History of Islam in southern Italy

74: 2392:). Under Arab rule there were different categories of Jizya payers, but their common denominator was the payment of the Jizya as a mark of subjection to Muslim rule in exchange for protection against foreign and internal aggression. The conquered population could avoid this subservient status simply by converting to Islam. Whether by honest religious conviction or societal compulsion large numbers of native Sicilians converted to Islam. However, even after 100 years of Islamic rule, numerous Greek speaking Christian communities prospered, especially in north-eastern Sicily, as dhimmi. This was largely a result of the Jizya system which allowed subservient co-existence. This co-existence with the conquered population fell apart after the reconquest of Sicily, particularly following the death of King 676: 30: 2723:, in the Apulia region of southern Italy, was captured by a Muslim army in 847, then remained under Muslim control for the next 25 years. It became the capital of a small independent Islamic state with an emir and a mosque of its own. The first ruler of Bari was Khalfun, who had probably come from Sicily. After his death in 852, he was succeeded by Mufarraq ibn Sallam, who strengthened the Muslim conquest and enlarged its boundaries. He also asked for official recognition from Baghdad Caliph 1955:(the modern Enna, where Euphemius died), retreating back to Mazara. In 830, they received a strong reinforcement of 30,000 African and Spanish troops. The Spanish Muslims defeated the Byzantine commander Theodotus in July and August of that year, but a plague once again forced them to return to Mazara and then to Africa. The African Berber units sent to besiege Palermo captured it in September 831 after a year-long siege. Palermo, renamed al-Madinah, became the Muslim capital of Sicily. 2345: 7571: 2708: 2464:. Many oppressive measures were introduced by Frederick to please the popes who were afraid of Muslims so close to the papal state. This resulted in a rebellion by Sicilian Muslims, which in turn triggered organized resistance and systematic reprisals which marked the final chapter of Islam in Sicily. Under Frederick's reign, Moors were progressively eradicated until the massive deportation of the last 2108:; the city fell on May 21, 878. The Byzantines now maintained control over a short stretch of coast around Taormina, while the Muslim fleet attacked Greece and Malta. The latter fleet was, however, destroyed in a naval battle in 880. For a while, it seemed that the Byzantines could regain Sicily, but new land victories for the Muslims re-established their control. A revolt in Palermo against Governor 2076:, but the army and the fleet carrying it were defeated by Abbas. Byzantine reinforcements led many of the cities subjugated by the Muslims to revolt, and Abbas devoted the years 860–861 to reduce them. Abbas died in 861, replaced by his uncle Ahmed ibn Yaqub and, from February 862, by Abdallah, son of Abbas; the latter was in turn replaced by the Aghlabids with Khafagia ibn Sofian, who captured 888: 2229: 7560: 3428: 609: 3442: 2817:, defeating a Venetian fleet that had arrived there to face them. These victories strengthened the base of Taranto, at least in this time not an independent state, much less an "Emirate", but a foothold from which to start raids in the Adriatic and in the surrounding cities, initially at the service of the rebel 3182:

The Ottoman ambitions in Italy were ended. Had Otranto surrendered to the Turks, the history of Italy might have been very different. But the heroism of the people of Otranto was more than a strategically decisive stand. What made the sacrifice of Otranto so remarkable was the willingness to die for

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in 1060. The island was split between three Arab emirs, and the Sicilian population rose up against the ruling Muslims. One year later, Messina fell, and in 1072, Palermo was taken by the Normans. The loss of the cities, each with a splendid harbor, dealt a severe blow to Muslim power on the island.

2171:

The Arabs initiated land reforms that increased productivity and encouraged the growth of smallholdings, a mere dent in the dominance of the landed estates. The Arabs further improved irrigation systems. With about 300,000 inhabitants, Palermo in the 10th century was the most populous city in Italy.

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and numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate. In 805, the imperial patrician of Sicily Constantine signed a ten-year truce with Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab, emir of Ifriqiya, but this was not an impediment to the other pirates from North Africa and Muslim Spain to attack repeatedly Sardinia

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As Ibrahim was forced to abdicate in Tunis, he decided to lead in person the operations in southern Italy. Taormina, the last main Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, fell on August 1, 902. Messina and other cities opened their gates to avoid a similar massacre. Ibrahim's army also marched on southern

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known as Perabana. Perabana, who was a mixed Jewish and Moorish ancestry, had adopted his current name while serving with the Ottoman navy. They had been captured at Lepanto, and while imprisoned he openly professed his Islamic views and called Catholic sacraments "nonsense"; his firmness led the

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began to attack Gaeta's territory, and in retaliation against the pope Docibilis unleashed a group of Arabs from Agropoli near Salerno on the area around Fondi. The pope was "filled with shame" and restored Traetto to Docibilis. Their agreement seems to have sparked off a Saracen attack on Gaeta

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was able to prevent them from effectively doing so in 1052. Although the Arab attacks failed to achieve the island's conquest, they caused nonetheless a significant weakening of Sardinia's actual independence, leading to a struggle of the Italian powers for political influence over the island's

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At this point (902), Sicily was almost entirely under the control of the Aghlabids with the exception of some minor strongholds in the rugged interior. The population had been somewhat increased by Muslim migrants from Iberia, North Africa, and the Middle East. The emir in Palermo nominated the

