Sampi - Knowledge (XXG)

1978:") literally means "a spurious pregnancy", from "παρα-" and the verb "κυέω" "to be pregnant". The term has been used and accepted as possibly authentic by Jannaris, Uhlhorn and again by Soldati. While Jannaris hypothesizes that it was meant to evoke the oblique, reclining shape of the character, Soldati suggests it was meant to evoke its status as an irregular, out-of-place addition ("un'utile superfetazione"). Einarson, however, argues that the word is probably the product of textual corruption during transmission in the Byzantine period. He suggests that the original reading was similar to that used by Rabdas, "ὁ καλούμενος χαρακτήρ" ("the so-called character"). Another contemporary cover term for the extra-alphabetic numerals would have been "παράσημον" ( 2295:

tens and hundreds, including sampi, are much less frequently found in practice than the lower letters for 1 to 10. One of the few domains where higher numbers including thousands and hundreds are still expressed in the old system in Greece with some regularity is the field of law, because until 1914 laws were numbered in this way. For instance, one law which happens to have sampi in its name and is still in force and relatively often referred to is "Νόμος ͵ΓϠΝʹ/1911" (i.e. Law Number 3950 of 1911), "Περί της εκ των αυτοκινήτων ποινικής και αστικής ευθύνης" ("About penal and civil responsibility arising from the use of automobiles"). However, in informal practice, the letter sampi is often replaced in such instances by a lowercase or uppercase π.

2510:. As they were adopted successively in different versions of Unicode, their coverage in current computer fonts and operating systems is inconsistent as of 2010. U+03E0 ("Greek letter Sampi") was present from version 1.1 (1993) and was originally meant to show the normal modern numeral glyph. The uppercase/lowercase contrast was introduced with version 3.0 (1999). As the existing code point had been technically defined as an uppercase character, the new addition was declared lowercase (U+03E1, "Greek small letter Sampi"). This has led to some inconsistency between fonts, because the glyph that was present at U+03E0 in older fonts is now usually found at U+03E1 in newer ones, while U+03E0 may have a typographically uncommon capital glyph. 2049: 1279: 912: 2405: 2348: 1477:, and san), and three extra-alphabetic letters were adopted for the Milesian numeral system, two of them obviously identical with the archaic digamma and koppa; hence, it is easy to assume that the third in the set had the same history. Objections to this account have been related to the fact that sampi did not assume the same position san had had, and to the lack of any obvious relation between the shapes of the two letters and the lack of any intermediate forms linking the two uses. 2421: 2381: 2356: 2217: 2198: 2171: 1402: 1383: 1375: 1367: 1359: 1351: 1343: 1335: 1318: 1310: 1302: 1294: 1257: 1249: 1225: 2413: 2397: 2332: 2340: 2786: 2389: 2324: 1209: 2526: 1084: 1061: 994: 1136: 1047: 1025: 2304: 2499: 1326: 588: 530: 2518: 2440: 1655: 1612: 1241: 684: 580: 2568: 1217: 1201: 2113: 1534: κοππατίας ἵππους ἐκάλουν οἷς ἐγκεχάρακτο τὸ κ στοιχεῖον, ὡς σαμφόρας τοὺς ἐγκεχαραγμένους τὸ σ. τὸ γὰρ σ κατὰ τὸ ϻ χαρασσόμενον ϻὰν ἔλεγον. αἱ δὲ χαράξεις αὗται καὶ μέχρι τοῦ νῦν σῴζονται ἐπὶ τοῖς ἵπποις. συνεζευγμένου δὲ τοῦ κ καὶ σ τὸ σχῆμα τοῦ ἐνακόσιοι ἀριθμοῦ δύναται νοεῖσθαι, οὗ προηγεῖται τὸ κόππα· καὶ παρὰ γραμματικοῖς οὕτω διδάσκεται, καὶ καλεῖται κόππα ἐνενήκοντα. 2163: 1604: 1584: 2740: 2072: 2491: 1982:, lit. "extra sign"). A redactor could have written the consonant letters "π-σ-μ" of "παράσημον" over the letters "χ-κτ-ρ" of "χαρακτήρ", as both words happen to share their remaining intermediate letters. The result, mixed together from letters of both words, could have been misread in the next step as "παρακυησμ", and hence, "παρακύϊσμα". 1391: 1717:(see above). Some modern authors, taking Scaliger's reference as the first known use and unaware of earlier attestations, have claimed that the name itself only originated in the 17th century and/or that Scaliger himself invented it. A related term was used shortly after Scaliger by the French author Montfaucon, who called the sign " 33: 1541: "Koppatias" were called horses that were branded with the letter κ, just as "Samphoras" were those branded with σ. For the "σ" written like ϻ was called san. These brandings can still be found on horses today. And from a "κ" joined together with "σ", one can see how the number sign for 900 is derived, which is preceded by 2614: 1481:

new archaeological discoveries regarding the relative dating of the various events involved (i.e. the original emergence of the alphabet, the loss of archaic san, the emergence of alphabetic sampi, and the emergence of the numeral system) have continued to affect the data base on which it is founded.

1480:

Among older authorities, Gardthausen and Thompson took the identity between san and sampi for granted. Foat, in a skeptical reassessment of the evidence, came to the conclusion that it was a plausible hypothesis but unprovable. The discussion has continued until the present, while a steady trickle of

1163:

The dating of the emergence of this system, and with it of numeric sampi, has been the object of much discussion. At the end of the 19th century, authors such as Thompson placed its full development only in the 3rd century BC. Jeffery states that the system as a whole can be traced much further back,

2530:, with the Ionian character serving as the reference glyph. As of 2010, these characters are not yet supported by most current Greek fonts. The Gothic "900" symbol was encoded in version 3.1 (2001), and Coptic sampi in version 4.1 (2005). Codepoints for the related Greek characters san and Bactrian " 1525:

mark on each: "koppa" and "san" respectively. After explaining this, the anonymous scholiast adds a digression that appears to be meant to further explain the name and function of "san", drawing some kind of link between it and the numeral sign of 900. However, what exactly was meant here is obscure

1797:

in the alphabet". This proposal thus presupposes the historical identity between sampi and ancient san (Ϻ), which indeed stood behind Π. However, this account too is problematic as it implies a very early date of the emergence of the name, since after the archaic period the original position of san

1670:

itself, it is generally agreed today that it is of late origin and not the original name of the character in either its ancient alphabetic or its numeral function. Babiniotis describes it as "medieval", while Jannaris places its emergence "after the thirteenth century". However, the precise time of

1181:

Earlier than the attestations in the full function as a numeral are a few instances where sampi was used in Athens as a mark to enumerate sequences of things in a set, along with the 24 other letters of the alphabet, without implying a specific decimal numeral value. For instance, there is a set of

1159:

From this, it has been concluded that the system must have been invented at a time and place when digamma and koppa were still either in use or at least still remembered as parts of the alphabetic sequence, whereas san had either already been forgotten, or at least was no longer remembered with its

2031:

referred to the sound because that sound happened to occur in the name itself. However, Ion, in speaking of a "25th letter of the alphabet", meant not just a different pronunciation of some other letters but an actual written letter in its own right, namely sampi. According to Willi's hypothesis,

2294:

Together with the other elements of the Greek numeral system, sampi is occasionally still used in Greek today. However, since the system is typically used only to enumerate items in relatively small sets, such as the chapters of a book or the names of rulers in a dynasty, the signs for the higher

1167:

While the emergence of the system as a whole has thus been given a much earlier dating than was often assumed earlier, actual occurrences of the letter sampi in this context have as yet not been found in any early examples. According to Threatte, the earliest known use of numeric sampi in a stone

2371:

and koppa) no difference is normally made in print between an upper case and lower case form; the same character is typically used in both environments. However, occasionally special typographic variants adapted to an upper case style have also been employed in print. The issue of designing such

3042: 2319:

version of the numeral sign, ϡ, for their fonts. The typographic realization of Sampi has varied widely throughout its history in print, and a large range of different shapes can still be found in current electronic typesetting. Commonly used forms range from small, π-like shapes

2453:

character encoding standard, experimental typographical stylizations of a lowercase textual Sampi have been developed. The Unicode reference glyph for "small letter archaic sampi", according to an original draft, was to have looked like the stem of a small τ with a square top at

1196:

At an early stage in the papyri, the numeral sampi was used not only for 900, but, somewhat confusingly, also as a multiplicator for 1000, since a way of marking thousands and their multiples was not yet otherwise provided by the alphabetic system. Writing an alpha over sampi

5291: 1623:) and the numeral for 900 has rarely been in doubt, although in the older literature it was sometimes mentioned only tentatively, An isolated position was expressed in the early 20th century by Jannaris, who – without mentioning the alphabetic use of Ionian 1164:

into the 6th century BC. An early, though isolated, instance of apparent use of alphabetic Milesian numerals in Athens occurs on a stone inscribed with several columns of two-digit numerals, of unknown meaning, dated from the middle of the 5th century BC.

