3198:
process could work in the production of any part of the cell. The 3D printing process works by combining about 80% ceramic particles with 20% binders and solvents, and then converting that slurry into an ink that can be fed into a 3D printer. Some of the solvent is very volatile, so the ceramic ink solidifies almost immediately. Not all of the solvent evaporates, so the ink maintains some flexibility before it is fired at high temperature to densify it. This flexibility allows the cells to be fired in a circular shape that would increase the surface area over which electrochemical reactions can occur, which increases the efficiency of the cell. Also, the 3D printing technique allows the cell layers to be printed on top of each other instead of having to go through separate manufacturing and stacking steps. The thickness is easy to control, and layers can be made in the exact size and shape that is needed, so waste is minimized.
286:, the fuel processing becomes increasingly complex and, consequently, more expensive. The gasification process, which transforms the raw material into a gaseous state suitable for fuel cells, can generate significant quantities of aromatic compounds. These compounds include smaller molecules like methane and toluene, as well as larger polyaromatic and short-chain hydrocarbon compounds. These substances can lead to carbon buildup in SOFCs. Moreover, the expenses associated with reforming and desulfurization are comparable in magnitude to the cost of the fuel cell itself. These factors become especially critical for systems with lower power output or greater portability requirements.
807:
high temperatures, it must be extremely stable. For this reason, ceramics have been more successful in the long term than metals as interconnect materials. However, these ceramic interconnect materials are very expensive when compared to metals. Nickel- and steel-based alloys are becoming more promising as lower temperature (600â800 °C) SOFCs are developed. The material of choice for an interconnect in contact with Y8SZ is a metallic 95Cr-5Fe alloy. Ceramic-metal composites called "cermet" are also under consideration, as they have demonstrated thermal stability at high temperatures and excellent electrical conductivity.
3414:) has been developed as a promising novel concept of a high-temperature energy conversion system. The underlying progress in the development of a coal-based DCFC has been categorized mainly according to the electrolyte materials used, such as solid oxide, molten carbonate, and molten hydroxide, as well as hybrid systems consisting of solid oxide and molten carbonate binary electrolyte or of liquid anode (Fe, Ag, In, Sn, Sb, Pb, Bi, and its alloying and its metal/metal oxide) solid oxide electrolyte. People's research on DCFC with GDC-Li/Na
3315:
requires a temperature above 700 °C. Therefore, low-temperature SOFCs are only possible with higher conductivity electrolytes. Various alternatives that could be successful at low temperature include gadolinium-doped ceria (GDC) and erbia-cation-stabilized bismuth (ERB). They have superior ionic conductivity at lower temperatures, but this comes at the expense of lower thermodynamic stability. CeO2 electrolytes become electronically conductive and Bi2O3 electrolytes decompose to metallic Bi under the reducing fuel environment.
794:(TPB) where the electrolyte, air and electrode meet. LSM works well as a cathode at high temperatures, but its performance quickly falls as the operating temperature is lowered below 800 °C. In order to increase the reaction zone beyond the TPB, a potential cathode material must be able to conduct both electrons and oxygen ions. Composite cathodes consisting of LSM YSZ have been used to increase this triple phase boundary length. Mixed ionic/electronic conducting (MIEC) ceramics, such as perovskite
505:
YSZ grows larger in grain size, which decreases the surface area for the catalytic reaction. Carbon deposition occurs when carbon atoms, formed by hydrocarbon pyrolysis or CO disproportionation, deposit on the Ni catalytic surface. Carbon deposition becomes important especially when hydrocarbon fuels are used, i.e. methane, syngas. The high operating temperature of SOFC and the oxidizing environment facilitate the oxidation of Ni catalyst through reaction Ni +
790:(LSM) is the cathode material of choice for commercial use because of its compatibility with doped zirconia electrolytes. Mechanically, it has a similar coefficient of thermal expansion to YSZ and thus limits stress buildup because of CTE mismatch. Also, LSM has low levels of chemical reactivity with YSZ which extends the lifetime of the materials. Unfortunately, LSM is a poor ionic conductor, and so the electrochemically active reaction is limited to the
3319:
open-circuit potential (OPC) with two highly conductive electrolytes, that by themselves would not have been sufficiently stable for the application. This bilayer proved to be stable for 1400 hours of testing at 500 °C and showed no indication of interfacial phase formation or thermal mismatch. While this makes strides towards lowering the operating temperature of SOFCs, it also opens doors for future research to try and understand this mechanism.
3339:
materials for SOFC applications. This electrolyte was fabricated by dry-pressing powders, which allowed for the production of crack free films thinner than 15 Όm. The implementation of this simple and cost-effective fabrication method may enable significant cost reductions in SOFC fabrication. However, this electrolyte operates at higher temperatures than the bilayered electrolyte model, closer to 600 °C rather than 500 °C.
193:
3307:
mismatch and easier sealing. Additionally, a lower temperature requires less insulation and therefore has a lower cost. Cost is further lowered due to wider material choices for interconnects and compressive nonglass/ceramic seals. Perhaps most importantly, at a lower temperature, SOFCs can be started more rapidly and with less energy, which lends itself to uses in portable and transportable applications.
3454:
accumulated at the landfills has the potential to be a valuable source of energy since methane is a major constituent. Currently, the majority of the landfills either burn away their gas in flares or combust it in mechanical engines to produce electricity. The issue with mechanical engines is that incomplete combustion of gasses can lead to pollution of the atmosphere and is also highly inefficient.
1487:
conductivity, several methods can be done. Firstly, operating at higher temperatures can significantly decrease these ohmic losses. Substitutional doping methods to further refine the crystal structure and control defect concentrations can also play a significant role in increasing the conductivity. Another way to decrease ohmic resistance is to decrease the thickness of the electrolyte layer.
3523:
3509:
3286:
The push for high-performance ITSOFCs is currently the topic of much research and development. One area of focus is the cathode material. It is thought that the oxygen reduction reaction is responsible for much of the loss in performance so the catalytic activity of the cathode is being studied and enhanced through various techniques, including catalyst impregnation. The research on NdCrO
519:= NiO. The oxidation reaction of Ni reduces the electrocatalytic activity and conductivity. Moreover, the density difference between Ni and NiO causes volume change on the anode surface, which could potentially lead to mechanical failure. Sulfur poisoning arises when fuel such as natural gas, gasoline, or diesel is used. Again, due to the high affinity between sulfur compounds (H
36:
1750:
electrochemical reaction faster than they can diffuse into the porous electrode, and can also be caused by variation in bulk flow composition. The latter is due to the fact that the consumption of reacting species in the reactant flows causes a drop in reactant concentration as it travels along the cell, which causes a drop in the local potential near the tail end of the cell.
77:
131:
375:
1100:
parameters. Moreover, most of the equations used require the addition of numerous factors which are difficult or impossible to determine. It makes very difficult any optimizing process of the SOFC working parameters as well as design architecture configuration selection. Because of those circumstances a few other equations were proposed:
2301:
depends on sample dimensions instead of crack diameter. Failure stresses in SOFCs can also be evaluated using a ring-on ring biaxial stress test. This type of test is generally preferred, as sample edge quality does not significantly impact measurements. The determination of the sample's failure stress is shown in the equation below.
2556:
264:, carbon monoxide or other organic intermediates by oxygen ions thus occurs on the anode side. More recently, proton-conducting SOFCs (PC-SOFC) are being developed which transport protons instead of oxygen ions through the electrolyte with the advantage of being able to be run at lower temperatures than traditional SOFCs.
362:
outside of the tube. The tubular design is advantageous because it is much easier to seal air from the fuel. The performance of the planar design is currently better than the performance of the tubular design, however, because the planar design has a lower resistance comparatively. Other geometries of SOFCs include
3123:
Research is going now in the direction of lower-temperature SOFCs (600 °C). Low temperature systems can reduce costs by reducing insulation, materials, start-up and degradation-related costs. With higher operating temperatures, the temperature gradient increases the severity of thermal stresses,
815:
Polarizations, or overpotentials, are losses in voltage due to imperfections in materials, microstructure, and design of the fuel cell. Polarizations result from ohmic resistance of oxygen ions conducting through the electrolyte (iRΩ), electrochemical activation barriers at the anode and cathode, and
638:
If the conductivity for oxygen ions in SOFC can remain high even at lower temperatures (current target in research ~500 °C), material choices for SOFC will broaden and many existing problems can potentially be solved. Certain processing techniques such as thin film deposition can help solve this
315:
heavier hydrocarbons, such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel (JP-8) or biofuels. Such reformates are mixtures of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, steam and methane, formed by reacting the hydrocarbon fuels with air or steam in a device upstream of the SOFC anode. SOFC power systems can increase
3285:
SOFCs that operate in an intermediate temperature (IT) range, meaning between 600 and 800 °C, are named ITSOFCs. Because of the high degradation rates and materials costs incurred at temperatures in excess of 900 °C, it is economically more favorable to operate SOFCs at lower temperatures.
