 4409: 4405: 4394: 4390: 4383: 4380: 4375: 4369: 4366: 4355: 4351: 4345: 4342: 4337: 4335:0-632-05637-1 4331: 4327: 4323: 4322: 4317: 4311: 4309: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4277: 4274: 4269: 4267:0-7167-1822-7 4263: 4259: 4258: 4253: 4247: 4245: 4243: 4239: 4234: 4230: 4224: 4222: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4199: 4193: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4174: 4165: 4162: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4098: 4095: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4062: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4042:Palaeontology 4039: 4032: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4009: 4006: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3982: 3980: 3976: 3970: 3962: 3961: 3955: 3942: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3908: 3903: 3900: 3893: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3850: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3838: 3827: 3826: 3818: 3817: 3809: 3808: 3800: 3799: 3791: 3790: 3782: 3781: 3773: 3772: 3764: 3763: 3755: 3754: 3746: 3745: 3737: 3736: 3728: 3727: 3719: 3718: 3710: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3703: 3696: 3695: 3692: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3685: 3678: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3667: 3666: 3663: 3662: 3661: 3654: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3639: 3638: 3637: 3630: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3619: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3613: 3606: 3605: 3599: 3596: 3595: 3592: 3591: 3583: 3582: 3574: 3573: 3565: 3564: 3561: 3560: 3559: 3552: 3551: 3548: 3547: 3544: 3543: 3542: 3535: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3524: 3523: 3520: 3519: 3518: 3511: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3500: 3499: 3496: 3495: 3494: 3487: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3460: 3459: 3458: 3451: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3440: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3434: 3427: 3426: 3420: 3417: 3416: 3413: 3412: 3404: 3403: 3395: 3394: 3386: 3385: 3382: 3381: 3380: 3373: 3372: 3369: 3368: 3365: 3364: 3363: 3356: 3355: 3349: 3348: 3345: 3344: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3332: 3331: 3328: 3327: 3324: 3323: 3322: 3315: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3304: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3298: 3291: 3290: 3284: 3281: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3270: 3269: 3266: 3265: 3264: 3257: 3256: 3250: 3249: 3246: 3245: 3237: 3236: 3228: 3227: 3219: 3218: 3210: 3209: 3201: 3200: 3192: 3191: 3183: 3182: 3174: 3173: 3165: 3164: 3161: 3160: 3159: 3152: 3151: 3148: 3147: 3144: 3143: 3142: 3135: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3124: 3123: 3120: 3119: 3118: 3111: 3110: 3104: 3103: 3100: 3099: 3096: 3095: 3094: 3087: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3076: 3075: 3072: 3071: 3070: 3063: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3052: 3051: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3041: 3034: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3023: 3022: 3019: 3018: 3017: 3010: 3009: 3003: 3002: 2999: 2998: 2995: 2994: 2993: 2992:Casea broilii 2986: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2975: 2974: 2971: 2970: 2969: 2962: 2961: 2955: 2952: 2951: 2948: 2947: 2939: 2938: 2935: 2934: 2933: 2926: 2925: 2922: 2921: 2918: 2917: 2916: 2909: 2908: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2882: 2881: 2878: 2877: 2869: 2868: 2860: 2859: 2851: 2850: 2842: 2841: 2833: 2832: 2824: 2823: 2815: 2814: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2802: 2801: 2798: 2797: 2794: 2793: 2792: 