1464:

phoneme. Suggestions for its original sound value have included , , and . The second reason for the assumption is the systematicity in the development of the letter inventory: there were three archaic letters that dropped out of use in alphabetic writing

2448:

as a makeshift replacement. As this character has in the past never been supported in normal Greek fonts, there is no typographical tradition for its uppercase and lowercase representation in the style of a normal text font. Since its inclusion in the

1785:. This reading is problematic because it fits the shape only of the modern (late Byzantine) sampi but presupposes active use of an archaic nomenclature that had long since lost currency by the time that shape emerged. According to a second hypothesis, 1459:

The hypothetical identification between san and sampi is based on a number of considerations. One is the similarity of the sounds represented by both. San represented either simple or some other, divergent phonetic realization of the common Greek

1492:

drew attention to it in the mid-17th century. Scaliger's discussion also contains the first known attestation of the name "san pi" (sampi) in the western literature, and the first attempt at explaining it. The passage in question is a

908:" ("to Athena of Assessos") has been identified. This is currently the first known instance of alphabetic sampi in Miletus itself, commonly assumed to be the birthplace of the numeral system and thus of the later numeric use of sampi. 2151:

During the first millennium AD, several neighboring languages whose alphabets were wholly or partly derived from the Greek adopted the structure of the Greek numeral system, and with it, some version or local replacement of sampi.

1526:

now, because the text was evidently corrupted during transmission and the actual symbols cited in it were probably exchanged. The following is the passage in the reading provided by a modern edition, with problematic words marked:

1261:, are also found in early papyri. This form fits the earliest attested verbal description of the shape of sampi as a numeral sign in the ancient literature, which occurs in a remark in the works of the 2nd-century AD physician 2257:), the equivalent of the Glagolitic sign, took its place soon later. It has been proposed that sampi was retained in its alternative function of denoting multiplication by thousand, and became the Cyrillic "thousands sign" 1330:

also occurs in stone inscriptions in the Roman era. In the late Roman period, the arrow-shaped or rounded forms are often written with a loop connecting the two lines at the right, leading to the "ace-of-spades" form

2513:

New, separate codepoints for ancient epigraphic sampi, also in an uppercase and lowercase variant, were proposed in 2005, and included in the standard with version 5.1 (2008). They are meant to cover both the Ionian

1876:

In some early medieval Latin documents from western Europe, there are descriptions of the contemporary Greek numeral system which imply that sampi was known simply by the Greek word for its numeric value, ἐννεακόσια

2376:

to encode separate character codepoints for uppercase and lowercase sampi. Several different designs are currently found. Older versions of the Unicode charts showed a glyph with a crooked and thicker lower stem

1182:

25 metal tokens, each stamped with one of the letters from alpha to sampi, which are dated to the 4th century BC and were probably used as identification marks for judges in the courts of the Athenian democracy.

2424:

Lowercase "archaic sampi" in different fonts. From left to right: Original Unicode draft, Unicode reference glyph, New Athena Unicode, Aroania, Avdira, IFAO-Grec Unicode, Atavyros, Anaktoria, Alfios, Code2000.

688:) was mostly used between the middle of the 6th and the middle of the 5th centuries BC, although some attestations have been dated as early as the 7th century BC. It has been attested in the cities of 1580:

in the Ionian colonies of Asia Minor. This hypothesis is mentioned by Jeffery and has been supported more recently by Genzardi Brixhe suggested that sampi could be related to the Carian letter 25 "

1814:

alone had persisted from antiquity until the time the sign took that modern shape. None of these hypotheses has wide support today. The most commonly accepted explanation of the name today is that

1592:. This would fit in with the "plausible, but not provable" hypothesis that the root contained in the Carian-Greek names spelled with sampi, "Πανυασσις" and "Οασσασσις", is identical with a root * 516: 1781:

together". Here, "san" refers not to the archaic letter san (i.e. Ϻ) itself, but to "san" as a mere synonym of "sigma", referring to the outer curve of the modern ϡ as resembling an inverted

1450:

in most dialects by the 7th century BC, but was retained in place of the latter in a number of local alphabets until the 5th century BC. It is generally agreed to be derived from Phoenician

1178:) but the exact numeric meaning of this example is disputed. In Athens, the first attestation is only from the beginning of the 2nd century AD, again in an inscription naming sums of money. 1160:

original alphabetic position. In the latter case, according to a much debated view, sampi itself may in fact have been regarded as being san, but with a new position in the alphabet.

1616:). Like the san–sampi hypothesis, the Carian hypothesis remains an open and controversial issue, especially since the knowledge of Carian itself is still fragmentary and developing. 1124:(Ρ), stand for the hundreds (100 – 900). For this purpose, the 24 letters of the standard classical Greek alphabet were used with the addition of three archaic or local letters: 1152:) for "90", and sampi for "900". While digamma and koppa were retained in their original alphabetic positions inherited from Phoenician, the third archaic Phoenician character, 1847:

In the absence of a proper name, there are indications that various generic terms were used in Byzantine times to refer to the sign. Thus, the 15th-century Greek mathematician

1627:– proposed that the shape of numeric sampi was derived from a juxtaposition of three "T"s, i.e. 3×300=900. (He also rejected the historical identity of the other two numerals, 2838:

had sampi encoded as 0xFC, while the popular "Wingreek" fonts had it encoded as 0x22. No encoding system prior to Unicode 5.1 catered for archaic epigraphic sampi separately.

1269:, Galen says that one of them "looks like the way some people write the sign for 900", and describes this as "the shape of the letter Π with a vertical line in the middle" (" 1798:

was apparently no longer remembered, and the whole point of the use of sampi in the numeral system is that it stands somewhere else. Yet a different hypothesis interprets

886:

has the names "Ἁλικαρναͳέν" ("of the Halicarnassians") and the personal names "Ὀαͳαͳιος" and "Πνυάͳιος". All of these names appear to be of non-Greek, local origin, i.e.

2109:), sampi was adopted along with the rest of the Ionian Greek alphabet, as an alphabetic character to write a second sibilant sound distinct from sigma. It had the shape 2385:). While this form has been adopted in some modern fonts, it has been replaced in more recent versions of Unicode with a simpler glyph, similar to the lowercase forms ( 560: 1863:, literally "outstanding") is today used properly as a generic cover term for all three extra-alphabetic numeral signs, but was used specifically to refer to 6 (i.e. 1484:

A part of the discussion about the identity of san and sampi has revolved around a difficult and probably corrupted piece of philological commentary by an anonymous

4000: 3232: 1694:. In one medieval Cyrillic group of manuscripts of this text, probably going back to a marginal note in an earlier Glagolitic version, the letter names "sampi" (" 642:", and is also of medieval origin. The letter's original name in antiquity is not known. It has been proposed that sampi was a continuation of the archaic letter 2830:

typesetting system, the "Babel" package allows accessing lowercase and uppercase sampi through the commands "\sampi" and "\Sampi". Non-Unicode (8-bit) fonts for

1889:, the three Greek numerals for 6, 90 and 900 are called "episimon", "cophe" and "enneacosis" respectively. the latter two being evidently corrupted versions of 1766:

refers to the letter π, but about the rest accounts differ depending on each author's stance on the question of the historical identity between sampi and san.

5230: 1935:

respectively (with the latter two names mistakenly interchanged for each other.) Another medieval manuscript has the same words distorted somewhat more, as

1229:), is used. This system was later simplified into one where the thousands operator was marked just as a small stroke to the left of the letter (͵α = 1000). 1565:

and a π, the modern editor D. Holwerda believes the scholiast spoke of the actual M-shaped san and expressed a belief that modern sampi was related to it.