451:
layer must be very porous to allow the fuel to flow towards the electrolyte. Consequently, granular matter is often selected for anode fabrication procedures. Like the cathode, it must conduct electrons, with ionic conductivity a definite asset. The anode is commonly the thickest and strongest layer
2063:
during operation requires high mechanical strength. Additional stresses associated with changes in gas atmosphere, leading to reduction or oxidation also cannot be avoided in prolonged operation. When electrode layers delaminate or crack, conduction pathways are lost, leading to a redistribution of
2058:
Current SOFC research focuses heavily on optimizing cell performance while maintaining acceptable mechanical properties because optimized performance often compromises mechanical properties. Nevertheless, mechanical failure represents a significant problem to SOFC operation. The presence of various
3338:
with Zr to form a solid solution that exhibits proton conductivity, but also chemical and thermal stability over the range of conditions relevant to fuel cell operation. A new specific composition, Ba(Zr0.1Ce0.7Y0.2)O3-ÎŽ (BZCY7) that displays the highest ionic conductivity of all known electrolyte
3314:
This is a materials issue, particularly for the electrolyte in the SOFC. YSZ is the most commonly used electrolyte because of its superior stability, despite not having the highest conductivity. Currently, the thickness of YSZ electrolytes is a minimum of ~10 ÎŒm due to deposition methods, and this
504:
However, there are a few disadvantages associated with YSZ as anode material. Ni coarsening, carbon deposition, reduction-oxidation instability, and sulfur poisoning are the main obstacles limiting the long-term stability of Ni-YSZ. Ni coarsening refers to the evolution of Ni particles in doped in
464:
between the oxygen ions and the hydrogen produces heat as well as water and electricity. If the fuel is a light hydrocarbon, for example, methane, another function of the anode is to act as a catalyst for steam reforming the fuel into hydrogen. This provides another operational benefit to the fuel
3453:
Every household produces waste/garbage on a daily basis. In 2009, Americans produced about 243 million tons of municipal solid waste, which is 4.3 pounds of waste per person per day. All that waste is sent to landfill sites. Landfill gas which is produced from the decomposition of waste that gets
3306:
Low-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (LT-SOFCs), operating lower than 650 °C, are of great interest for future research because the high operating temperature is currently what restricts the development and deployment of SOFCs. A low-temperature SOFC is more reliable due to smaller thermal
2700:
However, this equation is not valid for deflections exceeding 1/2h, making it less applicable for thin samples, which are of great interest in SOFCs. Therefore, while this method does not require knowledge of crack or pore size, it must be used with great caution and is more applicable to support
2300:
Thus, porosity must be carefully engineered to maximize reaction kinetics while maintaining an acceptable fracture toughness. Since fracture toughness represents the ability of pre-existing cracks or pores to propagate, a potentially more useful metric is the failure stress of a material, as this
806:
The interconnect can be either a metallic or ceramic layer that sits between each individual cell. Its purpose is to connect each cell in series, so that the electricity each cell generates can be combined. Because the interconnect is exposed to both the oxidizing and reducing side of the cell at
3152:
compounds are removed. These processes add to the cost and complexity of SOFC systems. Work is under way at a number of institutions to improve the stability of anode materials for hydrocarbon oxidation and, therefore, relax the requirements for fuel processing and decrease SOFC balance of plant
361:
geometry is the typical sandwich type geometry employed by most types of fuel cells, where the electrolyte is sandwiched in between the electrodes. SOFCs can also be made in tubular geometries where either air or fuel is passed through the inside of the tube and the other gas is passed along the
3197:
3D printing is being explored as a possible manufacturing technique that could be used to make SOFC manufacturing easier by the Shah Lab at
Northwestern University. This manufacturing technique would allow SOFC cell structure to be more flexible, which could lead to more efficient designs. This
2079:
Just as thermal stresses increase as cell performance improves through improved ionic conductivity, the fracture toughness of the material also decreases as cell performance increases. This is because, to increase reaction sites, porous ceramics are preferable. However, as shown in the equation
2049:
The polarization can be modified by microstructural optimization. The Triple Phase
Boundary (TPB) length, which is the length where porous, ionic and electronically conducting pathways all meet, directly relates to the electrochemically active length in the cell. The larger the length, the more
1473:
This method was validated and found to be suitable for optimization and sensitivity studies in plant-level modelling of various systems with solid oxide fuel cells. With this mathematical description it is possible to account for different properties of the SOFC. There are many parameters which
3293:
Another area of focus is electrolyte materials. To make SOFCs competitive in the market, ITSOFCs are pushing towards lower operational temperature by use of alternative new materials. However, efficiency and stability of the materials limit their feasibility. One choice for the electrolyte new
602:
The electrolyte is a dense layer of ceramic that conducts oxygen ions. Its electronic conductivity must be kept as low as possible to prevent losses from leakage currents. The high operating temperatures of SOFCs allow the kinetics of oxygen ion transport to be sufficient for good performance.
3457:
The issue with using landfill gas to fuel an SOFC system is that landfill gas contains hydrogen sulfide. Any landfill accepting biological waste will contain about 50-60 ppm of hydrogen sulfide and around 1-2 ppm mercaptans. However, construction materials containing reducible sulfur species,
2075:
in mixed ionic-electronic perovskites can be directly related to oxygen vacancy concentration, which is also related to ionic conductivity. Thus, thermal stresses increase in direct correlation with improved cell performance. Additionally, however, the temperature dependence of oxygen vacancy
1753:
The concentration polarization occurs in both the anode and cathode. The anode can be particularly problematic, as the oxidation of the hydrogen produces steam, which further dilutes the fuel stream as it travels along the length of the cell. This polarization can be mitigated by reducing the
390:
active until they reach very high temperature and as a consequence, the stacks have to run at temperatures ranging from 500 to 1,000 °C. Reduction of oxygen into oxygen ions occurs at the cathode. These ions can then diffuse through the solid oxide electrolyte to the anode where they can
3318:
To combat this, researchers created a functionally graded ceria/bismuth-oxide bilayered electrolyte where the GDC layer on the anode side protects the ESB layer from decomposing while the ESB on the cathode side blocks the leakage current through the GDC layer. This leads to near-theoretical
1095:
In SOFCs, it is often important to focus on the ohmic and concentration polarizations since high operating temperatures experience little activation polarization. However, as the lower limit of SOFC operating temperature is approached (~600 °C), these polarizations do become important.
3139:
Lowering operating temperatures has the added benefit of increased efficiency. Theoretical fuel cell efficiency increases with decreasing temperature. For example, the efficiency of a SOFC using CO as fuel increases from 63% to 81% when decreasing the system temperature from 900 °C to
1099:
Above mentioned equation is used for determining the SOFC voltage (in fact for fuel cell voltage in general). This approach results in good agreement with particular experimental data (for which adequate factors were obtained) and poor agreement for other than original experimental working
1486:
Ohmic losses in an SOFC result from ionic conductivity through the electrolyte and electrical resistance offered to the flow of electrons in the external electrical circuit. This is inherently a materials property of the crystal structure and atoms involved. However, to maximize the ionic
558:, Ru, Co, etc. are invented to resist sulfur poisoning, but the improvement is limited due to the rapid initial degradation. Copper-based cerement anode is considered as a solution to carbon deposition because it is inert to carbon and stable under typical SOFC oxygen partial pressures (pO
1762:
The activation polarization is the result of the kinetics involved with the electrochemical reactions. Each reaction has a certain activation barrier that must be overcome in order to proceed and this barrier leads to the polarization. The activation barrier is the result of many complex
386:(hence the name). A single cell consisting of these four layers stacked together is typically only a few millimeters thick. Hundreds of these cells are then connected in series to form what most people refer to as an "SOFC stack". The ceramics used in SOFCs do not become electrically and
1749:
The concentration polarization is the result of practical limitations on mass transport within the cell and represents the voltage loss due to spatial variations in reactant concentration at the chemically active sites. This situation can be caused when the reactants are consumed by the
4822:
Nakajo, Arata; Kuebler, Jakob; Faes, Antonin; Vogt, Ulrich; Schindler, HansjĂŒrgen; Chiang, Lieh-Kwang; Modena, Stefano; Van Herle, Jan (25 January 2012). "Compilation of mechanical properties for the structural analysis of solid oxide fuel cell stacks. Part I. Constitutive materials of
1268:
781:
3342:
Currently, given the state of the field for LT-SOFCs, progress in the electrolyte would reap the most benefits, but research into potential anode and cathode materials would also lead to useful results, and has started to be discussed more frequently in literature.
3458:
principally sulfates found in gypsum-based wallboard, can cause considerably higher levels of sulfides in the hundreds of ppm. At operating temperatures of 750 °C hydrogen sulfide concentrations of around 0.05 ppm begin to affect the performance of the SOFCs.
391:
electrochemically oxidize the fuel. In this reaction, a water byproduct is given off as well as two electrons. These electrons then flow through an external circuit where they can do work. The cycle then repeats as those electrons enter the cathode material again.
2844:
2306:
2050:
reactions can occur and thus the less the activation polarization. Optimization of TPB length can be done by processing conditions to affect microstructure or by materials selection to use a mixed ionic/electronic conductor to further increase TPB length.
1474:
impact cell working conditions, e.g. electrolyte material, electrolyte thickness, cell temperature, inlet and outlet gas compositions at anode and cathode, and electrode porosity, just to name some. The flow in these systems is often calculated using the
3310:
As temperature decreases, the maximum theoretical fuel cell efficiency increases, in contrast to the Carnot cycle. For example, the maximum theoretical efficiency of an SOFC using CO as a fuel increases from 63% at 900 °C to 81% at 350 °C.
3964:
Radenahmad, Nikdalila; Azad, Atia
Tasfiah; Saghir, Muhammad; Taweekun, Juntakan; Bakar, Muhammad Saifullah Abu; Reza, Md Sumon; Azad, Abul Kalam (March 2020). "A review on biomass derived syngas for SOFC based combined heat and power application".
1867:
816:
finally concentration polarizations due to inability of gases to diffuse at high rates through the porous anode and cathode (shown as ηA for the anode and ηC for cathode). The cell voltage can be calculated using the following equation:
366:(MPC or MPSOFC), where a wave-like structure replaces the traditional flat configuration of the planar cell. Such designs are highly promising because they share the advantages of both planar cells (low resistance) and tubular cells.
3992:
Xu, Qidong; Guo, Zengjia; Xia, Lingchao; He, Qijiao; Li, Zheng; Temitope Bello, Idris; Zheng, Keqing; Ni, Meng (February 2022). "A comprehensive review of solid oxide fuel cells operating on various promising alternative fuels".
3230:
The high temperature electrochemistry center (HITEC) at the
University of Florida, Gainesville is focused on studying ionic transport, electrocatalytic phenomena and microstructural characterization of ion conducting materials.
3851:
Kim, Jun Hyuk; Liu, Mingfei; Chen, Yu; Murphy, Ryan; Choi, YongMan; Liu, Ying; Liu, Meilin (5 November 2021). "Understanding the Impact of Sulfur
Poisoning on the Methane-Reforming Activity of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Anode".
932:
3143:
Research is also under way to improve the fuel flexibility of SOFCs. While stable operation has been achieved on a variety of hydrocarbon fuels, these cells typically rely on external fuel processing. In the case of
4850:
Ullmann, H.; Trofimenko, N.; Tietz, F.; Stöver, D.; Ahmad-Khanlou, A. (1 December 2000). "Correlation between thermal expansion and oxide ion transport in mixed conducting perovskite-type oxides for SOFC cathodes".
5433:
Choi, S.; Yoo, S.; Park, S.; Jun, A.; Sengodan, S.; Kim, J.; Shin, J. Highly efficient and robust cathode materials for low-temperature solid oxide fuel cells: PrBa0.5Sr0.5Co(2-x)Fe(x)O(5+ÎŽ). Sci. Rep. 2013, 3,
3083:
is therefore of significant importance. Due to the difficulty in mechanically testing SOFCs at high temperatures, and due to the microstructural evolution of SOFCs over the lifetime of operation resulting from
1649:
3189:
onto inexpensive ceramic materials. Rolls-Royce Fuel Cell
Systems Ltd is developing an SOFC gas turbine hybrid system fueled by natural gas for power generation applications in the order of a megawatt (e.g.
4630:
Shimada, Hiroyuki; Suzuki, Toshio; Yamaguchi, Toshiaki; Sumi, Hirofumi; Hamamoto, Koichi; Fujishiro, Yoshinobu (January 2016). "Challenge for lowering concentration polarization in solid oxide fuel cells".
3374:
Theoretically, the combination of the SOFC and gas turbine can give result in high overall (electrical and thermal) efficiency. Further combination of the SOFC-GT in a combined cooling, heat and power (or
5350:
Rainer KĂŒngas; Peter
Blennow; Thomas Heiredal-Clausen; Tobias Holt; Jeppe Rass-Hansen; SĂžren Primdahl; John BĂžgild Hansen (2017). "eCOs - A Commercial CO2 Electrolysis System Developed by Haldor Topsoe".