2785: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2774: 2773: 2770: 2769: 2768: 2761: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2750: 2749: 2741: 2740: 2732: 2731: 2728: 2727: 2726: 2719: 2718: 2715: 2714: 2711: 2710: 2709: 2702: 2701: 2695: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2687: 2686: 2685: 2678: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2664: 2663: 2660: 2659: 2651: 2650: 2642: 2641: 2638: 2637: 2636: 2629: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2621: 2620: 2619: 2612: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2601: 2593: 2592: 2586: 2585: 2582: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2576: 2569: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2551: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2545: 2538: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2527: 2526: 2523: 2522: 2521: 2514: 2513: 2507: 2504: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2491: 2490: 2482: 2481: 2473: 2472: 2469: 2468: 2467: 2460: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2449: 2442: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2431: 2430: 2427: 2426: 2425: 2418: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2407: 2406: 2403: 2402: 2401: 2394: 2393: 2387: 2384: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2363: 2362: 2354: 2353: 2350: 2349: 2348: 2341: 2340: 2337: 2336: 2333: 2331: 2330: 2323: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2302: 2301: 2298: 2297: 2296: 2289: 2288: 2285: 2284: 2281: 2280: 2279: 2272: 2271: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2233: 2232: 2224: 2223: 2215: 2214: 2206: 2205: 2197: 2196: 2188: 2187: 2179: 2178: 2170: 2169: 2161: 2160: 2152: 2151: 2143: 2142: 2134: 2133: 2125: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2114: 2107: 2106: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2075: 2069: 2066: 2065: 2062: 2061: 2058: 2056: 2052: 2051:Therocephalia 2045: 2044: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2031: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2021: 2014: 2013: 2007: 2004: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1983: 1982: 1976: 1975:Neotherapsida 1973: 1972: 1969: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1959: 1952: 1951: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1938: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1921: 1920: 1914: 1911: 1910: 1907: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1879: 1876: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1859: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1848: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1831: 1830: 1824: 1823: 1820: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1803: 1802: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1772: 1771: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1757: 1755: 1751: 1744:Relationships 1743: 1741: 1739: 1735: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1696:diprotodontid 1693: 1689: 1685: 1684:ghost lineage 1681: 1677: 1674:. The other, 1673: 1669: 1666:. The family 1665: 1661: 1657: 1656: 1647: 1643: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1631: 1630: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1605: 1601: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1589: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1576: 1567: 1563: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1536:(such as the 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1523: 1522:Erythrosuchus 1518: 1517: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1492: 1484: 1480: 1479: 1474: 1467: 1466: 1461: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1415: 1411: 1410: 1405: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1386:Early Permian 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1370: 