1371:). From these shapes, finally, the modern form of sampi emerges, beginning in the 9th century, with the two straight lines becoming more or less parallel ( 1643:

Despite all uncertainties, authors who subscribe to the hypothesis of a historical link between ancient san and sampi also often continue to use the name

5062: 1036:, "Klemutas the vasirwotas, son of Lwaramus, dedicated this to the Queen of Perge"). The same title "Queen of Perge", the local title for the goddess 809:. It is therefore believed that the local letter sampi was used to denote some kind of intermediate sound during the phonetic change from the earlier 5301: 4667: 2834:

sometimes contained sampi mapped to arbitrary positions, but usually not as a casing pair. For instance, the "WP Greek Century" font that came with

1568:

An alternative hypothesis to that of the historical identity between san and sampi is that Ionian sampi may have been a loan from the neighbouring

619:. Its modern shape, which resembles a π inclining to the right with a longish curved cross-stroke, developed during its use as a numeric symbol in 5266: 2949:

Greek writing from Knossos to Homer: a linguistic interpretation of the origin of the Greek alphabet and the continuity of ancient Greek literacy

2962: 1414:

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, many authors have assumed that sampi was essentially a historical continuation of the archaic letter

1553:

There is no agreement on what was originally meant by this passage. While Scaliger in the 17th century believed that the scholiast spoke of

1156:/tsade (Ϻ, denoting an sound), was not used in this way. Instead, sampi was chosen, and added at the end of the system, after omega (800). 1702:") are used for the Greek numerals. Witnesses of this textual variant exist from c.1200, but its archetype can be dated to before 1000 AD. 553: 1974:, where the three numerals are referred to as "τὸ δίγαμμα καὶ τὸ κόππα καὶ τό καλούμενον παρακύϊσμα". The obscure word ("… the so-called 3322: 3265: 3246: 3057: 968:". Traces of corrections that are still visible underneath the painted "Τ" have led to the conjecture that the painter originally wrote 4503: 4130:

Hoz, Javier de (1998). "Epigrafía griega de occidente y escritura greco-ibérica". In Cabrera Bonet, P.; Sánchez Fernández, C. (eds.).

2247:) was used initially, being the one among the native Cyrillic letters that resembled sampi most closely in shape. However, the letter 1999:, who uses this name for what he calls a "25th letter" of the alphabet. Varro himself is clearly not referring to sampi, but is using 1290:

From the time of the earliest papyri, the square-topped forms of handwritten sampi alternate with variants where the top is rounded (

4477: 4267: 4197: 3594: 3132: 2458:, but was changed after consultation with Greek typesetting experts. The glyph shown in current official code charts stands on the 1635:(90), with their apparent alphabetic predecessors.) Today, the link between alphabetic and numeral sampi is universally accepted. 1221:) meant "9×1000", and so on. In the examples cited by Gardthausen, a slightly modified shape of sampi, with a shorter right stem ( 1108:

and is therefore sometimes called the "Milesian" system, there are 27 numeral signs: the first nine letters of the alphabet, from

5220: 4579: 546: 3584: 2478:

of an ρ or β. Most type designers who have implemented the character in current fonts have chosen to design a glyph either at

2482:, or with a descender but no ascender, and with the top either square or curved (corresponding to ancient scribal practice.) 2404: 2347: 4340: 3428:

Griechische Palaeographie. Vol. 2: Die Schrift, Unterschriften und Chronologie im Altertum und im byzantinischen Mittelalter

2412: 3122: 2907:

Willi, Andreas (2008). "Cows, houses, hooks: the Graeco-Semitic letter names as a chapter in the history of the alphabet".

2380: 1985:

An entirely new proposal has been made by A. Willi, who suggests that the original name of the letter in ancient Greek was

5225: 5130: 4398: 2355: 935:

It has been suggested that there may be an isolated example of the use of alphabetic sampi in Athens. In a famous painted

271: 2339: 1663:

sound only ever occurred in the middle of words and therefore could not have been used in the beginning of its own name.

4660: 2428:

The epigraphic ancient Ionian sampi is not normally rendered with the modern numeral character in print. In specialized

3251:. Other editions read "Klevutas" and "Lwaravu". "Ͷ" (transliterated "V") here stands for a second nonstandard letter, " 4889: 2396: 2331: 2098: 1608:. Adiego follows this with the hypothesis that both the Carian letter and sampi could ultimately go back to Greek Ζ ( 2388: 1851:

referred to the three numerals for 6, 90 and 900 as "τὸ ἐπίσημον", "τὸ ἀνώνυμον σημεῖον" ("the nameless sign", i.e.

1286:

text on papyrus, showing "ace-of-spades"-shaped sampi (here redrawn in red) next to digamma (blue) and koppa (green)

3337: 3292: 854:

The first known use of alphabetic sampi in writing native Greek words is an inscription found on a silver plate in

2393:). Many fonts designed for scholarly use have adopted an upright triangular shape with straight lines and serifs ( 5276: 4931: 843:

dated to the mid-7th century BC. This early attestation already bears witness to its alphabetic position behind

5194: 5034: 3442: 2323: 1169: 5256: 5204: 5135: 5054: 4653: 3967:

Zürich, Central Library, Codex Rh.131. The same manuscript is referred to as "Alphabet von Sankt Gallen" by

2175:

with a Ρ above"), was used for 900. Its numeric role was subsequently taken over by the native character Ϣ (

1577: 593: 279: 2040:, "to bend, curve", and referred to a "crooked object", used because of the hook-like shape of the letter. 1398:

In medieval western manuscripts describing the Greek alphabet, the arrowhead form is sometimes rendered as

1278: 5322: 5165: 5073: 4982: 4811: 2244: 2226: 2216: 2197: 2180: 1660: 1624: 1620: 1521:). Both were names for certain breeds of horses, and both were evidently named after the letter used as a 1489: 1461: 1149: 1141: 1089: 1007: 1003: 999: 829: 825: 821: 814: 806: 802: 774: 760: 533: 20: 2170: 2117:, with three vertical lines of equal length. Its pronunciation is uncertain, but it is transliterated as 1401: 1382: 1374: 1366: 1358: 1350: 1342: 1334: 1317: 1309: 1301: 1293: 1256: 1248: 1224: 5281: 5169: 5089: 5068: 5019: 2463: 2459: 406: 911: 4611: 5271: 5251: 5199: 5099: 5058: 4728: 2008: 1619:

While the origin of sampi continues to be debated, the identity between the alphabetic Ionian sampi (

1101: 5246: 5094: 4874: 4832: 4700: 3692:

Adiego, Ignacio-J. (1998). "Die neue Bilingue von Kaunos und das Problem des karischen Alphabets".

2816: 2420: 2210: 1687: 1683: 1675: 1569: 1431: 1245:. Square-topped shapes, with the middle vertical stroke either of equal length with the outer ones 2401:), as proposed by the typographer Yannis Haralambous. Other versions include large curved shapes ( 1659:. This opinion has been rejected as phonologically impossible by Soldati, who points out that the 5024: 4959: 4921: 4710: 4162: 4046: 3994: 3968: 3878: 3755: 3709: 3533: 3487: 3479: 3408: 3373: 3252: 3226: 3173: 3165: 3103: 3095: 3024: 3016: 2924: 2525: 2010: 1522: 1272:ὁ τοῦ π γραμμάτος χαρακτὴρ ἔχων ὀρθίαν μέσην γραμμὴν, ὡς ἔνιοι γράφουσι τῶν ἐννεακοσίων χαρακτῆρα 1083: 1060: 1018:

as well as on local coins. For instance, an inscription from Perge dated to around 400 BC reads:

993: 947: 500: 396: 4285:

Geordnetes Weltbild: die Tradition des alphabetischen Sortierens von der Keilschrift bis zur EDV

3796:

Utrum in alterum abiturum erat?: a study of the beginnings of text transmission in Church Slavic

3641:

Prolegomena de comoedia. Scholia in Acharnenses, Equites, Nubes (Scholia in Aristophanem 1.3.1.)

2048: 1135: 4481: 3203: 2954: 2785: 2352:). More rarely, one can find shapes with the lower end curving outwards, forming an "s" curve ( 1120:(Ι), stand for the multiples of ten (10, 20, etc. up to 90); and the last nine, beginning with 648:, which was originally shaped like an M and denoted the sound in some other dialects. Besides 5150: 5115: 4977: 4953: 4381: 4263: 4193: 4189: 3590: 3128: 2958: 2267: 2148:, ). This letter, too, has been hypothesized to be a continuation of Greek sampi, and/or san. 2129: 2125: 495: 485: 435: 430: 1325: 740:, it was used on coins, which were marked with the abbreviation of the city's name, spelled " 587: 5186: 5155: 5029: 4898: 4720: 4510: 4181: 4154: 3870: 3747: 3701: 3525: 3471: 3400: 3365: 3157: 3087: 3008: 2977:

C. Brixhe, "History of the Alpbabet", in Christidēs, Arapopoulou, & Chritē, eds., 2007,

2946: 2916: 2517: 2439: 2206: 2102: 1654: 1611: 1240: 983: 882:). It can be dated between the late 7th century and mid 6th century BC. An inscription from 683: 624: 579: 386: 364: 5296: 5286: 4992: 4827: 4741: 4705: 4695: 2831: 2368: 2316: 2230: 2191: 2156: 1971: 1869: 1848: 1710: 1691: 1628: 1190: 887: 851:), and it shows that its invention cannot have been much later than that of omega itself. 620: 490: 423: 391: 4536: 2807:

Prior to Unicode, support for sampi in electronic encoding was marginal. No common 8-bit

1561:, and meant to describe the (modern) shape of sampi (ϡ) as being composed of an inverted 1265:. Commenting on the use of certain obscure abbreviations found in earlier manuscripts of 982:

A letter similar to Ionian sampi, but of unknown historical relation with it, existed in

4456: 4040: 3391:

Boegehold, Alan L. (1960). "Aristotle's Athenaion Politeia 65,2: the 'official token'".