231:
Advantages of this class of fuel cells include high combined heat and power efficiency, long-term stability, fuel flexibility, low emissions, and relatively low cost. The largest disadvantage is the high
1106:
289:
Solid oxide fuel cells have a wide variety of applications, from use as auxiliary power units in vehicles to stationary power generation with outputs from 100 W to 2 MW. In 2009, Australian company,
2167:
3156:
Research is also going on in reducing start-up time to be able to implement SOFCs in mobile applications. This can be partially achieved by lowering operating temperatures, which is the case for
3124:
which affects materials cost and life of the system. An intermediate temperature system (650-800 °C) would enable the use of cheaper metallic materials with better mechanical properties and
3179:
or diesel as the engine and would keep the air conditioning unit and other necessary electrical systems running while the engine shuts off when not needed (e.g., at a stop light or truck stop).
679:
481:(mixed ionic/electronic conducting ceramics) have been shown to produce a power density of 0.6 W/cm2 at 0.7 V at 800 °C which is possible because they have the ability to overcome a larger
3175:
has recently stopped a similar project. A high-temperature SOFC will generate all of the needed electricity to allow the engine to be smaller and more efficient. The SOFC would run on the same
1536:
2904:
2551:{\displaystyle \sigma _{cr}={\frac {3F_{cr}}{2\pi h_{s}^{2}}}+{\Biggl (}(1-\nu ){\frac {D_{sup}^{2}-D_{load}^{2}}{2D_{s}^{2}}}+(1+\nu )\ln \left({\frac {D_{sup}}{D_{load}}}\right){\Biggr )}}
2710:
3128:. New developments in nano-scale electrolyte structures have been shown to bring down operating temperatures to around 350 °C, which would enable the use of even cheaper steel and
293:
successfully achieved an efficiency of an SOFC device up to the previously theoretical mark of 60%. The higher operating temperature make SOFCs suitable candidates for application with
5168:
Lamp, P.; Tachtler, J.; Finkenwirth, O.; Mukerjee, S.; Shaffer, S. (November 2003). "Development of an
Auxiliary Power Unit with Solid Oxide Fuel Cells for Automotive Applications".
574:, after adding a cobalt co-catalyst. Oxide anodes including zirconia-based fluorite and perovskites are also used to replace Ni-ceramic anodes for carbon resistance. Chromite i.e. La
311:
Because of these high temperatures, light hydrocarbon fuels, such as methane, propane, and butane can be internally reformed within the anode. SOFCs can also be fueled by externally
3111:-based system without additional requirements. Lifetime effects (phase stability, thermal expansion compatibility, element migration, conductivity and aging) must be addressed. The
594:(LSCM) is used as anodes and exhibited comparable performance against NiâYSZ cermet anodes. LSCM is further improved by impregnating Cu and sputtering Pt as the current collector.
4878:
Radovic, M.; Lara-Curzio, E. (December 2004). "Mechanical properties of tape cast nickel-based anode materials for solid oxide fuel cells before and after reduction in hydrogen".
5507:
Zuo, C.; Zha, S.; Liu, M.; Hatano, M.; Uchiyama, M. Ba(Zr0.1Ce0.7Y0.2)O3-ÎŽ as an
Electrolyte for Low-Temperature Solid-Oxide Fuel Cells. Advanced Materials. 2006, 18, 3318-3320
1046:
2990:
4967:
Nakajo, Arata; Kuebler, Jakob; Faes, Antonin; Vogt, Ulrich F.; Schindler, Hans JĂŒrgen; Chiang, Lieh-Kwang; Modena, Stefano; Van herle, Jan; Hocker, Thomas (25 January 2012).
2705:
pose another great problem, as MIEC electrodes often operate at temperatures exceeding half of the melting temperature. As a result, diffusion creep must also be considered.
1089:
3022:
2701:
layers in SOFCs than active layers. In addition to failure stresses and fracture toughness, modern fuel cell designs that favor mixed ionic electronic conductors (MIECs),
2590:
534:
Current research is focused on reducing or replacing Ni content in the anode to improve long-term performance. The modified Ni-YSZ containing other materials including CeO
1679:
477:, help stop the grain growth of nickel. Larger grains of nickel would reduce the contact area that ions can be conducted through, which would lower the cells efficiency.
1763:
electrochemical reaction steps where typically the rate limiting step is responsible for the polarization. The polarization equation shown below is found by solving the
798:, are also being researched for use in intermediate temperature SOFCs as they are more active and can make up for the increase in the activation energy of the reaction.
346:
demands a uniform and well-regulated heating process at startup. SOFC stacks with planar geometry require on the order of an hour to be heated to operating temperature.
1409:
4495:
2239:
1948:
1310:
2295:
1924:
1773:
1579:
1559:
1380:
1345:
967:
4123:
2622:
2201:
282:
poisoning has been widely observed and the sulfur must be removed before entering the cell. For fuels that are of lower quality, such as gasified biomass, coal, or
2651:
2268:
2043:
1467:
1438:
2673:
4727:
M. Santarelli; P. Leone; M. CalĂŹ; G. Orsello (2007). "Experimental evaluation of the sensitivity to fuel utilization and air management on a 100 kW SOFC system".
3932:
3204:
Ltd. has developed a low cost and low temperature (500â600 degrees) SOFC stack using cerium gadolinium oxide (CGO) in place of current industry standard ceramic,
5013:
3066:
3044:
2952:
2926:
2695:
2014:
1992:
1970:
1893:
1739:
1719:
1699:
993:
5544:
L. K. C. Tse; S. Wilkins; N. McGlashan; B. Urban; R. Martinez-Botas (2011). "Solid oxide fuel cell/gas turbine trigeneration system for marine applications".
2064:
current density and local changes in temperature. These local temperature deviations, in turn, lead to increased thermal strains, which propagate cracks and
5579:
Isfahani, SNR; Sedaghat, Ahmad (15 June 2016). "A hybrid micro gas turbine and solid state fuel cell power plant with hydrogen production and CO2 capture".
2068:. Additionally, when electrolytes crack, separation of fuel and air is no longer guaranteed, which further endangers the continuous operation of the cell.
627:(GDC). The electrolyte material has crucial influence on the cell performances. Detrimental reactions between YSZ electrolytes and modern cathodes such as
570:-YSZ exhibits a higher electrochemical oxidation rate over Ni-YSZ when running on CO and syngas, and can achieve even higher performance using CO than H
5443:
Hibini, T.; Hashimoto, A.; Inoue, T.; Tokuno, J.; Yoshida, S.; Sano, M. A Low-Operating-Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cell in
Hydrocarbon-Air Mixtures.
4509:
Mohan Menon; Kent Kammer; et al. (2007). "Processing of Ce1-xGdxO2-ÎŽ (GDC) thin films from precursors for application in solid oxide fuel cells".
3879:
Boldrin, Paul; Ruiz-Trejo, Enrique; Mermelstein, Joshua; BermĂșdez MenĂ©ndez, JosĂ© Miguel; RamıÌrez Reina, TomĂĄs; Brandon, Nigel P. (23 November 2016).
3234:
SiEnergy Systems, a Harvard spin-off company, has demonstrated the first macro-scale thin-film solid-oxide fuel cell that can operate at 500 degrees.
4795:
Mahato, N; Banerjee, A; Gupta, A; Omar, S; Balani, K (1 July 2015). "Progress in material selection for solid oxide fuel cell technology: A review".
152:
139:
3294:
materials is the ceria-salt ceramic composites (CSCs). The two-phase CSC electrolytes GDC (gadolinium-doped ceria) and SDC (samaria-doped ceria)-MCO
531:
S) and the metal catalyst, even the smallest impurities of sulfur compounds in the feed stream could deactivate the Ni catalyst on the YSZ surface.
343:
4969:"Compilation of mechanical properties for the structural analysis of solid oxide fuel cell stacks. Constitutive materials of anode-supported cells"
822:
337:
3612:
Singh, Mandeep; Zappa, Dario; Comini, Elisabetta (August 2021). "Solid oxide fuel cell: Decade of progress, future perspectives and challenges".
3223:
Solid Cell Inc. has developed a unique, low-cost cell architecture that combines properties of planar and tubular designs, along with a Cr-free
49:
5723:
5046:
4257:
5805:
473:
mixed with the ceramic material that is used for the electrolyte in that particular cell, typically YSZ (yttria stabilized zirconia). These
5832:
3781:
Wang, Qi; Fan, Hui; Xiao, Yanfei; Zhang, Yihe (November 2022). "Applications and recent advances of rare earth in solid oxide fuel cells".
3411:
3323:
3290:
proves it to be a potential cathode material for the cathode of ITSOFC since it is thermochemically stable within the temperature range.
5385:
Nithya, M., and M. Rajasekhar. "Preparation and Characterization of NdCrO3 Cathode for Intermediate Temperature Fuel Cell Application."
5318:
3816:
Hagen, Anke; Rasmussen, Jens F.B.; Thydén, Karl (September 2011). "Durability of solid oxide fuel cells using sulfur containing fuels".
3583:
5757:
4700:
Milewski J, Miller A (2006). "Influences of the Type and Thickness of Electrolyte on Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Hybrid System Performance".
1590:
452:
in each individual cell, because it has the smallest polarization losses, and is often the layer that provides the mechanical support.
267:
They operate at very high temperatures, typically between 600 and 1,000 °C. At these temperatures, SOFCs do not require expensive
87:
5870:
4915:"Standard Test Method for Monotonic Equibiaxial Flexural Strength of Advanced Ceramics at Ambient Temperature, ASTM Standard C1499-04"
3157:
3096:
628:
275:
4658:
Hai-Bo Huo; Xin-Jian Zhu; Guang-Yi Cao (2006). "Nonlinear modeling of a SOFC stack based on a least squares support vector machine".
3654:
Boldrin, Paul; Brandon, Nigel P. (11 July 2019). "Progress and outlook for solid oxide fuel cells for transportation applications".
3100:
1263:{\displaystyle E_{SOFC}={\frac {E_{max}-i_{max}\cdot \eta _{f}\cdot r_{1}}{{\frac {r_{1}}{r_{2}}}\cdot \left(1-\eta _{f}\right)+1}}}
177:
112:
63:
607:
the electrolyte begins to have large ionic transport resistances and affect the performance. Popular electrolyte materials include
1754:
reactant utilization fraction or increasing the electrode porosity, but these approaches each have significant design trade-offs.
5732:
2072:
1767:
in the high current density regime (where the cell typically operates), and can be used to estimate the activation polarization:
5249:
652:
building composite possessing large interfacial areas as interfaces have been shown to have extraordinary electrical properties.