1365: 1364: 1358: 1351: 1350:Early Permian 1347: 1346: 1341: 1340: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1322: 1321: 1320:Archaeothyris 1316: 1311: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1292: 1284: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1262: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1251: 1246: 1243: 1238: 1236: 1232: 1231: 1226: 1225: 1220: 1219: 1214: 1213: 1208: 1200: 1198: 1196: 1195:mammaliaforms 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1163: 1157: 1155: 1151: 1142: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1096: 1091: 1088:(late middle 1087: 1083: 1079: 1078: 1073: 1069: 1064: 1062: 1058: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1018: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 982: 977: 970: 968: 966: 965: 960: 959:eutheriodonts 956: 955:palatine bone 950: 948: 944: 940: 932: 930: 927: 926:quadrate bone 923: 919: 916:known as the 915: 911: 906: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 868: 866: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 831: 830: 825: 818: 816: 814: 813:sphenoid bone 810: 806: 802: 794: 789: 782: 777: 775: 773: 769: 764: 762: 754: 752: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 726: 724: 722: 718: 713: 711: 707: 703: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 646: 644: 640: 632: 630: 628: 624: 620: 617: 613: 608: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 589:Therocephalia 586: 585:eutheriodonts 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 557: 555: 551: 547: 546:proto-mammals 543: 539: 535: 530: 526: 522: 521: 515: 514: 509: 505: 500: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 434: 426: 424: 418: 410: 407: 403: 394: 391: 389: 383: 382: 381: 378: 375: 369: 367: 361: 360: 359: 356: 351: 350: 349:Phreatophasma 343: 341: 335: 333: 327: 326: 325: 319: 316: 310: 307: 306: 299: 297: 296: 289: 288: 286: 281: 276: 271: 268: 265: 262: 261: 258: 255: 252: 249: 248: 245: 242: 239: 236: 235: 232: 229: 226: 225: 222: 219: 216: 215: 212: 209: 206: 205: 202: 199: 196: 195: 190: 185: 181: 178: 177: 172: 171: 166: 165: 164:Adelobasileus 160: 159: 154: 153: 148: 147: 146:Inostrancevia 142: 141: 136: 135: 129: 125: 120: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 51: 47: 46:Pennsylvanian 37: 34: 30: 26: 22: 9191: 9157:Theriodontia 9147:Pelycosauria 9111:Niaftasuchus 9109: 9099: 9089: 9076: 8939:Dinocephalia 8928:Dinocephalia 8913:Biarmosuchia 8902:Biarmosuchia 8886: 8831: 8778: 8770: 8764:Steppesaurus 8762: 8755: 8748: 8741: 8734: 8727: 8720: 8712: 8705: 8700:Ctenorhachis 8698: 8691: 8668: 8641: 8634: 8611: 8601: 8591: 8581: 8571: 8538: 8531: 8524: 8517: 8510: 8505:Ianthasaurus 8503: 8496: 8491:Glaucosaurus 8489: 8484:Edaphosaurus 8482: 8475: 8452: 8442: 8407:Varanosaurus 8405: 8398: 8391: 8384: 8379:Echinerpeton 8377: 8370: 8363: 8356: 8281: 8271: 8261: 8251: 8241: 8231: 8218: 8174: 8167: 8160: 8153: 8146: 8138: 8131: 8111: 8106:Mesenosaurus 8104: 8097: 8090: 8083: 8076: 8056: 8049: 8041: 8034: 8027: 8022:Ascendonanus 8020: 8013: 8006: 7961:Trichasaurus 7959: 7952: 7945: 7938: 7931: 7924: 7917: 7910: 7905:Ennatosaurus 7903: 7898:Datheosaurus 7896: 7889: 7882: 7875: 7868: 7861: 7856:Arisierpeton 7854: 7849:Angelosaurus 7847: 7842:Alierasaurus 7840: 7820: 7813: 7806: 7798: 7791:Eothyrididae 7764: 7744: 7731: 7690: 7616: 7610:Superclass: 7581: 7535:Cotylosauria 7520:Lepospondyli 7474: 7421:Pan‑Reptilia 7385:Pan‑Mammalia 7380: 7351: 7346:Sumidadectes 7344: 7339:Rothianiscus 7337: 7332:Moradisaurus 7330: 7323: 7316: 7309: 7302: 7282: 7275: 7267: 7260: 7253: 7248:Reiszorhinus 7246: 7240:Puercosaurus 7238: 7231: 7223: 7218:Labidosaurus 7216: 7209: 7202: 7195: 7188: 7181: 7174: 7169:Baeotherates 7167: 7160: 7133: 7125: 7118: 7111: 7104: 7096: 7089: 