1810:". This is usually taken as referring to the modern ϡ shape, presupposing that the name 5145: 5140: 5125: 5009: 4997: 4780: 4676: 4095:

Scholia Londinensia in Dionyisii Thracis Artem grammaticem (Grammatici Graeci, Vol. I:3

3516:

Soldati, Agostino (2006). ""Τὸ καλούμενον παρακύϊσμα": Le forme del sampi nei papiri".

3196: 2137: 2106: 1886: 1632: 1473: 1452: 1442: 1347:. These forms, in turn, occasionally have another decorative stroke added on the left ( 1145: 1113: 1109: 1046: 1024: 943: 801:'four'). The sounds in question are all reflexes of the proto-Greek consonant clusters 616: 597: 457: 442: 411: 318: 108: 40: 2303: 1762:

has given rise to much speculation. The only element all authors agree on is that the

5316: 5261: 5160: 4987: 4972: 4940: 4884: 4879: 4854: 4754: 4319: 4182: 4166: 3882: 3759: 3713: 3537: 3491: 3377: 3177: 3107: 3028: 2947: 2928: 2229:) was used for 900. It too may have been derived from a form of the Hebrew tsade. In 2112: 1898: 1117: 883: 697: 4586: 2506:

Several codepoints for the encoding of sampi and its variants have been included in

2498: 2162: 1603: 1583: 1208: 604:

dialects of ancient Greek in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, to denote some type of a

5014: 4967: 4947: 4822: 4793: 4690: 4533:

The following free fonts have implemented the new characters: "IFAO-Grec Unicode" (

3309:

Compter avec des cailloux: le calcul élémentair sur l'abaque chez les anciens Grecs

2826:, lowercase and uppercase sampi are encoded as "#5" and "*#5" respectively. In the 2815:) contained sampi. However, lowercase and uppercase sampi were provided for by the 2532: 2433: 2133: 2086: 2024: 1782: 1562: 1498: 1416: 1283: 1153: 1121: 1076: 936: 848: 644: 376: 371: 310: 224: 4429: 4364: 4213: 2567: 4347: 1237:

In early stone inscriptions, the shape of sampi, both alphabetic and numeric, is

600:. It was used as an addition to the classical 24-letter alphabet in some eastern 4916: 4908: 4866: 4849: 4844: 4767: 3705: 2835: 2312: 1436: 1266: 836: 764: 750: 639: 601: 252: 242: 116: 80: 62: 4405: 1430:(Σ) that formed part of the Greek alphabet when it was originally adopted from 1216: 1200: 608:

sound, probably or , and was abandoned when the sound disappeared from Greek.

4555:), and a group of fonts including "Alfios", "Aroania", "Atavyros" and others ( 4158: 3751: 3529: 3369: 2920: 2812: 2467: 721: 713: 381: 3861:

Einarson, Benedict (1967). "Notes on the development of the Greek alphabet".

5176: 4111:

Uhlhorn, F. (1925). "Die Großbuchstaben der sogenannten gotischen Schrift".

3148:

Boegehold, Alan L. (1962). "The Nessos Amphora: a Note on the Inscription".

2823: 2820:

Greek alphabet coded character set for bibliographic information interchange

2475: 2429: 987: 818: 4550: 4214:"Revised proposal to add the Coptic alphabet to the BMP of the UCS (N2636)" 2071: 1647:

for the latter. Benedict Einarson hypothesizes that it was in fact called *

3311:. Lausanne: Presses polytechniques et universitaires Romandes. p. 95. 2739: 1962:

A curious name for sampi that occurs in one Greek source is "παρακύϊσμα" (

1545:. This is also taught by the grammarians, and the "90" is called "koppa". 1390: 5120: 2808: 2479: 2455: 2076: 1485: 1011: 701: 611:

It later remained in use as a numeral symbol for 900 in the alphabetic ("

605: 2490: 1832:

is unrelated to any letter name but simply the modern Greek preposition

5004: 2507: 2450: 2373: 1865: 1467: 1186: 1125: 1105: 1037: 939: 899: 891: 855: 810: 733: 725: 693: 689: 449: 336: 292: 188: 126: 98: 3483: 3412: 3169: 3099: 3020: 956:. The expected regular form of the name would have been either Attic " 4298:

Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter; Philippaki-Warburton, Irene (1997).

4145:

Sheldon, John (2003). "Iranian Evidence for Pindar's Spurious San?".

2132:, spoken in today's Afghanistan. Bactrian used an additional letter " 2027:. Willi conjectures that Varro misunderstood Ion, believing the name 1573: 1355:). It can be found attached in several different ways, from the top ( 895: 737: 234: 4612:"Teubner.sty: An extension to the greek option of the babel package" 3735: 3654:

Genzardi, Giuseppe (1987). "Una singolare lettera greca: il Sampi".

3459: 3075: 2996: 2124:

The Greek script was also adapted in Hellenistic times to write the

1727:), "because the Greeks regarded it as being composed of an inverted 3874: 3475: 3404: 3161: 3091: 3012: 2372:

uppercase variants has become more prominent since the decision of

4558: 4042:

Das germanische Runen-Fudark, aus den Quellen kritisch erschlossen

3356:

Tod, Marcus N. (1950). "The alphabetic numeral system in Attica".

2827: 2497: 2489: 2471: 2419: 2409:), or an upright large π-like glyph with a long descending curve ( 2302: 2194:

adopted sampi in its Roman era form of an upwards-pointing arrow (

2184: 2070: 2053: 1996: 1859:", i.e. just "the character"), respectively. The term "ἐπίσημον" ( 1651:, with the special quality of the sibilant sound it had as Ionian 1277: 1262: 1015: 910: 844: 840: 749:

Sampi occurs in positions where other dialects, including written

729: 717: 709: 612: 416: 401: 260: 216: 180: 152: 90: 54: 4645: 4262:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 168–172. 3673:

Brixhe, Claude (1982). "Palatalisations en grec et en phrygien".

1068:

is known to be the local feminine form of the archaic Greek noun

680:

As an alphabetic letter denoting a sibilant sound, sampi (shaped

3953:

Beda . "De loquela per gestum digitorum". In Migne, J.P. (ed.).

2613: 2279: 2271: 2259: 2249: 2235: 705: 331: 300: 198: 144: 72: 32: 4649: 2101:, used during the 4th century BC in eastern Spain to write the 1172:

from the 2nd century BC, in a phrase denoting a sum of money ("

4134:. Madrid: Ministerio de Educación y Cultura. pp. 180–196. 1995:). This proposal is based on a passage in a Latin grammarian, 1923:, a 9th or 10th century bilingual Greek—Latin manuscript, has 1907: 1713:'s discussion of the Aristophanes scholion regarding the word 1678:

text describing the development of the alphabet, the treatise

1528: 1088:

letter stood for some type of sibilant reflecting Proto-Greek

835:

Among the earliest known uses of sampi in this function is an

206: 170: 162: 134: 4245:

A Gothic Grammar - With Selections for Reading and a Glossary

1990: 1839: 1833: 1819: 1750: 1744: 1738: 1732: 1718: 1516: 1506: 1421: 1270: 1173: 1069: 1056: 1042: 1020: 969: 963: 957: 951: 926: 920: 903: 877: 871: 865: 859: 796: 790: 784: 778: 768: 754: 741: 4341:"From Unicode to typography, a case study: the Greek script" 1116:(Θ) stand for the digits 1–9; the next nine, beginning with 3987:

Alamannische Formeln und Briefe aus dem Neunten Jahrhundert

1193:

period onwards, numeric sampi occurs with some regularity.