6013:
3881:"Strategies for Carbon and Sulfur Tolerant Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Materials, Incorporating Lessons from Heterogeneous Catalysis"
465:
cell stack because the reforming reaction is endothermic, which cools the stack internally. The most common material used is a
5968:
5740:
1495:
An ionic specific resistance of the electrolyte as a function of temperature can be described by the following relationship:
378:
Cross section of three ceramic layers of a tubular SOFC. From inner to outer: porous cathode, dense electrolyte, porous anode
3112:
776:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}\mathrm {O_{2}(g)} +2\mathrm {e'} +{V}_{o}^{\bullet \bullet }\longrightarrow {O}_{o}^{\times }}
643:
reducing the traveling distance of oxygen ions and electrolyte resistance as resistance is proportional to conductor length;
5195:
Gardner, F.J; Day, M.J; Brandon, N.P; Pashley, M.N; Cassidy, M (March 2000). "SOFC technology development at Rolls-Royce".
3929:
6008:
5771:
5304:
5009:
3563:
3243:
787:
5614:
Giddey, S; Badwal, SPS; Kulkarni, A; Munnings, C (2012). "A comprehensive review of direct carbon fuel cell technology".
5891:
316:
efficiency by using the heat given off by the exothermic electrochemical oxidation within the fuel cell for endothermic
3355:
system is one which comprises a solid oxide fuel cell combined with a gas turbine. Such systems have been evaluated by
2839:{\displaystyle {\dot {\epsilon }}_{eq}^{creep}={\frac {{\tilde {k}}_{0}D}{T}}{\frac {\sigma _{eq}^{m}}{d_{grain}^{n}}}}
1475:
6061:
5978:
5921:
4176:; Han, Minfang; Barnett, Scott A. (2016). "Hydrogen Oxidation Mechanisms on Perovskite Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Anodes".
3553:
3391:
2085:
1501:
474:
363:
5715:
2853:
1764:
562:). Cu-Co bimetallic anodes in particular show a great resistivity of carbon deposition after the exposure to pure CH
347:
5998:
5860:
5779:
5116:
Spivey, B. (2012). "Dynamic modeling, simulation, and MIMO predictive control of a tubular solid oxide fuel cell".
2076:
concentration means that the CTE is not a linear property, which further complicates measurements and predictions.
669:, is a thin porous layer on the electrolyte where oxygen reduction takes place. The overall reaction is written in
608:
55:
3434:
as cathode shows good performance. The highest power density of 48 mW*cm can be reached at 500 °C with O
3069:
144:
5988:
5906:
5865:
2071:
Since SOFCs require materials with high oxygen conductivity, thermal stresses provide a significant problem. The
456:
speaking, the anode's job is to use the oxygen ions that diffuse through the electrolyte to oxidize the hydrogen
424:
400:
4030:
Sammes, N.M.; et al. (2005). "Design and fabrication of a 100 W anode supported micro-tubular SOFC stack".
5993:
5901:
5825:
5749:
649:
controlling the microstructural nano-crystalline fine grains to achieve "fine-tuning" of electrical properties;
4409:
Nigel Sammes; Alevtina Smirnova; Oleksandr Vasylyev (2005). "Fuel Cell Technologies: State and Perspectives".
996:
3483:
Using the standard heat of formation and entropy ÎG at room temperature (298 K) came out to be 45.904 kJ/mol
420:
358:
5983:
5916:
5896:
3493:
at 1023 K is 1.44 x 10. Hence theoretically we need 3.4% hydrogen to prevent the formation of NiS at 5 ppm H
3407:
670:
432:
301:
6003:
5942:
3247:
624:
478:
4929:
5911:
5791:
5750:
Assessment of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells in Building Applications Phase 1: Modeling and Preliminary Analyses
4489:
3558:
3251:
791:
312:
268:
233:
5926:
5279:
4364:"Comparison of the performance of CuâCeO2âYSZ and NiâYSZ composite SOFC anodes with H2, CO, and syngas"
1004:
3442:
as oxidant and the whole system is stable within the temperature range of 500 °C to 600 °C.
2959:
5654:
5553:
5466:
5408:
5360:
5074:
4887:
4736:
4667:
4453:
4418:
4375:
4363:
4286:
4204:
4173:
4138:
4078:
4039:
3825:
3536:
3356:
3125:
1053:
416:
5065:
Wachsman, Eric; Lee, Kang (18 November 2011). "Lowering the Temperature of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells".
6082:
5947:
5818:
5720:
3541:
2702:
3298:(M=Li, Na, K, single or mixture of carbonates) can reach the power density of 300-800 mW*cm.
3171:
are developing an SOFC that will power auxiliary units in automobiles and tractor-trailers, while
2997:
2565:
5855:
5596:
5490:
5098:
4968:
4612:
4565:
4522:
4477:
4344:
4316:
4237:
4154:
3798:
3763:
3722:
3681:
3629:
3547:
3514:
3406:
For the direct use of solid coal fuel without additional gasification and reforming processes, a
3168:
1657:
408:
290:
1862:{\displaystyle {\eta }_{act}={\frac {RT}{{\beta }zF}}\times ln\left({\frac {i}{{i}_{0}}}\right)}
5399:
Zhu, Bin (2003). "Functional ceriaâsalt-composite materials for advanced ITSOFC applications".
4518:
1387:
5678:
5670:
5517:
S.H. Chan; H.K. Ho; Y. Tian (2003). "Multi-level modeling of SOFC-gas turbine hybrid system".
5482:
5333:
5090:
5042:
5038:
4949:
4604:
4557:
4469:
4391:
4336:
4253:
4104:
3912:
3701:"A comprehensive review of recent progresses in cathode materials for Proton-conducting SOFCs"
3104:
2208:
1931:
1279:
482:
428:
4584:
3595:
3364:
3352:
1900:
1564:
1544:
1352:
1317:
943:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
5662:
5623:
5588:
5561:
5526:
5474:
5416:
5368:
5231:
5204:
5177:
5125:
5082:
5030:
4980:
4941:
4895:
4860:
4832:
4804:
4775:
4744:
4709:
4675:
4640:
4596:
4549:
4514:
4461:
4426:
4383:
4328:
4294:
4274:
4245:
4244:. NATO Advanced Study Institutes Series. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 209â227.
4212:
4185:
4146:
4094:
4086:
4047:
4010:
4002:
3974:
3902:
3892:
3861:
3833:
3790:
3753:
3712:
3671:
3663:
3621:
2597:
2176:
970:
453:
436:
209:
5697:
3699:
Gao, Yang; Zhang, Mingming; Fu, Min; Hu, Wenjing; Tong, Hua; Tao, Zetian (September 2023).
3367:
systems typically include anodic and/or cathodic atmosphere recirculation, thus increasing
2629:
2246:
2021:
1445:
1416:
5795:
5783:
5761:
5744:
5727:
5143:
5017:
4067:"Micro-tubular solid oxide fuel cell based on a porous yttria-stabilized zirconia support"
3936:
3360:
3217:
3186:
3182:
3164:, and this makes SOFCs interesting as auxiliary power units (APU) in refrigerated trucks.
3088:
and coarsening, the actual creep behavior of SOFCs is currently not completely understood
2658:
612:
317:
305:
297:
278:, and are not vulnerable to carbon monoxide catalyst poisoning. However, vulnerability to
5754:
5457:
Wachsman, E.; Lee, Kang T. (2011). "Lowering the Temperature of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells".
3930:
Ceramic fuel cells achieves world-best 60% efficiency for its electricity generator units
236:
which results in longer start-up times and mechanical and chemical compatibility issues.
5658:
5557:
5470:
5412:
5364:
5078:
4891:
4740:
4671:
4540:
Charpentier, P (2000). "Preparation of thin film SOFCs working at reduced temperature".
4457:
4422:
4379:
4290:
4142:
4082:
4043:
3952:
Electricity from wood through the combination of gasification and solid oxide fuel cells
3829:
3363:
as a means to achieve higher operating efficiencies by running the SOFC under pressure.
2275:
5699:
Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide in Landfill Gas on Anode Poisoning of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
4945:
4099:
4066:
3080:
3051:
3029:
2937:
2911:
2680:
2060:
1999:
1977:
1955:
1878:
1724:
1704:
1684:
978:
5530:
5420:
5235:
5208:
4864:
4553:
3330:
Researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology dealt with the instability of BaCeO
192:
6076:
5963:
5600:
5494:
5257:
5102:
5031:
4616:
4124:"A micromechanical model for effective conductivity in granular electrode structures"
3802:
3767:
3726:
3685:
3633:
3528:
3376:
603:
However, as the operating temperature approaches the lower limit for SOFCs at around
404:
244:
Solid oxide fuel cells are a class of fuel cells characterized by the use of a solid
4930:"Large-Deflection Solution of the Coaxial-Ring-Circular-Glass-Plate Flexure Problem"
4569:
4526:
4348:
4158:
3951:
3758:
3741:
646:
producing grain structures that are less resistive such as columnar grain structure;
5973:
5592:
5565:
5129:
4984:
4836:
4748:
4679:
4644:
4481:
4387:
4051:
4006:
3954:, Ph.D. Thesis by Florian Nagel, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, 2008
3837:
3625:
3447:
3263:
3085:
2065:
329:
5737:
5317:
Anne Hauch; SĂžren HĂžjgaard Jensen; Sune Dalgaard Ebbesen; Mogens Mogensen (2009).
4899:
4808:
4205:"Chapter Two - Catalytic Conversion of Biogas to Syngas via Dry Reforming Process"
3383:) also has the potential to yield even higher thermal efficiencies in some cases.
350:
geometries promise much faster start up times, typically in the order of minutes.
4249:
3398:
emission and high energy efficiency make the power plant performance noteworthy.
4216:
3897:
3880:
3717:
3700:
3259:
3201:
3161:
3145:
3073:
412:
294:
249:
5800:
5627:
3978:
3508:
3474:
This can be prevented by having background hydrogen which is calculated below.
3322:
252:. SOFCs use a solid oxide electrolyte to conduct negative oxygen ions from the
224:
are characterized by their electrolyte material; the SOFC has a solid oxide or
4780:
4763:
4150:
3794:
3667:
3504:
3368:
5674:
4953:
4608:
4561:
4395:
4340:
3865:
786:
Cathode materials must be, at a minimum, electrically conductive. Currently,
5841:
5478:
5086:
4444:
Steele, B.C.H., Heinzel, A. (2001). "Materials for fuel-cell technologies".
4430:
3522:
3191:
3160:(PEMFCs). Due to their fuel flexibility, they may run on partially reformed
3129:
2929:
927:{\displaystyle {V}={E}_{0}-{iR}_{\omega }-{\eta }_{cathode}-{\eta }_{anode}}
666:
354:
221:
213:
5666:
5486:
5372:
5181:
5094:
4600:
4473:
4332:
4108:
3916:
3907:
3676:
130:
4317:"Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Anode Materials for Direct Hydrocarbon Utilization"
6025:
4189:
3742:"Technological Challenges and Advancement in Proton Conductors: A Review"
3386:
Another feature of the introduced hybrid system is on the gain of 100% CO
3209:
3176:
271:
261:
5776:
4585:"Comparison of Different Perovskite Cathodes in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells"
4203:
Bao, Zhenghong; Yu, Fei (1 January 2018), Li, Yebo; Ge, Xumeng (eds.),
4015:
3255:
3133:
3115:
2008 (interim) target for overall degradation per 1,000 hours is 4.0%.