7084:Aphelosaurus 7082: 7059: 7052: 7045: 7038: 7031: 7024: 7017: 7010: 6981: 6974: 6967: 6960: 6955:Diasparactus 6953: 6946: 6939: 6932: 6927:Alveusdectes 6925: 6905: 6897: 6855:Lissamphibia 6823: 6816: 6809: 6802: 6795: 6788: 6781: 6774: 6767: 6760: 6752: 6745: 6738: 6731: 6703: 6696: 6689: 6682: 6675: 6668: 6661: 6654: 6636:Yumenerpeton 6634: 6627: 6620: 6613: 6606: 6601:Bystrowiella 6599: 6592: 6585: 6565: 6532: 6521: 6512:Westlothiana 6510: 6499: 6488: 6477: 6467: 6456: 6445: 6436:Caerorhachis 6434: 6395: 6323: 6314: 6310:Osteichthyes 6305: 6233:transitional 6225:- at Palaeos 6193: 6135: 6131: 6093: 6087: 6081: 6062: 6052: 6040:. Retrieved 6036: 6026: 5993: 5987: 5981: 5956: 5952: 5946: 5903: 5899: 5889: 5848: 5844: 5837: 5827:30 September 5825:. Retrieved 5818: 5808: 5796:. Retrieved 5791: 5782: 5773: 5769: 5763: 5728: 5724: 5718: 5691: 5687: 5677: 5636: 5632: 5625: 5614:. Retrieved 5610: 5601: 5590:. Retrieved 5586: 5577: 5536: 5532: 5488: 5484: 5430: 5426: 5382: 5378: 5368: 5351: 5345: 5338: 5326:. Retrieved 5315: 5296: 5292: 5234: 5230: 5224: 5213: 5169: 5165: 5159: 5124: 5118: 5108: 5087: 5079: 5054: 5048: 5041: 5016: 5012: 5006: 4981: 4977: 4971: 4954: 4950: 4940: 4913: 4909: 4899: 4877:(1): 50–56. 4874: 4870: 4860: 4838:(1): 57–65. 4835: 4831: 4821: 4794: 4790: 4780: 4745: 4741: 4731: 4706: 4705:ecosystem". 4677: 4671: 4649:(1): 16–26. 4646: 4642: 4636: 4624: 4619: 4603: 4598: 4576: 4568: 4541: 4537: 4527: 4500: 4496: 4486: 4475:. Retrieved 4471:the original 4461: 4424: 4420: 4396:. Retrieved 4392: 4382: 4368: 4357:. Retrieved 4353: 4344: 4320: 4290: 4286: 4276: 4256: 4232: 4201: 4182: 4178: 4172: 4164: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4078: 4074: 4064: 4045: 4041: 4031: 4022: 4018: 4008: 3991: 3987: 3959: 3958: 3902: 3833: 3700: 3699: 3682: 3681: 3658: 3657: 3634: 3633: 3610: 3609: 3556: 3555: 3539: 3538: 3515: 3514: 3491: 3490: 3476: 3455: 3454: 3431: 3430: 3377: 3376: 3360: 3359: 3336: 3335: 3319: 3318: 3295: 3294: 3261: 3260: 3156: 3155: 3139: 3138: 3115: 3114: 3091: 3090: 3067: 3066: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3014: 3013: 2990: 2989: 2966: 2965: 2930: 2929: 2913: 2912: 2901:Eothyrididae 2806: 2805: 2789: 2788: 2765: 2764: 2723: 2722: 2706: 2705: 2682: 2681: 2633: 2632: 2616: 2615: 2603:(BP/1/5678) 2598: 2596: 2573: 2572: 2542: 2541: 2518: 2517: 2464: 2463: 2446: 2445: 2422: 2421: 2398: 2397: 2368: 2345: 2344: 2327: 2326: 2293: 2292: 2276: 2275: 2239: 2111: 2110: 2079: 2048: 2017: 2006:Theriodontia 1986: 1958:Dinocephalia 1955: 1944:Eutherapsida 1927:Biarmosuchia 1924: 1893: 1862: 1834: 1806: 1775: 1763: 1747: 1730: 1703: 1653: 1651: 1639: 1627: 1609: 1597: 1584: 1573: 1571: 1559: 1549: 1527: 1520: 1514: 1500: 1496:Lystrosaurus 1494: 1488: 1478:Lystrosaurus 1476: 1463: 1435: 1429: 1426:Late Permian 1419: 1407: 1389: 1367: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1343: 1337: 1331: 1318: 1294: 1288: 1271:metatherians 1265: 1258: 1248: 1239: 1228: 1224:Maiopatagium 1222: 1216: 1210: 1204: 1175: 1158: 1146: 1134:Late Permian 1131: 1122:Morganucodon 1120: 1117:Castorocauda 1116: 1104:mammaliaform 1100:haramiyidans 1095:Castorocauda 1093: 1075: 1065: 1056:Ascendonanus 1054: 1015: 1013: 986: 971:Skin and fur 962: 951: 943:nasal cavity 936: 907: 872: 835: 827: 798: 765: 758: 730: 714: 706:monophyletic 693:tree of life 684: 680: 676: 673:paraphyletic 670: 647: 636: 609: 558: 553: 549: 545: 542:stem mammals 541: 537: 528: 525:paraphyletic 517: 511: 503: 501: 491:, leaving a 463:in the late 461:land animals 432: 431: 423:Pelycosauria 412: 347: 340:Eothyrididae 303: 293: 269: 263: 250: 237: 227:Superclass: 174: 168: 162: 158:Castorocauda 156: 150: 144: 138: 132: 33: 9216:Wikispecies 8997:Gorgonopsia 8986:Gorgonopsia 8971:dicynodonts 8965:Anomodontia 8954:Anomodontia 8757:Sphenacodon 