870:" ("forty") spelled with sampi (cf. normal spelling Ionic " 4399:"Summary of repertoire for second PDAM 3 of ISO/IEC 10646" 2883:

Wachter, R. (1998). "Eine Weihung an Athena von Assesos".

1596:

identified elsewhere in Carian, which contains the Carian

2436:

academic discussion, it is either represented by a glyph

2286:), similar in shape to the Coptic sign, stands for 9000. 2085:("King of Kings , Kanishka the Kushan"), using Bactrian " 1709:

in the western literature occurs in a 17th-century work,

3124:

Inschriften von Milet: Milet. Inschriften n. 1020 - 1580

2187:(and thus, ultimately, cognate with Greek san as well). 2136:"(Ϸ), shaped like the later (unrelated) Germanic letter 2056:), showing the Iberian form of sampi. The first word is 1674:

The name is already attested in manuscript copies of an

728:(situated farther north in Asia Minor, in the region of 4504:"Proposal to add Greek epigraphical letters to the UCS" 4260:

The dawn of Slavic: an introduction to Slavic philology

3127:. Vol. 3/6. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 173–174. 1034:"Vanássāi Preiíāi Klemútas Lwarámu Vasirwōtas anéthēke" 998:. According to Brixhe it probably stood for the sounds 3589:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 508. 2363:

In its modern use as a numeral (as with the other two

1885:, a didactic text about arithmetics attributed to the 1434:. Archaic san stood in an alphabetic position between 19:

This article is about the letter. For other uses, see

4300:

Greek: a comprehensive grammar of the modern language

3219:

Le Dialecte grec de Pamphylie: Documents et grammaire

2307:

Various renditions of uppercase sampi in modern fonts

2063: 1010:. It is found in a few inscriptions in the cities of 660:, while other historically attested terms for it are 3900:. Paris: Guerin, Boudot & Robustel. p. 132. 3736:"The Digamma, Koppa, and Sampi as numerals in Greek" 5239: 5213: 5185: 5108: 5082: 5047: 4930: 4907: 4810: 4803: 4719: 4683: 4457:"Unicode Character Database: Derived Property Data" 4132:

Los griegos en España: tras las huellas de Heracles

4450: 4448: 4233:, p.363, refers to Ϣ as itself a version of sampi. 3266:"PHI Greek Inscriptions – Brixhe, Dial.gr.Pamph.1" 3195: 2311:With the advent of modern printing in the western 1769:According to the original suggestion by Scaliger, 652:, names that have been proposed for sampi include 3518:Archiv für Papyrusforschung und Verwandte Gebiete 4258:Schenker, Alexander M. (1995). "Early Writing". 4184:A Coptic grammar, with chrestomathy and glossary 4080:The Sankt Gall Priscan Commentary, Part 1, Vol 2 1028:αι Πρειίαι Κλεμύτας Λϝαράμυ Ͷασιρϝο̄τας ἀνέθε̄κε 3656:Rendiconti della Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 1855:), and "ὁ καλούμενος χαρακτήρ" ("the so-called 1497:on two rare words occurring in the comedies of 946:", the inscribed name of the eponymous centaur 824:, forming a triplet with the Greek letters for 4334: 4332: 4313: 4311: 4309: 2080: 2036:would have been derived from the verbal root * 2019:. However, Varro ascribes the use of the name 1947:, Other, similar versions of the name include 4661: 3771: 3769: 3578: 3576: 2057: 554: 8: 5231:Institute for Language and Speech Processing 4382:"The Unicode Standard 5.2. Greek and Coptic" 4365:"The Unicode Standard 3.1. Greek and Coptic" 3675:Bulletin de la Société linguistique de Paris 3621: 3619: 3562: 3560: 3198:The grammar of Attic inscriptions: phonology 2953:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 2052:Graeco-Iberian lead plaque from la Serreta ( 4535:Institut français d'archéologie orientale. 3904: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3789: 3787: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3189: 3187: 1897:. An anonymous 9th-century manuscript from 1743:" ("Graeci putarunt ex inverso sigma, quod 990:in southern Asia Minor. It was shaped like 4807: 4668: 4654: 4646: 4106: 4104: 3999:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3926:. Amsterdam: Janssonius. pp. 115–116. 3511: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3231:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3058:"PHI Greek Inscriptions – Halikarnassos 1" 2474:and is slightly curved leftwards like the 2336:), while the stems can be almost upright ( 1671:its emergence in Greek is not documented. 890:. On a late 6th century bronze plate from 561: 547: 27: 4320:"Additional Greek characters for the UCS" 2940: 2938: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2167:, which has been described as "the Greek 763:sound. Some other dialects, particularly 5302:Comparison of Ancient Greek dictionaries 4639:Handbook of Greek and Latin palaeography 4287:. Tübingen: Niemeyer. pp. 225, 653. 3121:Herrmann, Peter; Feissel, Denis (2006). 2538: 2047: 1446:(Ϙ). It dropped out of use in favour of 1168:inscription occurs in an inscription in 3069: 3067: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2846: 508: 477: 357: 270: 39: 3992: 3923:Animadversiones in chronologia Eusebii 3447:. Leipzig: Car. Cnobloch. p. 525. 3358:Annual of the British School at Athens 3351: 3349: 3347: 3224: 1213:) meant "1×1000", a theta over sampi ( 950:is rendered in the irregular spelling 3338:"PHI Greek Insriptions – IG II² 2776" 3323:"PHI Greek Inscriptions – Magnesia 4" 3293:"PHI Greek Inscriptions – IG I³ 1387" 3247:"PHI Greek Inscriptions – IK Perge 1" 2997:"Fresh evidence for Ͳ[Sampi]" 2328:) to shapes with large swash curves ( 7: 3798:. Bloomington: Slavica. p. 177. 2865:. Oxford: Clarendon. pp. 38–39. 2536:" were added in version 4.0 (2003). 1488:, which has been debated ever since 16:Archaic letter of the Greek alphabet 4641:. New York: D. Appleton. p. 7. 4559:"Unicode fonts for ancient scripts" 2863:The local scripts of archaic Greece 2183:), which is related to the Semitic 2023:to an ancient Ionian Greek author, 4188:. Wiesbaden: Harassowitz. p. 4063:Atto (1884). Migne, J. P. (ed.). 3460:"Sematography of the Greek papyri" 3430:. Leipzig: Veit. pp. 368–370. 3043:"Poinikastas, Ephesos number 1335" 2577:GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ARCHAIC SAMPI 1148:(Ϙ, originally denoting the sound 1080:("king"), it is believed that the 974:, with sampi for the σσ/ττ sound. 962:" – with a double "τ" – or Ionic " 925:" (possibly obliterating earlier " 14: 4302:. London: Routledge. p. 105. 3985:von Wyss, Paul Friedrich (1850). 3778:Lexiko tis Neas Ellinikis Glossas 3583:Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1961). 1789:would originally have meant "the 1682:ascribed to the 9th-century monk 1104:, which was probably invented in 4247:. London: Kegan Paul. p. 2. 4065:Attonis Vercellensis opera omnia 3869:: 1–24, especially p.13 and 22. 2784: 2738: 2612: 2597:GREEK SMALL LETTER ARCHAIC SAMPI 2566: 2524: 2516: 2444:, or by a Latin capital serifed 2438: 2411: 2403: 2395: 2387: 2379: 2354: 2346: 2338: 2330: 2322: 2258: 2248: 2234: 2215: 2196: 2169: 2161: 2111: 1705:The first reference to the name 1653: 1610: 1602: 1582: 1400: 1389: 1381: 1373: 1365: 1357: 1349: 1341: 1333: 1324: 1316: 1308: 1300: 1292: 1255: 1247: 1239: 1223: 1215: 1207: 1199: 1140:, originally denoting the sound 1134: 1082: 1059: 1045: 1023: 992: 984:the highly deviant local dialect 682: 586: 578: 529: 528: 31: 5221:Hellenic Foundation for Culture 4580:"The TLG Beta Code Manual 2010" 4551:"About New Athena Unicode Font" 3896:Montfaucon, Bernard de (1708). 3776:Babiniotis, Georgios. "σαμπί". 3643:. Groningen: Bouma. p. 13. 3586:The Greeks in Bactria and India 3464:The Journal of Hellenic Studies 3150:American Journal of Archaeology 2081: 2058: 1883:De loquela per gestum digitorum 1426:), the M-shaped alternative of 732:). In addition, in the city of 708:(all situated in the region of 3202:. Berlin: De Gruyter. p. 894:dedicated to the sanctuary of 753:, normally have double sigma ( 1: 5226:Center for the Greek Language 4784: 4771: 4758: 4745: 4732: 4283:Küster, Marc Wilhelm (2006). 4082:. Münster: Nodus. p. 32. 4067:. Paris: Garnier. p. 13. 4027:The Bodleian quarterly record 3444:Galenis opera omnia, Vol. 17a 2502:Archaic Sampi: U+0372, U+0373 2494:Numeral Sampi: U+03E0, U+03E1 2233:, in contrast, the character 1690:and later transmitted in the 1686:, which was written first in 942:from c.615 BC, known as the " 634:, originally probably meant " 4637:Thompson, Edward M. (1893). 4339:Haralambous, Yannis (1999). 4039:Lauth, Franz Joseph (1857). 3426:Gardthausen, Viktor (1913). 3327:, also known as Syll³ 695.b. 2915:(2): 401–423, here: p.419f. 2064: 1955:, or the curious corruption 1881:, "nine hundred"). Thus, in 1838:("like", from ancient Greek 1040:, is found on coin legends: 736:, on the Black Sea coast of 576:(modern: ϡ; ancient shapes: 358:Diacritics and other symbols 4430:"ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 N 3891" 3706:10.1515/kadm.1998.37.1-2.57 3080:Journal of Hellenic Studies 3001:Journal of Hellenic Studies 2861:Jeffery, Lilian H. (1961). 2749:COPTIC CAPITAL LETTER SAMPI 813:clusters towards the later 5339: 4045:. München: Lauth. p. 3836:Halikarnassische Inschrift 3794:Veder, William R. (1999). 3297:, also known as IG I² 760. 2979:A History of Ancient Greek 2945:Woodard, Roger D. (1997). 2795:GOTHIC LETTER NINE HUNDRED 1991: 1840: 1834: 1820: 1751: 1745: 1739: 1733: 1719: 1517: 1507: 1422: 1282:Detail from a 4th-century 1271: 1174: 1070: 1057: 1043: 1021: 970: 964: 958: 952: 927: 921: 904: 878: 872: 866: 860: 847:(i.e. not the position of 797: 791: 785: 779: 777:) in the same words (e.g. 769: 755: 742: 720:, in the Ionian colony of 18: 4610:Beccari, Claudio (2010). 4547:), "New Athena Unicode" ( 4318:Everson, Michael (1998). 4159:10.1017/S0066477400001416 4113:Zeitschrift für Buchkunde 4078:Hofman, Rijcklof (1996). 4015:Griechische Palaeographie 3973:Griechische Palaeographie 3921:Scaliger, Joseph (1658). 3905: 3752:10.1017/S0009838800004936 3611:Griechische Palaeographie 3530:10.1515/apf.2006.52.2.209 3370:10.1017/s0068245400006730 3194:Threatte, Leslie (1980). 2921:10.1017/S0009838808000517 2769:COPTIC SMALL LETTER SAMPI 2105:(a language unrelated to 2082:ÞΑΟΝΑΝΟÞΑΟ ΚΑΝΗÞΚΙ ΚΟÞΑΝΟ 1576:, which formed the local 1532: 517:Use as scientific symbols 4243:Braune, Wilhelm (1895). 4180:Layton, Bentley (2000). 3734:Jannaris, A. N. (1907). 3307:Schärlig, Alain (2001). 3055:British Museum No. 886, 2703:GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SAN 2663:GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SHO 2643:GREEK SMALL LETTER SAMPI 2344:) or almost horizontal ( 2278:) stands for 900, while 5257:Greek language question 4537:"Polices de caractères" 4502:Nicholas, Nick (2005). 4097:. Leipzig. p. 429. 4093:Hilgard, Alfred (ed.). 3740:The Classical Quarterly 3458:Foat, F. W. G. (1902). 3217:Brixhe, Claude (1976). 3074:Foat, F. W. G. (1905). 2995:Foat, F. W. G. (1906). 2315:, printers adopted the 2079:, with the inscription 1824:) simply means "like a 858:, which has the words " 3906:Τὸ λεγόμενο παρακύϊσμα 3221:. Paris. pp. 7–9. 2723:GREEK SMALL LETTER SAN 2683:GREEK SMALL LETTER SHO 2503: 2495: 2470:, but its stem has no 2425: 2308: 2099:Greco–Iberian alphabet 2094: 2068: 1773:means "written like a 1539: 1490:Joseph Justus Scaliger 1287: 932: 478:Use in other languages 281:Archaic local variants 21:Sampi (disambiguation) 3989:. Zürich. p. 31. 3957:. Paris. p. 697. 3639:Holwerda, D. (1977). 2885:Epigraphica Anatolica 2501: 2493: 2466:slightly higher than 2423: 2306: 2074: 2051: 1802:in the sense of "the 1281: 914: 905:τῇ Ἀθηνάηι τῇ Ἀͳησίηι 879:τέτταρες/τετταράκοντα 873:τέσσαρες/τεσσαράκοντα 5267:Morphemes in English 5252:Eteocypriot language 4684:Origin and genealogy 4549:Donald Mastronarde. 4516:on February 17, 2006 4455:Unicode Consortium. 3902:; cited in Soldati, 3898:Palaeographia Graeca 3842:, p.344, and Willi, 3838:, p.265; also Foat, 1793:that stands next to 1322:). The rounded form 716:), in the island of 5272:Terms of endearment 5247:Eteocretan language 5214:Promotion and study 4701:Pre-Greek substrate 3955:Opera omnia, vol. 1 3863:Classical Philology 3844:Cows, houses, hooks 3441:Galen (1821–1823). 2909:Classical Quarterly 2811:for Greek (such as 2140:(Þ), to denote its 1755:compositum esse"). 1676:Old Church Slavonic 1600:sound spelled with 1205:or, in a ligature, 817:sound, possibly an 623:handwriting of the 5292:Greek Language Day 4922:Jewish Koine Greek 4711:Hellenic languages 4119:: 57–64 and 64–74. 