662:
631:(LSCF) have been found, and can be prevented by thin (<100 nm)
383:
325:
253:
225:
5682:
5642:
5319:"Durability of solid oxide electrolysis cells for hydrogen production"
4997:
4713:
4298:
4090:
382:
A solid oxide fuel cell is made up of four layers, three of which are
4914:
4695:
4693:
4691:
4689:
4465:
3224:
3205:
3149:
470:
466:
333:
283:
279:
274:, as is currently necessary for lower temperature fuel cells such as
4764:"Investigation of SOFC material properties for plant-level modeling"
4362:
Costa-Nunes, Olga; Gorte, Raymond J.; Vohs, John M. (1 March 2005).
3326:
Comparison of ionic conductivity of various solid oxide electrolytes
999:
resistance value of the electrically conducting portions of the cell
17:
5766:
374:
5307:. Technologyreview.com. 20 April 2011. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
3321:
632:
461:
448:
373:
257:
245:
191:
86:
may be in need of reorganization to comply with Knowledge (XXG)'s
4315:
Ge, Xiao-Ming; Chan, Siew-Hwa; Liu, Qing-Lin; Sun, Qiang (2012).
2697:= diameter (sup = support ring, load = loading ring, s = sample)
1644:{\displaystyle \sigma =\sigma _{0}\cdot e^{\frac {-E}{R\cdot T}}}
1584:
The ionic conductivity of the solid oxide is defined as follows:
5789:
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Canada (SOFCC) Strategic Research Network
3380:
3273:
to produce CO and oxygen or even co-electrolysis of water and CO
3108:
795:
457:
321:
217:
5814:
5222:"Northwestern group invent inks to make SOFCs by 3D printing".
3584:"Review of Progress in High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells"
3471:
The above reaction controls the effect of sulfur on the anode.
3148:, the fuel is either externally or internally reformed and the
5012:. www.energy.gov (24 March 2009). Retrieved 27 November 2011.
3947:
3945:
3213:
3172:
435:
and fans. Internal reforming leads to a large decrease in the
387:
124:
70:
29:
5810:
5788:
611:(YSZ) (often the 8% form 8YSZ), scandia stabilized zirconia (
5643:"A High Performance Low Temperature Direct Carbon Fuel Cell"
5283:
3334:
differently. They replaced a desired fraction of Ce in BaCeO
5641:
Wu, Wei; Ding, Dong; Fan, Maohong; He, Ting (30 May 2017).
2080:
below, fracture toughness decreases as porosity increases.
212:
conversion device that produces electricity directly from
3550:
Ltd â Australian company producing solid oxide fuel cells
3103:
and greater than 5,000 hours for transportation systems (
1972:= electrons associated with the electrochemical reaction
4928:
Kao, Robert; Perrone, Nicholas; Capps, Webster (1971).
4411:
NATO Science Series, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry
94:
5721:
National Energy Technology Laboratory website on SOFCs
5010:
Fuel Cell Stacks Still Going Strong After 5,000 Hours
3054:
3032:
3000:
2962:
2940:
2914:
2856:
2713:
2683:
2661:
2632:
2600:
2568:
2309:
2278:
2249:
2211:
2179:
2088:
2024:
2002:
1980:
1958:
1934:
1903:
1881:
1776:
1727:
1707:
1687:
1660:
1593:
1567:
1547:
1504:
1448:
1419:
1390:
1355:
1320:
1282:
1109:
1056:
1007:
981:
946:
825:
682:
3099:
target requirements are 40,000 hours of service for
6024:
5956:
5935:
5884:
5848:
3079:To properly model creep strain rates, knowledge of
3060:
3038:
3016:
2984:
2946:
2920:
2898:
2838:
2689:
2667:
2645:
2616:
2584:
2550:
2289:
2262:
2233:
2195:
2161:
2037:
2008:
1986:
1964:
1942:
1918:
1887:
1861:
1733:
1713:
1693:
1673:
1643:
1573:
1553:
1530:
1469:= electric specific resistance of the electrolyte.
1461:
1432:
1403:
1374:
1339:
1304:
1262:
1083:
1040:
987:
961:
926:
775:
27:Fuel cell that produces electricity by oxidization
3185:is developing solid-oxide fuel cells produced by
2543:
2376:
2241:= fracture toughness of the non-porous structure
4122:Ott, J; Gan, Y; McMeeking, R; Kamlah, M (2013).
3486:On extrapolation to 1023 K, ÎG is -1.229 kJ/mol
3107:) at a factory cost of $ 40/kW for a 10 kW
2162:{\displaystyle K_{IC}=K_{IC,0}\exp {(-b_{k}p')}}
1531:{\displaystyle r_{1}={\frac {\delta }{\sigma }}}
5777:Materials & Systems Research, Inc.'s (MSRI)
3477:At 453 K the equilibrium constant is 7.39 x 10
3269:SOECs can also be used to do electrolysis of CO
2899:{\displaystyle {\dot {\epsilon }}_{eq}^{creep}}
1382:= maximum current density (for given fuel flow)
5738:Illinois Institute of Technology page on SOFCs
3939:. Ceramic Fuel Cells Limited. 19 February 2009
1440:= ionic specific resistance of the electrolyte
1347:= maximum voltage given by the Nernst equation
399:Most of the downtime of a SOFC stems from the
338:integrated gasification fuel cell power cycles
97:to make improvements to the overall structure.
5826:
5806:Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA)
5060:
5058:
4762:Kupecki J.; Milewski J.; Jewulski J. (2013).
3649:
3647:
3645:
3643:
1701:â factors depended on electrolyte materials,
8:
4494:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5033:Perovskite Oxide for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
5000:. www.osti.gov. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
4702:Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology
3607:
3605:
320:process. Additionally, solid fuels such as
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
5833:
5819:
5811:
5387:International Journal of Applied Chemistry
3588:Journal of the Australian Ceramics Society
2592:= failure stress of the small deformation
357:, SOFCs can have multiple geometries. The
5616:Progress in Energy and Combustion Science
4779:
4275:"H2S Poisoning of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells"
4211:, vol. 3, Elsevier, pp. 43â76,
4098:
4014:
3906:
3896:
3757:
3716:
3675:
3480:ÎG calculated at 453 K was 35.833 kJ/mol
3246:(SOEC) is a solid oxide fuel cell set in
3053:
3031:
3005:
2999:
2976:
2965:
2964:
2961:
2939:
2913:
2878:
2870:
2859:
2858:
2855:
2828:
2811:
2801:
2793:
2787:
2772:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2735:
2727:
2716:
2715:
2712:
2682:
2660:
2637:
2631:
2605:
2599:
2573:
2567:
2542:
2541:
2520:
2504:
2498:
2461:
2456:
2441:
2427:
2414:
2403:
2396:
2375:
2374:
2362:
2357:
2336:
2326:
2314:
2308:
2277:
2254:
2248:
2216:
2210:
2184:
2178:
2141:
2130:
2109:
2093:
2087:
2029:
2023:
2001:
1979:
1957:
1935:
1933:
1910:
1905:
1902:
1880:
1847:
1842:
1836:
1809:
1798:
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1726:
1706:
1686:
1665:
1659:
1617:
1604:
1592:
1566:
1546:
1518:
1509:
1503:
1453:
1447:
1424:
1418:
1395:
1389:
1360:
1354:
1325:
1319:
1287:
1281:
1240:
1214:
1204:
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1177:
1158:
1139:
1132:
1114:
1108:
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1058:
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1006:
980:
953:
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906:
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873:
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835:
826:
824:
767:
762:
757:
744:
739:
734:
720:
698:
693:
683:
681:
178:Learn how and when to remove this message
113:Learn how and when to remove this message
5581:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
5519:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
4519:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.15-17.293
3967:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
3614:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
155:of all important aspects of the article.
4934:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
3740:Vignesh, D.; Rout, Ela (2 March 2023).
3574:
3544:â SOFC product from an American company
336:which is suitable for fueling SOFCs in
260:. The electrochemical oxidation of the
5702:(Thesis). Youngstown State University.
4487:
4279:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
4178:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
3113:Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance
151:Please consider expanding the lead to
5716:US Department of Energy page on SOFCs
4768:Central European Journal of Chemistry
4310:
4308:
3024:= equivalent stress (e.g. von Mises)
2270:= experimentally determined constant
7:
1048:= polarization losses in the cathode
639:problem with existing materials by:
5305:Cooling Down Solid-Oxide Fuel Cells
5282:. Hitec.mse.ufl.edu. Archived from
5871:Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
5801:SOFC Dynamics and Control Research
5733:An article in Encyclopedia at YCES
4946:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1971.tb12209.x
4240:. In Figueiredo, JosĂ© LuĂs (ed.).
4172:Zhu, Tenglong; Fowler, Daniel E.;
3158:proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
3046:= creep stress exponential factor
1091:= polarization losses in the anode
722:
707:
695:
629:lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite
439:costs in designing a full system.
304:, which further increases overall
25:
4242:Progress in Catalyst Deactivation
3101:stationary fuel cell applications
1041:{\displaystyle {\eta }_{cathode}}
364:modified planar fuel cell designs
196:Scheme of a solid-oxide fuel cell
45:This article has multiple issues.
4583:Shen, F.; Lu, K. (August 2018).
4065:Panthi, D.; et al. (2014).
3995:Energy Conversion and Management
3521:
3507:
3068:= particle size exponent (2 for
2985:{\displaystyle {\tilde {k}}_{0}}
2073:Coefficient of thermal expansion
129:
75:
34:
6014:Unitized regenerative fuel cell
5696:Khan, Feroze (1 January 2012).
4998:SECA Coal-Based Systems â LGFCS
4273:Sasaki, K.; Susuki, K. (2006).
4236:Rostrup-Nielsen, J. R. (1982).
3759:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.2c03926
1950:= electron transfer coefficient
1721:â electrolyte temperature, and
1084:{\displaystyle {\eta }_{anode}}
143:may be too short to adequately
53:or discuss these issues on the
5593:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.04.065
5566:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.099
5130:10.1016/j.jprocont.2012.01.015
4985:10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.01.043
4837:10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.01.043
4749:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.12.032
4680:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.07.031
4645:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.10.024
4511:Advanced Materials Engineering
4388:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.09.022
4052:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.01.079
4007:10.1016/j.enconman.2021.115175
3838:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.053
3626:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.06.020
3277:to produce syngas and oxygen.