8736:Macromerion 8526:Ramodendron 8512:Lupeosaurus 8372:Clepsydrops 8365:Baldwinonus 8330:Metopophora 8273:Mastersonia 8263:Knoxosaurus 8191:Metopophora 8099:Heleosaurus 7994:Varanopidae 7822:Vaughnictis 7800:Asaphestera 7781:Caseasauria 7417:Sauropsida 7318:Gansurhinus 7284:Saurorictus 7190:Euconcordia 7183:Captorhinus 7135:Zarcasaurus 7091:Araeoscelis 7047:Paleothyris 7033:Coelostegus 6918:Diadectidae 6899:Limnoscelis 6849:Microsauria 6837:Microsauria 6797:Nyctiboetus 6705:Uralerpeton 6670:Ingentidens 6608:Dromotectum 6594:Bystrowiana 6274:Pan‑Amniota 5959:: 184–203. 5798:October 29, 5746:11336/68497 5218:. Feb 2006. 4185:: 167–169. 4048:: 131–154. 3702:Sphenacodon 2891:Caseasauria 2506:Varanopidae 2329:Captorhinus 2247:Caseasauria 2243:Varanopidae 2082:Cynognathia 2020:Gorgonopsia 1989:Anomodontia 1809:Varanopidae 1778:Caseasauria 1748:Below is a 1738:mastication 1692:Pleistocene 1664:carnivorous 1660:herbivorous 1629:Repenomamus 1599:Repenomamus 1561:Cynognathus 1550:Cynognathus 1542:eucynodonts 1534:dicynodonts 1502:Cynognathus 1465:Nikkasaurus 1382:pelycosaurs 1376:age of the 1363:Asaphestera 1247:. A fossil 1230:Vilevolodon 1207:haramiyidan 1171:salamanders 1017:Asaphestera 964:Thrinaxodon 924:called the 737:pelycosaurs 708:groups, or 681:protomammal 677:stem mammal 654:pelycosaurs 619:dicynodonts 581:dicynodonts 569:pareiasaurs 554:pan-mammals 550:paramammals 518:pelycosaur- 513:pelycosaurs 413:Theropsida 374:Varanopidae 324:Caseasauria 295:Asaphestera 9279:Categories 9145:See also: 9101:Kamagorgon 9091:Dinosaurus 9055:Cynodontia 9044:Cynodontia 8871:Therapsida 8858:Therapsida 8801:see below↓ 8792:Therapsida 8722:Dimetrodon 8670:Shashajaia 8454:Milosaurus 8386:Ophiacodon 8233:Dimacrodon 8200:see below↓ 8148:Ruthiromia 8133:Aerosaurus 8043:Nitosaurus 8036:Dendromaia 8008:Apsisaurus 7933:Martensius 7919:Euromycter 7700:see below↓ 7540:Eureptilia 7513:See also: 7435:Sauropsida 7381:Synapsida 7269:Riabininus 7098:Dictybolos 6941:Desmatodon 6825:Waggoneria 6776:Leptoropha 6629:Synesuchus 6523:Embolomeri 6469:Romeriscus 6380:see below↓ 5616:2018-08-23 5592:2018-08-23 4477:2015-08-22 4427:. 521693. 4398:2022-02-27 4359:2020-02-20 4229:Romer, A.S 4081:: 669765. 3971:References 3960:theropsids 3954:synapsídes 3863:Euryapsida 3684:Dimetrodon 3478:Therapsida 2448:Ophiacodon 2068:Cynodontia 1913:Therapsida 1726:monotremes 1722:viviparous 1718:blue whale 1680:Queensland 1655:Tritylodon 1641:Tritylodon 1516:Euparkeria 1507:archosaurs 1446:extinction 1390:Dimetrodon 1374:Bashkirian 1339:Ophiacodon 1296:Ophiacodon 1291:endothermy 1285:Metabolism 1150:monotremes 1137:coprolites 1119:, such as 1108:Cynodontia 1043:crocodiles 1034:osteoderms 1030:osteoderms 1026:varanopids 1020:preserved 989:osteoderms 852:and early 733:therapsids 721:Sauropsida 685:paramammal 662:Sauropsida 612:archosaurs 593:Cynodontia 573:therapsids 485:skull roof 467:and early 449:Sauropsida 441:vertebrate 283:Subgroups 140:Dimetrodon 9285:Synapsids 9236:Synapsida 9222:Synapsida 9192:Synapsida 9059:includes 8969:includes 8888:Raranimus 8743:Neosaurus 8444:Ianthodon 8169:Varanodon 8029:Eoscansor 7940:Oromycter 7884:Caseopsis 7877:Caseoides 7815:Oedaleops 7745:Synapsida 7732:Synapsida 7691:Synapsida 7612:Tetrapoda 7598:Kingdom: 7582:Synapsida 7439:includes 7403:includes 7399:Synapsida 7162:Acrodenta 7040:Hylonomus 6948:Diadectes 6804:Seymouria 6790:Microphon 6783:Makowskia 6769:Kotlassia 6754:Enosuchus 6698:Suchonica 6677:Jarilinus 6587:Axitectum 6567:Laosuchus 6458:Eldeceeon 6447:Casineria 6328:Tetrapoda 6293:Kingdom: 5973:202908716 5553:1083-3021 5507:1751-732X 5447:1083-3021 5407:0031-0182 5267:205259206 5071:133846070 4998:129567176 4963:0022-3360 4932:0567-7920 4891:2397-334X 4852:2397-334X 4813:2056-2802 4723:2056-2802 4709:. 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