3969:Victor Gardthausen 3253:Pamphylian digamma 2623:GREEK LETTER SAMPI 2504: 2496: 2426: 2309: 2095: 2069: 1966:). It occurs in a 1921:Psalterium Cusanum 1828:", where the word 1731:, which is called 1588:", transcribed as 1288: 1100:In the alphabetic 933: 630:Its current name, 501:Old Italic scripts 5310: 5309: 5116:Cypriot syllabary 5043: 5042: 4917:Hellenistic Koine 3076:"Tsade and Sampi" 2964:978-0-19-510520-9 2805: 2804: 2486:Computer encoding 2119:⟨s⟩ 1919:. Similarly, the 1758:The etymology of 1698:") and "koppa" (" 1557:as a synonym for 1551: 1550: 1363:) or the bottom ( 1233:Glyph development 919:, with the name " 571: 570: 353: 352: 266: 265: 5330: 5035:Greco-Australian 4808: 4789: 4786: 4776: 4773: 4763: 4760: 4750: 4747: 4737: 4734: 4670: 4663: 4656: 4647: 4642: 4625: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4607: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4591: 4585:. Archived from 4584: 4576: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4565: 4554: 4546: 4544: 4543: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4521: 4515: 4509:. Archived from 4508: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4490: 4489: 4480:. Archived from 4476:Nicholas, Nick. 4473: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4463: 4452: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4439: 4434: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4417: 4416: 4410: 4404:. Archived from 4403: 4395: 4389: 4388: 4386: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4369: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4352: 4346:. Archived from 4345: 4336: 4327: 4326: 4324: 4315: 4304: 4303: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4240: 4234: 4227: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4210: 4204: 4203: 4187: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4127: 4121: 4120: 4108: 4099: 4098: 4090: 4084: 4083: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4018: 4011: 4005: 4004: 3998: 3990: 3982: 3976: 3965: 3959: 3958: 3950: 3944: 3937: 3931: 3928: 3918: 3912: 3908: 3907: 3901: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3858: 3847: 3832: 3826: 3823:Utrum in alterum 3819: 3813: 3810:Utrum in alterum 3806: 3800: 3799: 3791: 3782: 3781: 3773: 3764: 3763: 3731: 3718: 3717: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3670: 3664: 3663: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3636: 3630: 3623: 3614: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3580: 3571: 3564: 3555: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3513: 3496: 3495: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3423: 3417: 3416: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3353: 3342: 3341: 3334: 3328: 3326: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3304: 3298: 3296: 3289: 3283: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3262: 3256: 3250: 3243: 3237: 3236: 3230: 3222: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3201: 3191: 3182: 3181: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3118: 3112: 3111: 3071: 3062: 3061: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3039: 3033: 3032: 2992: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2968: 2952: 2942: 2933: 2932: 2904: 2893: 2892: 2880: 2867: 2866: 2858: 2789: 2788: 2743: 2742: 2617: 2616: 2571: 2570: 2539: 2529: 2528: 2521: 2520: 2447: 2443: 2442: 2416: 2415: 2408: 2407: 2400: 2399: 2392: 2391: 2384: 2383: 2359: 2358: 2351: 2350: 2343: 2342: 2335: 2334: 2327: 2326: 2262: 2252: 2246: 2238: 2228: 2220: 2219: 2201: 2200: 2182: 2174: 2173: 2166: 2165: 2159:, the sign "Ⳁ" ( 2120: 2116: 2115: 2103:Iberian language 2084: 2083: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2044:In other scripts 2014: 2003:to refer to the 1994: 1993: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1836: 1823: 1822: 1754: 1753: 1748: 1747: 1742: 1741: 1736: 1735: 1722: 1721: 1701: 1697: 1666:As for the name 1662: 1658: 1657: 1626: 1622: 1615: 1614: 1607: 1606: 1587: 1586: 1529: 1520: 1519: 1510: 1509: 1463: 1425: 1424: 1405: 1404: 1394: 1393: 1386: 1385: 1378: 1377: 1370: 1369: 1362: 1361: 1354: 1353: 1346: 1345: 1338: 1337: 1329: 1328: 1321: 1320: 1313: 1312: 1305: 1304: 1297: 1296: 1274: 1273: 1260: 1259: 1252: 1251: 1244: 1243: 1228: 1227: 1220: 1219: 1212: 1211: 1204: 1203: 1177: 1176: 1151: 1143: 1139: 1138: 1091: 1087: 1086: 1073: 1072: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1063: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1049: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1027: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 996: 978:Pamphylian sampi 973: 972: 967: 966: 961: 960: 955: 954: 930: 929: 924: 923: 907: 906: 902:, the spelling " 881: 880: 875: 874: 869: 868: 864:" ("four") and " 863: 862: 831: 827: 823: 816: 808: 804: 800: 799: 794: 793: 788: 787: 782: 781: 776: 772: 771: 762: 758: 757: 745: 744: 734:Pontic Mesembria 687: 686: 676:Alphabetic sampi 638:", i.e. "like a 591: 590: 583: 582: 563: 556: 549: 532: 531: 469: 461: 453: 286: 285: 48: 47: 35: 28: 5338: 5337: 5333: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5328: 5327: 5313: 5312: 5311: 5306: 5297:Trojan language 5287:Minoan language 5235: 5209: 5181: 5109:Writing systems 5104: 5100:Standard Modern 5078: 5074:Standard Modern 5039: 4993:Greco/Calabrian 4926: 4903: 4799: 4787: 4774: 4761: 4748: 4742:Mycenaean Greek 4735: 4715: 4706:Graeco-Phrygian 4696:Graeco-Armenian 4679: 4674: 4636: 4633: 4628: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4609: 4608: 4604: 4595: 4593: 4589: 4582: 4578: 4577: 4573: 4563: 4561: 4557:George Douros. 4556: 4548: 4541: 4539: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4506: 4501: 4500: 4496: 4487: 4485: 4475: 4474: 4470: 4461: 4459: 4454: 4453: 4446: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4428: 4427: 4423: 4414: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4397: 4396: 4392: 4384: 4380: 4379: 4375: 4367: 4363: 4362: 4358: 4350: 4343: 4338: 4337: 4330: 4322: 4317: 4316: 4307: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4282: 4281: 4277: 4270: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4231:Tsade and Sampi 4228: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4211: 4207: 4200: 4179: 4178: 4174: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4128: 4124: 4110: 4109: 4102: 4092: 4091: 4087: 4077: 4076: 4072: 4062: 4061: 4057: 4038: 4037: 4033: 4025: 4021: 4012: 4008: 3991: 3984: 3983: 3979: 3966: 3962: 3952: 3951: 3947: 3938: 3934: 3920: 3919: 3915: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3860: 3859: 3850: 3840:Tsade and Sampi 3833: 3829: 3820: 3816: 3807: 3803: 3793: 3792: 3785: 3775: 3774: 3767: 3733: 3732: 3721: 3691: 3690: 3686: 3672: 3671: 3667: 3653: 3652: 3648: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3624: 3617: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3582: 3581: 3574: 3565: 3558: 3549: 3545: 3515: 3514: 3499: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3440: 3439: 3435: 3425: 3424: 3420: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3355: 3354: 3345: 3336: 3335: 3331: 3321: 3320: 3316: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3291: 3290: 3286: 3277: 3273: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3245: 3244: 3240: 3223: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3193: 3192: 3185: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3135: 3120: 3119: 3115: 3073: 3072: 3065: 3056: 3054: 3050: 3041: 3040: 3036: 2994: 2993: 2984: 2976: 2972: 2965: 2944: 2943: 2936: 2906: 2905: 2896: 2882: 2881: 2870: 2860: 2859: 2848: 2844: 2832:polytonic Greek 2783: 2737: 2611: 2565: 2523: 2522:and Pamphylian 2515: 2488: 2445: 2437: 2410: 2402: 2394: 2386: 2378: 2353: 2345: 2337: 2329: 2321: 2301: 2292: 2214: 2209:writing system 2195: 2192:Gothic alphabet 2168: 2160: 2118: 2110: 2046: 1972:Dionysius Thrax 1849:Nikolaos Rabdas 1806:that resembles 1749:vocatur, et ex 1699: 1695: 1692:Cyrillic script 1652: 1641: 1609: 1601: 1581: 1547: 1536: 1412: 1399: 1388: 1380: 1372: 1364: 1356: 1348: 1340: 1332: 1323: 1315: 1307: 1299: 1291: 1254: 1246: 1238: 1235: 1222: 1214: 1206: 1198: 1189:texts from the 1133: 1098: 1081: 1055: 1041: 1019: 991: 980: 953:"ΝΕΤΟΣ" (Νέτος) 931:") on the right 759:), i.e. a long 681: 678: 585: 577: 567: 538: 473: 467: 459: 451: 445: 440: 426: 421: 367: 341: 284: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5336: 5334: 5326: 5325: 5315: 5314: 5308: 5307: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5243: 5241: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5217: 5215: 5211: 5210: 5208: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5191: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5180: 5179: 5174: 5173: 5172: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5146:Greek numerals 5143: 5141:Attic numerals 5138: 5133: 5126:Greek alphabet 5123: 5118: 5112: 5110: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5086: 5084: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5051: 5049: 5045: 5044: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4985: 4983:Constantinople 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4951: 4944: 4936: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4925: 4924: 4919: 4913: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4901: 4896: 4895: 4894: 4893: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4869: 4861: 4860: 4859: 4858: 4857: 4847: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4825: 4816: 4814: 4805: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4797: 4791: 4781:Medieval Greek 4778: 4765: 4752: 4739: 4725: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4680: 4677:Greek language 4675: 4673: 4672: 4665: 4658: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4626: 4602: 4571: 4526: 4494: 4468: 4444: 4421: 4390: 4373: 4356: 4353:on 2012-03-04. 4328: 4305: 4290: 4275: 4268: 4250: 4235: 4222: 4205: 4198: 4172: 4137: 4122: 4100: 4085: 4070: 4055: 4031: 4029:3 (1923), p.96 4019: 4006: 3977: 3960: 3945: 3932: 3913: 3888: 3875:10.1086/365183 3848: 3827: 3814: 3801: 3783: 3765: 3719: 3700:(1–2): 57–79. 3684: 3665: 3646: 3631: 3615: 3602: 3595: 3572: 3556: 3543: 3524:(2): 209–217. 3497: 3476:10.2307/623924 3450: 3433: 3418: 3405:10.2307/147161 3399:(4): 393–401. 3383: 3343: 3329: 3314: 3299: 3284: 3271: 3257: 3238: 3209: 3183: 3162:10.2307/502029 3156:(4): 405–406. 