2970:
2766:
2485:
2473:
2393:
2381:
2155:
2131:
753:
710:
704:
615:) (usually 9 mol% Sc
348:Micro-tubular fuel cell design
153:provide an accessible overview
1:
6009:Solid oxide electrolyzer cell
5531:10.1016/S0360-3199(02)00160-X
5421:10.1016/s0378-7753(02)00592-x
5256:. Ceres Power. Archived from
5236:10.1016/S1464-2859(15)70024-6
5209:10.1016/S0378-7753(99)00428-0
4900:10.1016/j.actamat.2004.08.023
4865:10.1016/S0167-2738(00)00770-0
4809:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2015.01.001
4797:Progress in Materials Science
4554:10.1016/S0167-2738(00)00472-0
3564:Micro combined heat and power
3394:. These features like zero CO
3390:capturing at comparable high
3244:solid oxide electrolyser cell
1561:â electrolyte thickness, and
788:lanthanum strontium manganite
5892:Direct borohydride fuel cell
4250:10.1007/978-94-009-7597-2_11
3017:{\displaystyle \sigma _{eq}}
2585:{\displaystyle \sigma _{cr}}
475:nanomaterial-based catalysts
5979:Membrane electrode assembly
5922:Reformed methanol fuel cell
5772:Refractory Specialties Inc.
4217:10.1016/bs.aibe.2018.02.002
3898:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00284
3718:10.1016/j.enrev.2023.100038
3554:Glossary of fuel cell terms
3216:), which allows the use of
1674:{\displaystyle \sigma _{0}}
425:electrical balance of plant
401:mechanical balance of plant
353:Unlike most other types of
6099:
5999:Protonic ceramic fuel cell
5969:Electro-galvanic fuel cell
5861:Molten carbonate fuel cell
5767:SOFC glass-ceramic sealing
5628:10.1016/j.pecs.2012.01.003
5389:13, no. 4 (2017): 879-886.
5118:Journal of Process Control
5029:Ishihara, Tatsumi (2009).
3979:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109560
2906:= equivalent creep strain
2045:= exchange current density
1745:Concentration polarization
609:yttria-stabilized zirconia
6057:
5989:Photoelectrochemical cell
5907:Direct methanol fuel cell
5866:Phosphoric acid fuel cell
5332:: 327â338. Archived from
4781:10.2478/s11532-013-0211-x
4321:Advanced Energy Materials
4151:10.1007/s10409-013-0070-x
3795:10.1016/j.jre.2021.09.003
3668:10.1038/s41929-019-0310-y
3169:Delphi Automotive Systems
2624:= critical applied force
1411:= fuel utilization factor
1404:{\displaystyle \eta _{f}}
5994:Proton-exchange membrane
5902:Direct-ethanol fuel cell
5782:16 February 2007 at the
5743:18 February 2008 at the
5546:Journal of Power Sources
5401:Journal of Power Sources
5197:Journal of Power Sources
4823:anode-supported cells".
4729:Journal of Power Sources
4660:Journal of Power Sources
4633:Journal of Power Sources
4452:(15 November): 345â352.
4368:Journal of Power Sources
4174:Poeppelmeier, Kenneth R.
4032:Journal of Power Sources
3866:10.1021/acscatal.1c02470
3818:Journal of Power Sources
3220:to support the ceramic.
2234:{\displaystyle K_{IC,0}}
1943:{\displaystyle {\beta }}
1305:{\displaystyle E_{SOFC}}
5984:Membraneless Fuel Cells
5917:Metal hydride fuel cell
5897:Direct carbon fuel cell
5760:5 November 2014 at the
5479:10.1126/science.1204090
5447:. 2000. 288, 2031-2033.
5087:10.1126/science.1204090
4431:10.1007/1-4020-3498-9_3
3408:direct carbon fuel cell
3254:with a solid oxide, or
2653:= height of the sample
1926:= operating temperature
1919:{\displaystyle {T}_{0}}
1758:Activation polarization
1574:{\displaystyle \sigma }
1554:{\displaystyle \delta }
1476:NavierâStokes equations
1375:{\displaystyle i_{max}}
1340:{\displaystyle E_{max}}
962:{\displaystyle {E}_{0}}
433:hydrogen sulfide sensor
421:anode tail gas oxidizer
359:planar fuel cell design
302:combined heat and power
6004:Regenerative fuel cell
5943:Enzymatic biofuel cell
5667:10.1149/07801.2519ecst
5373:10.1149/07801.2879ecst
5182:10.1002/fuce.200332107
5144:"Fuel Cell Comparison"
5016:8 October 2009 at the
4973:Ceramics International
4825:Ceramics International
4601:10.1002/fuce.201800044
4333:10.1002/aenm.201200342
3783:Journal of Rare Earths
3422:as the electrolyte, Sm
3327:
3262:to produce oxygen and
3062:
3040:
3018:
2986:
2948:
2922:
2900:
2840:
2691:
2669:
2647:
2618:
2617:{\displaystyle F_{cr}}
2586:
2552:
2291:
2264:
2235:
2197:
2196:{\displaystyle K_{IC}}
2163:
2039:
2010:
1988:
1966:
1944:
1920:
1889:
1863:
1765:ButlerâVolmer equation
1741:â ideal gas constant.
1735:
1715:
1695:
1675:
1645:
1581:â ionic conductivity.
1575:
1555:
1532:
1463:
1434:
1405:
1376:
1341:
1306:
1264:
1085:
1042:
989:
963:
928:
777:
625:gadolinium doped ceria
379:
197:
5912:Formic acid fuel cell
5876:Solid oxide fuel cell
5794:30 April 2021 at the
5755:CSA Overview of SOFCs
5726:15 April 2016 at the
4209:Advances in Bioenergy
4131:Acta Mechanica Sinica
3559:Hydrogen technologies
3379:) configuration (via
3325:
3252:electrolysis of water
3070:NabarroâHerring creep
3063:
3041:
3019:
2987:
2949:
2923:
2901:
2841:
2692:
2670:
2648:
2646:{\displaystyle h_{s}}
2619:
2587:
2553:
2292:
2265:
2263:{\displaystyle b_{k}}
2236:
2203:= fracture toughness
2198:
2164:
2054:Mechanical Properties
2040:
2038:{\displaystyle i_{0}}
2011:
1989:
1967:
1945:
1921:
1890:
1864:
1736:
1716:
1696:
1676:
1646:
1576:
1556:
1533:
1464:
1462:{\displaystyle r_{2}}
1435:
1433:{\displaystyle r_{1}}
1406:
1377:
1342:
1307:
1265:
1086:
1043:
990:
964:
929:
792:triple phase boundary
778:
377:
269:platinum group metals
234:operating temperature
202:solid oxide fuel cell
195:
5037:. Springer. p.
4190:10.1149/2.1321608jes
3598:on 29 November 2014.
3537:Auxiliary power unit
3357:Siemens Westinghouse
3126:thermal conductivity
3052:
3030:
2998:
2960:
2938:
2912:
2854:
2711:
2681:
2668:{\displaystyle \nu }
2659:
2630:
2598:
2566:
2307:
2276:
2247:
2209:
2177:
2086:
2022:
2000:
1994:= Faraday's constant
1978:
1956:
1932:
1901:
1879:
1774:
1725:
1705:
1685:
1658:
1591:
1565:
1545:
1502:
1446:
1417:
1388:
1353:
1318:
1280:
1107:
1054:
1005:
979:
944:
823:
680:
671:Kröger-Vink Notation
635:diffusion barriers.
479:Perovskite materials
417:water heat exchanger
5948:Microbial fuel cell
5659:2017ECSTr..78a2519W
5558:2011JPS...196.3149T
5471:2011Sci...334..935W
5413:2003JPS...114....1Z
5365:2017ECSTr..78a2879K
5286:on 12 December 2013
5260:on 13 December 2013
5224:Fuel Cells Bulletin
5079:2011Sci...334..935W
4892:2004AcMat..52.5747R
4741:2007JPS...171..155S
4672:2006JPS...162.1220H
4458:2001Natur.414..345S
4423:2005fcts.conf.....S
4380:2005JPS...141..241C
4291:2006JElS..153A2023S
4143:2013AcMSn..29..682O
4083:2014NatSR...4E5754P
4044:2005JPS...145..428S
3935:3 June 2014 at the
3891:(22): 13633â13684.
3860:(21): 13556â13566.
3830:2011JPS...196.7271H
3620:(54): 27643â27674.
3594:(1). Archived from
3542:Bloom Energy Server
2992:= kinetic constant
2895:
2833:
2806:
2752:
2703:Creep (deformation)
2466:
2446:
2419:
2367:
2016:= operating current
997:Thévenin equivalent
772:
752:
566:at 800C. And Cu-CeO
489:Chemical Reaction:
95:editing the article
5856:Alkaline fuel cell
4853:Solid State Ionics
4542:Solid State Ionics
4513:. 15â17: 293â298.
4238:"Sulfur Poisoning"
4071:Scientific Reports
3746:Energy & Fuels
3548:Ceramic Fuel Cells
3515:Electronics portal
3489:On substitution, K
3328:
3105:fuel cell vehicles
3058:
3036:
3014:
2982:
2944:
2918:
2896:
2857:
2836:
2807:
2789:
2714:
2687:
2675:= Poisson's ratio
2665:
2643:
2614:
2582:
2548:
2452:
2423:
2399:
2353:
2290:{\displaystyle p'}
2287:
2260:
2231:
2193:
2159:
2059:kinds of load and
2035:
2006:
1984:
1962:
1940:
1916:
1885:
1859:
1731:
1711:
1691:
1671:
1641:
1571:
1551:
1528:
1491:Ionic conductivity
1482:Ohmic polarization
1459:
1430:
1401:
1372:
1337:
1302:
1260:
1081:
1038:
985:
959:
924:
773:
756:
733:
462:oxidation reaction
380:
291:Ceramic Fuel Cells
198:
6070:
6069:
5587:(22): 9490â9499.
5465:(6058): 935â939.
5048:978-0-387-77708-5
4886:(20): 5747â5756.
4714:10.1115/1.2349519
4327:(10): 1156â1181.
4299:10.1149/1.2336075
4259:978-94-009-7597-2
4091:10.1038/srep05754
3824:(17): 7271â7276.
3789:(11): 1668â1681.
3446:SOFC operated on
3392:energy efficiency
3248:regenerative mode
3061:{\displaystyle n}
3039:{\displaystyle m}
2973:
2947:{\displaystyle T}
2921:{\displaystyle D}
2867:
2834:
2785:
2769:
2724:
2690:{\displaystyle D}
2535:
2468:
2369:
2009:{\displaystyle i}
1987:{\displaystyle F}
1965:{\displaystyle z}
1888:{\displaystyle R}
1853:
1821:
1734:{\displaystyle R}
1714:{\displaystyle T}
1694:{\displaystyle E}
1638:
1526:
1258:
1220:
988:{\displaystyle R}
691:
483:activation energy
454:Electrochemically
429:power electronics
344:Thermal expansion
188:
187:
180:
170:
169:
123:
122:
115:
88:layout guidelines
68:
16:(Redirected from
6090:
5927:Zincâair battery
5835:
5828:
5821:
5812:
5704:
5703:
5693:
5687:
5686:
5653:(1): 2519â2526.
5647:ECS Transactions
5638:
5632:
5631:
5611:
5605:
5604:
5576:
5570:
5569:
5552:(6): 3149â3162.