3140: 3133: 3113: 3092:10.2307/624245 3063: 3048: 3034: 3013:10.2307/624383 2982: 2970: 2963: 2934: 2894: 2868: 2845: 2843: 2840: 2803: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2793: 2790: 2781: 2777: 2776: 2773: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2757: 2756: 2753: 2750: 2747: 2744: 2735: 2731: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2715: 2711: 2710: 2707: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2695: 2691: 2690: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2678: 2675: 2671: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2651: 2650: 2647: 2644: 2641: 2638: 2635: 2631: 2630: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2618: 2609: 2605: 2604: 2601: 2598: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2585: 2584: 2581: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2563: 2559: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2487: 2484: 2300: 2297: 2291: 2288: 2045: 2042: 2015:in words like 1887:Venerable Bede 1640: 1637: 1549: 1548: 1537: 1411: 1408: 1306:) or pointed ( 1234: 1231: 1102:numeral system 1097: 1094: 979: 976: 944:Nessos amphora 917:Nessus amphora 677: 674: 617:Greek numerals 598:Greek alphabet 594:archaic letter 569: 568: 566: 565: 558: 551: 543: 540: 539: 537: 536: 525: 522: 521: 520: 519: 511: 510: 509:Related topics 506: 505: 504: 503: 498: 493: 488: 480: 479: 475: 474: 472: 471: 463: 455: 446: 441: 439: 438: 433: 427: 422: 420: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 368: 363: 360: 359: 355: 354: 351: 350: 345: 342: 340: 339: 334: 328: 326: 322: 321: 316: 313: 308: 304: 303: 298: 295: 290: 278: 275: 274: 268: 267: 264: 263: 258: 255: 250: 246: 245: 240: 237: 232: 228: 227: 222: 219: 214: 210: 209: 204: 201: 196: 192: 191: 186: 183: 178: 174: 173: 168: 165: 160: 156: 155: 150: 147: 142: 138: 137: 132: 129: 124: 120: 119: 114: 111: 106: 102: 101: 96: 93: 88: 84: 83: 78: 75: 70: 66: 65: 60: 57: 52: 44: 43: 41:Greek alphabet 37: 36: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5335: 5324: 5323:Greek letters 5321: 5320: 5318: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5238: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5212: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5184: 5178: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5166:Cyrillization 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5136:Archaic forms 5134: 5132: 5129: 5128: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5113: 5111: 5107: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5081: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5050: 5046: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4998:Griko/Apulian 4996: 4994: 4991: 4990: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4962: 4961: 4957: 4956: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4949: 4945: 4943: 4942: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4929: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4910: 4906: 4900: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4862: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4842: 4840: 4834: 4833:Arcadocypriot 4831: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4820: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4813: 4809: 4806: 4802: 4795: 4792: 4782: 4779: 4775: 300 BC 4769: 4766: 4756: 4755:Ancient Greek 4753: 4743: 4740: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4718: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4671: 4666: 4664: 4659: 4657: 4652: 4651: 4648: 4640: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4613: 4606: 4603: 4592:on 2011-07-16 4588: 4581: 4575: 4572: 4560: 4552: 4538: 4530: 4527: 4512: 4505: 4498: 4495: 4484:on 2012-08-05 4483: 4479: 4472: 4469: 4458: 4451: 4449: 4445: 4431: 4425: 4422: 4411:on 2011-10-04 4407: 4400: 4394: 4391: 4383: 4377: 4374: 4366: 4360: 4357: 4349: 4342: 4335: 4333: 4329: 4321: 4314: 4312: 4310: 4306: 4301: 4294: 4291: 4286: 4279: 4276: 4271: 4269:0-300-05846-2 4265: 4261: 4254: 4251: 4246: 4239: 4236: 4232: 4226: 4223: 4215: 4209: 4206: 4201: 4199:9783447042406 4195: 4191: 4186: 4185: 4176: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4138: 4133: 4126: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4107: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4089: 4086: 4081: 4074: 4071: 4066: 4059: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4035: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4020: 4016: 4013:Gardthausen, 4010: 4007: 4002: 3996: 3988: 3981: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3964: 3961: 3956: 3949: 3946: 3942: 3936: 3933: 3930: 3927: 3924: 3917: 3914: 3910: 3899: 3892: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3818: 3815: 3811: 3805: 3802: 3797: 3790: 3788: 3784: 3779: 3772: 3770: 3766: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3720: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3666: 3661: 3657: 3650: 3647: 3642: 3635: 3632: 3628: 3622: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3609:Gardthausen, 3606: 3603: 3598: 3596:9781108009416 3592: 3588: 3587: 3579: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3568:Local Scripts 3563: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3552:Palaeographie 3550:Gardthausen, 3547: 3544: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3512: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3454: 3451: 3446: 3445: 3437: 3434: 3429: 3422: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3387: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3333: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3315: 3310: 3303: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3285: 3281: 3275: 3272: 3267: 3261: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3242: 3239: 3234: 3228: 3220: 3213: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3199: 3190: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3141: 3136: 3134:9783110189667 3130: 3126: 3125: 3117: 3114: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3068: 3064: 3059: 3052: 3049: 3044: 3038: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2980: 2974: 2971: 2966: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2950: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2847: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2817:ISO 5428:1984 2814: 2810: 2800: 2797: 2794: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2779: 2778: 2774: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2762: 2759: 2758: 2754: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2741: 2736: 2733: 2732: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2719: 2716: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2685: 2682: 2679: 2676: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2659: 2656: 2653: 2652: 2648: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2636: 2633: 2632: 2628: 2625: 2622: 2619: 2615: 2610: 2607: 2606: 2602: 2599: 2596: 2593: 2590: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2564: 2561: 2560: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2534: 2527: 2519: 2511: 2509: 2500: 2492: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2441: 2435: 2434:palaeographic 2431: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2398: 2390: 2382: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2349: 2341: 2333: 2325: 2318: 2314: 2305: 2298: 2296: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2270:, the letter 2269: 2264: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2242: 2237: 2232: 2224: 2218: 2213:, the letter 2212: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2193: 2188: 2186: 2178: 2172: 2164: 2158: 2153: 2149: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2122: 2114: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2092: 2088: 2078: 2075:Coin of king 2073: 2066: 2055: 2050: 2043: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2012: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1988: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1909: 1904: 1900: 1899:Rheinau Abbey 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1874: 1872: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1831: 1827: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1730: 1726: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1669: 1664: 1656: 1650: 1646: 1638: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1617: 1613: 1605: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1546: 1544: 1538: 1535: 1531: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1514: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1476: 1475: 1470: 1469: 1457: 1455: 1454: 1449: 1445: 1444: 1439: 1438: 1433: 1429: 1419: 1418: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1396: 1392: 1384: 1376: 1368: 1360: 1352: 1344: 1336: 1327: 1319: 1311: 1303: 1295: 1285: 1284:cryptographic 1280: 1276: 1268: 1264: 1258: 1250: 1242: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1218: 1210: 1202: 1194: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1171: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1155: 1147: 1137: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1096:Numeric sampi 1095: 1093: 1085: 1079: 1078: 1062: 1048: 1039: 1035: 1026: 1017: 1013: 995: 989: 985: 977: 975: 949: 945: 941: 938: 918: 913: 909: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 884:Halicarnassus 857: 852: 850: 846: 842: 838: 833: 820: 812: 766: 752: 747: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 698:Halikarnassos 695: 691: 685: 675: 673: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 646: 641: 637: 633: 628: 626: 622: 618: 615:") system of 614: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 589: 581: 575: 564: 559: 557: 552: 550: 545: 544: 542: 541: 535: 527: 526: 524: 523: 518: 515: 514: 513: 512: 507: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 483: 482: 481: 476: 470: 464: 462: 456: 454: 448: 447: 444: 437: 434: 432: 429: 428: 425: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 369: 366: 362: 361: 356: 349: 346: 343: 338: 335: 333: 330: 329: 327: 324: 323: 320: 317: 314: 312: 309: 306: 305: 302: 299: 296: 294: 291: 288: 287: 283: 282: 277: 276: 273: 269: 262: 259: 256: 254: 251: 248: 247: 244: 241: 238: 236: 233: 230: 229: 226: 223: 220: 218: 215: 212: 211: 208: 205: 202: 200: 197: 194: 193: 190: 187: 184: 182: 179: 176: 175: 172: 169: 166: 164: 161: 158: 157: 154: 151: 148: 146: 143: 140: 139: 136: 133: 130: 128: 125: 122: 121: 118: 115: 112: 110: 107: 104: 103: 100: 97: 94: 92: 89: 86: 85: 82: 79: 76: 74: 71: 68: 67: 64: 61: 58: 56: 53: 50: 49: 46: 45: 42: 38: 34: 30: 29: 26: 22: 5170:Romanization 5020:Romano-Greek 5010:Mariupolitan 4958: 4948:Katharevousa 4946: 4939: 4796:(since 1453) 4794:Modern Greek 4691:Graeco-Aryan 4638: 4618:. 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