5541:
5535:
5534:
5514:
5508:
5505:
5499:
5498:
5454:
5448:
5441:
5435:
5431:
5425:
5424:
5396:
5390:
5383:
5377:
5376:
5359:(1): 2879â2884.
5347:
5341:
5340:
5339:on 11 July 2009.
5338:
5323:
5314:
5308:
5302:
5296:
5295:
5293:
5291:
5276:
5270:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5250:"The Ceres Cell"
5246:
5240:
5239:
5219:
5213:
5212:
5203:(1â2): 122â129.
5192:
5186:
5185:
5165:
5159:
5158:
5156:
5154:
5140:
5134:
5133:
5124:(8): 1502â1520.
5113:
5107:
5106:
5062:
5053:
5052:
5036:
5026:
5020:
5007:
5001:
4995:
4989:
4988:
4979:(5): 3907â3927.
4964:
4958:
4957:
4925:
4919:
4918:
4910:
4904:
4903:
4875:
4869:
4868:
4847:
4841:
4840:
4819:
4813:
4812:
4792:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4724:
4718:
4717:
4697:
4684:
4683:
4666:(2): 1220â1225.
4655:
4649:
4648:
4627:
4621:
4620:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4548:(1â4): 373â380.
4537:
4531:
4530:
4506:
4500:
4499:
4493:
4485:
4466:10.1038/35104620
4441:
4435:
4434:
4406:
4400:
4399:
4359:
4353:
4352:
4312:
4303:
4302:
4270:
4264:
4263:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4225:
4223:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4184:(8): F952âF961.
4169:
4163:
4162:
4128:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4102:
4062:
4056:
4055:
4027:
4021:
4020:
4018:
3989:
3983:
3982:
3961:
3955:
3949:
3940:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3910:
3900:
3885:Chemical Reviews
3876:
3870:
3869:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3813:
3807:
3806:
3778:
3772:
3771:
3761:
3752:(5): 3428â3469.
3737:
3731:
3730:
3720:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3679:
3656:Nature Catalysis
3651:
3638:
3637:
3609:
3600:
3599:
3579:
3531:
3526:
3525:
3517:
3512:
3511:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3037:
3023:
3021:
3020:
3015:
3013:
3012:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2974:
2966:
2953:
2951:
2950:
2945:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2919:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2894:
2877:
2869:
2868:
2860:
2845:
2843:
2842:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2827:
2805:
2800:
2788:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2776:
2771:
2770:
2762:
2757:
2751:
2734:
2726:
2725:
2717:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2674:
2672:
2671:
2666:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2642:
2641:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2557:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2540:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2515:
2514:
2499:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2460:
2447:
2445:
2440:
2418:
2413:
2397:
2380:
2379:
2370:
2368:
2366:
2361:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2327:
2322:
2321:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2286:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2261:
2259:
2258:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2202:
2200:
2199:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2168:
2166:
2165:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2145:
2123:
2122:
2101:
2100:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2007:
1993:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1886:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1837:
1822:
1820:
1813:
1807:
1799:
1794:
1793:
1782:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1712:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1680:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1650:
1648:
1647:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1626:
1618:
1609:
1608:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1552:
1537:
1535:
1534:
1529:
1527:
1519:
1514:
1513:
1468:
1466:
1465:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1439:
1437:
1436:
1431:
1429:
1428:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1400:
1399:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1336:
1335:
1311:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1269:
1267:
1266:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1250:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1221:
1219:
1218:
1209:
1208:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1194:
1182:
1181:
1169:
1168:
1150:
1149:
1133:
1128:
1127:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1082:
1080:
1079:
1062:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1036:
1013:
994:
992:
991:
986:
973:of the reactants
971:Nernst potential
968:
966:
965:
960:
958:
957:
952:
933:
931:
930:
925:
923:
922:
905:
896:
895:
872:
863:
862:
857:
845:
844:
839:
830:
782:
780:
779:
774:
771:
766:
761:
751:
743:
738:
729:
728:
713:
703:
702:
692:
684:
606:
514:
513:
509:
437:balance of plant
395:Balance of plant
248:material as the
183:
176:
165:
162:
156:
133:
125:
118:
111:
107:
104:
98:
79:
78:
71:
60:
38:
37:
30:
21:
6098:
6097:
6093:
6092:
6091:
6089:
6088:
6087:
6073:
6072:
6071:
6066:
6053:
6020:
5952:
5931:
5880:
5844:
5839:
5796:Wayback Machine
5784:Wayback Machine
5762:Wayback Machine
5745:Wayback Machine
5728:Wayback Machine
5712:
5707:
5695:
5694:
5690:
5640:
5639:
5635:
5613:
5612:
5608:
5578:
5577:
5573:
5543:
5542:
5538:
5516:
5515:
5511:
5506:
5502:
5456:
5455:
5451:
5442:
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5254:Company Website
5248:
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5167:
5166:
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5110:
5073:(6058): 935â9.
5064:
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5056:
5049:
5028:
5027:
5023:
5018:Wayback Machine
5008:
5004:
4996:
4992:
4966:
4965:
4961:
4940:(11): 566â571.
4927:
4926:
4922:
4912:
4911:
4907:
4880:Acta Materialia
4877:
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4029:
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4024:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3963:
3962:
3958:
3950:
3943:
3937:Wayback Machine
3928:
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3878:
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3333:
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3240:
3218:stainless steel
3187:screen printing
3121:
3094:
3050:
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3001:
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2500:
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2250:
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2180:
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2105:
2089:
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2056:
2025:
2020:
2019:
1998:
1997:
1976:
1975:
1954:
1953:
1930:
1929:
1904:
1899:
1898:
1877:
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1841:
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1777:
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867:
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721:
694:
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541:
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530:
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522:
518:
511:
507:
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500:
496:
445:
397:
372:
318:steam reforming
306:fuel efficiency
298:energy recovery
242:
210:electrochemical
184:
173:
172:
171:
166:
160:
157:
150:
138:This article's
134:
119:
108:
102:
99:
93:Please help by
92:
80:
76:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6096:
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5909:
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5894:
5888:
5886:
5882:
5881:
5879:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5852:
5850:
5849:By electrolyte
5846:
5845:
5840:
5838:
5837:
5830:
5823:
5815:
5809:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5786:
5774:
5769:
5764:
5752:
5747:
5735:
5730:
5718:
5711:
5710:External links
5708:
5706:
5705:
5688:
5633:
5622:(3): 360â399.
5606:
5571:
5536:
5525:(8): 889â900.
5509:
5500:
5449:
5436:
5426:
5391:
5378:
5342:
5309:
5297:
5271:
5241:
5214:
5187:
5176:(3): 146â152.
5160:
5135:
5108:
5054:
5047:
5021:
5002:
4990:
4959:
4920:
4905:
4870:
4859:(1â2): 79â90.
4842:
4814:
4787:
4774:(5): 664â671.
4754:
4735:(2): 155â168.
4719:
4708:(4): 396â402.
4685:
4650:
4622:
4595:(4): 457â465.
4575:
4532:
4501:
4436:
4401:
4374:(2): 241â249.
4354:
4304:
4265:
4258:
4228:
4195:
4164:
4137:(5): 682â698.
4114:
4057:
4038:(2): 428â434.
4022:
3984:
3956:
3941:
3922:
3871:
3843:
3808:
3773:
3732:
3705:Energy Reviews
3691:
3662:(7): 571â577.
3639:
3601:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3561:
3556:
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3303:
3300:
3295:
3287:
3282:
3279:
3274:
3270:
3239:
3236:
3227:interconnect.
3167:Specifically,
3120:
3117:
3093:
3090:
3081:Microstructure
3057:
3035:
3011:
3008:
3004:
2979:
2972:
2969:
2954:= temperature
2943:
2917:
2893:
2890:
2887:
2884:
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2866:
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2831:
2826:
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2222:
2219:
2215:
2190:
2187:
2183:
2157:
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2150:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2129:
2126:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2099:
2096:
2092:
2061:Thermal stress
2055:
2052:
2047:
2046:
2032:
2028:
2017:
2005:
1995:
1983:
1973:
1961:
1951:
1938:
1927:
1913:
1908:
1896:
1895:= gas constant
1884:
1870:
1869:
1857:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1803:
1797:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1759:
1756:
1746:
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1730:
1710:
1690:
1668:
1664:
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1651:
1636:
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1625:
1622:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1570:
1550:
1539:
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1525:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1492:
1489:
1483:
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1471:
1470:
1456:
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1427:
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1412:
1398:
1394:
1383:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1359:
1348:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1324:
1313:
1312:= cell voltage
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1286:
1271:
1270:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1235:
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1224:
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1213:
1207:
1203:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1180:
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1167:
1164:
1161:
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1153:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1093:
1092:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1061:
1049:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1012:
1000:
984:
974:
956:
951:
935:
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921:
918:
915:
912:
909:
904:
899:
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853:
848:
843:
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829:
812:
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800:
784:
783:
770:
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760:
755:
750:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
724:
719:
716:
712:
709:
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701:
697:
690:
687:
658:
655:
654:
653:
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644:
620:
616:
599:
596:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
528:
524:
520:
516:
498:
494:
444:
441:
396:
393:
371:
368:
241:
238:
186:
185:
168:
167:
147:the key points
137:
135:
128:
121:
120:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6095:
6084:
6081:
6080:
6078:
6063:
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6059:
6056:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6031:
6029:
6027:
6023:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6006:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5961:
5959:
5955:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5938:
5936:Biofuel cells
5934:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5893:
5890:
5889:
5887:
5883:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5853:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5836:
5831:
5829:
5824:
5822:
5817:
5816:
5813:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5793:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5781:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5759:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5742:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5725:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5713:
5709:
5701:
5700:
5692:
5689:
5684:
5680:
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5672:
5668:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
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5625:
5621:
5617:
5610:
5607:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5575:
5572:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5540:
5537:
5532:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5513:
5510:
5504:
5501:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5453:
5450:
5446:
5440:
5437:
5430:
5427:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5395:
5392:
5388:
5382:
5379:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5346:
5343:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5326:Risoe Reports
5320:
5313:
5310:
5306:
5301:
5298:
5285:
5281:
5275:
5272:
5259:
5255:
5251:
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5229:
5225:
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5215:
5210:
5206:
5202:
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5179:
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5136:
5131:
5127:
5123:
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5109:
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5019:
5015:
5011:
5006:
5003:
4999:
4994:
4991:
4986:
4982:
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4970:
4963:
4960:
4955:
4951:
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4943:
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4935:
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4924:
4921:
4916:
4909:
4906:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4874:
4871:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4846:
4843:
4838:
4834:
4831:: 3907â3927.
4830:
4826:
4818:
4815:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4791:
4788:
4782:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4758:
4755:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
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4720:
4715:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4696:
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4692:
4690:
4686:
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4661:
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4606:
4602:
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4502:
4497:
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4463:
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4455:
4451:
4447:
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4416:
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3948:
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3926:
3923:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3908:10044/1/41491
3904:
3899:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3875:
3872:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3854:ACS Catalysis
3847:
3844:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3809:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
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3777:
3774:
3769:
3765:
3760:
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3751:
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3736:
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3728:
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3714:
3711:(3): 100038.
3710:
3706:
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3687:
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3677:10044/1/73325
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3648:
3646:
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3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3608:
3606:
3602:
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3593:
3589:
3585:
3582:Badwal, SPS.
3578:
3575:
3569:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3549:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3529:Energy portal
3524:
3519:
3516:
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3505:
3500:
3498:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3478:
3475:
3472:
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3450:
3449:
3443:
3413:
3409:
3401:
3399:
3393:
3384:
3382:
3378:
3377:trigeneration
3372:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3346:
3344:
3340:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
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3301:
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3280:
3278:
3267:
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3235:
3232:
3228:
3226:
3221:
3219:
3215:
3211:
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3203:
3199:
3195:
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3184:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3151:
3147:
3141:
3140:350 °C.
3137:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3089:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3075:
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2790:
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2773:
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2753:
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2654:
2638:
2634:
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2606:
2602:
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2577:
2574:
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2558:
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2479:
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2081:
2077:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2062:
2053:
2051:
2030:
2026:
2018:
2003:
1996:
1981:
1974:
1959:
1952:
1936:
1928:
1911:
1906:
1897:
1882:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1855:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
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854:
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831:
827:
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818:
817:
811:Polarizations
810:
808:
801:
799:
797:
793:
789:
768:
763:
758:
748:
745:
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730:
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674:
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630:
626:
623:â 9ScSZ) and
614:
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595:
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502:
491:
490:
486:
484:
480:
476:
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468:
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459:
455:
450:
442:
440:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
405:air preheater
402:
394:
392:
389:
385:
376:
369:
367:
365:
360:
356:
351:
349:
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341:
339:
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331:
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323:
319:
314:
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307:
303:
299:
296:
292:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
270:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
239:
237:
235:
229:
228:electrolyte.
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
194:
190:
182:
179:
164:
161:February 2022
154:
148:
146:
141:
136:
132:
127:
126:
117:
114:
106:
103:December 2020
96:
90:
89:
84:This article
82:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
5974:Flow battery
5875:
5698:
5691:
5650:
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5394:
5386:
5381:
5356:
5352:
5345:
5334:the original
5329:
5325:
5312:
5300:
5288:. Retrieved
5284:the original
5274:
5262:. Retrieved
5258:the original
5253:
5244:
5230:: 11. 2015.
5227:
5223:
5217:
5200:
5196:
5190:
5173:
5169:
5163:
5151:. Retrieved
5147:
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5121:
5117:
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5070:
5066:
5032:
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4490:cite journal
4449:
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4324:
4320:
4282:
4278:
4268:
4241:
4231:
4220:, retrieved
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4070:
4060:
4035:
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3776:
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3613:
3596:the original
3591:
3587:
3577:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:landfill gas
3445:
3444:
3405:
3385:
3373:
3350:
3341:
3329:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3292:
3284:
3268:
3264:hydrogen gas
3241:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3200:
3196:
3181:
3166:
3155:
3142:
3138:
3136:components.
3122:
3095:
3086:Grain growth
3078:
3048:
3026:
2994:
2956:
2934:
2932:coefficient
2908:
2850:
2847:
2707:
2699:
2677:
2655:
2626:
2594:
2562:
2559:
2303:
2299:
2272:
2243:
2205:
2173:
2170:
2082:
2078:
2070:
2066:Delamination
2057:
2048:
1871:
1761:
1752:
1748:
1653:
1583:
1540:
1494:
1485:
1472:
1272:
1098:
1094:
936:
814:
805:
802:Interconnect
785:
673:as follows:
660:
637:
601:
533:
503:
492:
488:
487:
447:The ceramic
446:
398:
381:
352:
342:
310:
288:
266:
243:
240:Introduction
230:
205:
201:
199:
189:
174:
158:
142:
140:lead section
109:
100:
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
5964:Blue energy
5264:30 November
4803:: 141â337.
4222:14 November
4016:10397/97578
3465:S â NiS + H
3361:Rolls-Royce
3260:electrolyte
3208:stabilized
3202:Ceres Power
3183:Rolls-Royce
3146:natural gas
3130:elastomeric
3074:Coble creep
2297:= porosity
598:Electrolyte
497:+O ââ> H
469:made up of
413:afterburner
409:prereformer
300:devices or
295:heat engine
250:electrolyte
6083:Fuel cells
5842:Fuel cells
5434:2426-2428.
5407:(1): 1â9.
5290:8 December
5170:Fuel Cells
5153:6 November
4589:Fuel Cells
4285:(11): 11.
4001:: 115175.
3973:: 109560.
3570:References
3369:efficiency
554:, MgO, TiO
355:fuel cells
222:Fuel cells
50:improve it
5675:1938-6737
5601:100859434
5495:206533328
5353:ECS Trans
5103:206533328
4954:0002-7820
4639:: 53â60.
4617:104669264
4609:1615-6846
4562:0167-2738
4417:: 19â34.
4396:0378-7753
4341:1614-6840
3803:240563264
3768:256964689
3727:259652830
3686:199179410
3634:237909427
3192:Futuregen
3134:polymeric
3003:σ
2971:~
2930:Diffusion
2865:˙
2862:ϵ
2791:σ
2767:~
2722:˙
2719:ϵ
2663:ν
2571:σ
2492:
2483:ν
2421:−
2391:ν
2388:−
2351:π
2312:σ
2135:−
2128:
1937:β
1824:×
1811:β
1780:η
1663:σ
1632:⋅
1621:−
1611:⋅
1602:σ
1595:σ
1569:σ
1549:δ
1524:σ
1521:δ
1393:η
1238:η
1234:−
1223:⋅
1184:⋅
1175:η
1171:⋅
1152:−
1060:η
1011:η
903:η
898:−
870:η
865:−
860:ω
847:−
769:×
754:⟶
749:∙
746:∙
667:electrode
665:, or air
388:ionically
370:Operation
313:reforming
214:oxidizing
145:summarize
56:talk page
6077:Category
6062:Glossary
6026:Hydrogen
5792:Archived
5780:Archived
5758:Archived
5741:Archived
5724:Archived
5487:22096189
5148:Nedstack
5095:22096189
5014:Archived
4570:95598314
4527:98044813
4474:11713541
4349:95175720
4159:51915676
4109:25169166
4077:: 5754.
3933:Archived
3917:27933769
3501:See also
3250:for the
3210:zirconia
3177:gasoline
3119:Research
3072:, 3 for
2284:′
2152:′
1273:where:
726:′
384:ceramics
332:to form
330:gasified
272:catalyst
262:hydrogen
208:) is an
6049:Vehicle
6044:Storage
6039:Station
6034:Economy
5885:By fuel
5683:1414432
5655:Bibcode
5554:Bibcode
5467:Bibcode
5459:Science
5445:Science
5409:Bibcode
5361:Bibcode
5280:"HITEC"
5075:Bibcode
5067:Science
4888:Bibcode
4737:Bibcode
4668:Bibcode
4482:4405856
4454:Bibcode
4419:Bibcode
4376:Bibcode
4287:Bibcode
4139:Bibcode
4100:4148670
4079:Bibcode
4040:Bibcode
3826:Bibcode
3365:SOFC-GT
3353:SOFC-GT
3347:SOFC-GT
3302:LT-SOFC
3256:ceramic
3153:costs.
2848:Where:
2560:Where:
2171:Where:
1872:where:
1654:where:
1541:where:
937:where:
663:cathode
657:Cathode
605:600 °C,
510:⁄
328:may be
326:biomass
256:to the
254:cathode
226:ceramic
5957:Others
5681:
5673:
5599:
5493:
5485:
5101:
5093:
5045:
4952:
4913:ASTM.
4615:
4607:
4568:
4560:
4525:
4480:
4472:
4446:Nature
4394:
4347:
4339:
4256:
4157:
4107:
4097:
3915:
3801:
3766:
3725:
3684:
3632:
3461:Ni + H
3438:and CO
3281:ITSOFC
3225:cermet
3206:yttria
3162:diesel
3150:sulfur
3092:Target
523:S, (CH
471:nickel
467:cermet
460:. The
423:, and
403:, the
334:syngas
284:biogas
280:sulfur
276:PEMFCs
5597:S2CID
5491:S2CID
5337:(PDF)
5322:(PDF)
5099:S2CID
4613:S2CID
4566:S2CID
4523:S2CID
4478:S2CID
4345:S2CID
4155:S2CID
4127:(PDF)
3799:S2CID
3764:S2CID
3723:S2CID
3682:S2CID
3630:S2CID
633:ceria
501:O+2e
449:anode
443:Anode
258:anode
246:oxide
5679:OSTI
5671:ISSN
5483:PMID
5330:1608
5292:2013
5266:2009
5228:2015
5155:2016
5091:PMID
5043:ISBN
4950:ISSN
4605:ISSN
4558:ISSN
4496:link
4470:PMID
4392:ISSN
4337:ISSN
4254:ISBN
4224:2020
4105:PMID
3913:PMID
3412:DCFC
3402:DCFC
3381:HVAC
3359:and
3238:SOEC
3109:coal
1681:and
796:LSCF
661:The
613:ScSZ
546:, La
458:fuel
324:and
322:coal
218:fuel
206:SOFC
204:(or
18:SOFC
5663:doi
5624:doi
5589:doi
5562:doi
5550:196
5527:doi
5475:doi
5463:334
5417:doi
5405:114
5369:doi
5232:doi
5205:doi
5178:doi
5126:doi
5083:doi
5071:334
4981:doi
4942:doi
4896:doi
4861:doi
4857:138
4833:doi
4805:doi
4776:doi
4745:doi
4733:171
4710:doi
4676:doi
4664:162
4641:doi
4637:302
4597:doi
4550:doi
4546:135
4515:doi
4462:doi
4450:414
4427:doi
4415:202
4384:doi
4372:141
4329:doi
4295:doi
4283:153
4246:doi
4213:doi
4186:doi
4182:163
4147:doi
4095:PMC
4087:doi
4048:doi
4036:145
4011:hdl
4003:doi
3999:253
3975:doi
3971:119
3903:hdl
3893:doi
3889:116
3862:doi
3834:doi
3822:196
3791:doi
3754:doi
3713:doi
3672:hdl
3664:doi
3622:doi
3497:S.
3430:CoO
3428:0.5
3424:0.5
3351:An
3214:YSZ
3194:).
3173:BMW
3097:DOE
2125:exp
588:0.5
584:0.5
580:0.2
576:0.8
538:, Y
6079::
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5669:.
5661:.
5651:78
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5620:38
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5585:41
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5122:22
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5069:.
5057:^
5041:.
5039:19
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4884:52
4882:.
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4801:72
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4704:.
4688:^
4674:.
4662:.
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4603:.
4593:18
4591:.
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4556:.
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4492:}}
4488:{{
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4460:.
4448:.
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4370:.
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4319:.
4307:^
4293:.
4281:.
4277:.
4252:.
4207:,
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