1910:

for a sexual indiscretion. After a short-lived conquest of Syracuse, he was proclaimed emperor but was compelled by loyal forces to flee to the court of Ziyadat Allah in Africa. The latter agreed to conquer Sicily, with the promise to leave it to Euphemius in exchange for a yearly tribute. He

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With the support of the Fatimids, al-Akhal defeated two Byzantine expeditions in 1026 and 1031. His attempt to raise a heavy tax to pay his mercenaries caused a civil war. Al-Akhal asked the Byzantines for support while his brother abu-Hafs, leader of the rebels, received troops from the

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were not yet prepared, however, to ally against the new Saracen threat. Amalfi and Gaeta regularly teamed up with the Saracens and Naples was hardly better, all much to the chagrin of the Papacy. In fact, it was Naples that first brought Saracen troops to the south Italian mainland when

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which saved the situation in the first clash against the Muslims from Messina. After another decisive victory in the summer of 1040, Maniaces halted his march to lay siege to Syracuse. Despite his conquest of the latter, Maniaces was removed from his position, and the subsequent Muslim

2203:. His failed siege of Taormina, which had been rebuilt by the Christians, weakened his influence. By 917, a Fatimid fleet, brought by pleas from a dissatisfied Sicilian faction, placed Palermo under siege. After a six-month siege, Ibn Qurhub and his son were captured and executed. 2758:

but bypassing major population centres like Bari or Taranto. A few towns were freed of Muslim control and the various Muslim bands encountered were universally defeated. Encouraged by these successes, Louis attacked Bari with a ground force of Franks and Lombards and aided by a

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of Sicily. The historians have calculated that the number of expelled Muslims from Sicily was around 60,000, which means almost all of the Muslim population of the island. Most went to North Africa, while others were initially deported to a series of cities on mainland Italy:

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The Emirate of Taranto is the name given to an approximate Muslim settlement built starting from 840 by warriors from the recently conquered Sicily (827) who would have been under the command of a certain Saba, not better identified but remembered by Venetian chronicle of

2493:. From 1224 to 1239 some of these Muslims tried to return in Sicily, but in 1239 Frederick decided to deport all of them only in Lucera and the other cities were abandoned. The annihilation of Islam in Sicily was completed by the late 1240s when the final deportations to 2451:

who also wrote poetry regarding their exile. Nevertheless, some Muslims remained in the island, but they lived confined in an inner territory of western Sicily, in the area ranging from Palermo to Agrigento. The existence of Muslims was constant issue during

2176:, a Baghdad merchant who visited Sicily in 950. A walled suburb called the Kasr (the citadel) was (and remains) the center of Palermo, and the great Friday mosque stood on the site of the later Roman cathedral. The suburb of Al-Khalisa ( 2131:, in 900. The Sicilians were defeated at Trapani (August 22) and outside Palermo (September 8), the latter city resisting for another ten days. Abu l-Abbas moved against the remaining Byzantine strongholds and was also able to capture 3114:

managed to organise the community's escape and salvaged its library and archives. In 905, the monastery was again attacked and destroyed by "Saracens". Other areas of historical Saracen presence in central and southern Italy include,

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arrived on the island. The first Muslim executed during this period was a renegade (Christian) convert who was burned in 1506. This renegade, however, would be the only person executed by the inquisition in Sicily during the rule of

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was instead a cruel and violent lord who expelled the Berbers from the island after an unsuccessful revolt against him. In 1019, another uprising in Palermo was successful, and Ja'far was exiled to Africa and replaced by his brother

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and two armies led by Procopius and Leo were set up. The first result obtained by these was the occupation of Taranto in 880, and the enslavement of its Arab-Berber population, while the town was occupied by a Greek garrison.

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was successful, and all Saracens were captured and executed, ending any presence of Arabs in Lazio or Campania permanently. In 999 a last Saracen attempt of conquest of Salerno was thwarted by an alliance of Lombards, led by

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by land. The Saracens were able to embark, but a storm destroyed many ships, bringing on the beaches many corpses adorned with jewels which could be recovered. After that, the Lombard army headed south, reaching the Arabs at

2123:, where the imperial army was defeated in the summer of 888. However, the first inner revolt was followed by another in 890, mostly spurred by the hostility between Arabs and Berbers. In 892 an emir was sent from Ifriqiya by 2214:, to besiege Agrigento twice until it fell on November 20, 940. The revolt was totally suppressed in 941 with many of the prisoners sold as slaves and Governor Khalil boasting to have killed 600,000 people in his campaigns. 3177:

In 1480, an Ottoman Turkish fleet invaded Otranto, landing nearby the city and capturing it along with its fort. The Otranto population (remaining in the occupied city) was massacred after refusing to convert to Islam.

1039:

also fell to the Normans, and the conquest was complete. Malta fell later that year, though the Arab administration was kept in place, marking the final chapter of this period. The conquests of the Normans established

1198:. A further agreement between the new patrician Gregorius and the emir established the freedom of commerce between southern Italy and Ifriqiya. After a further attack in 819 by Mohammed ibn-Adballad, cousin of Amir 73: 2763:

fleet. In February 871 the citadel fell and Sawdan was captured and taken to Benevento in chains. In 1002 a last attempt of Saracen conquest was stopped, when a Venetian fleet defeated Muslims besieging Bari.

3319:, Salusius, was in fact killed in the fighting and the Sardinian organised resistance broke down. However, over the course of those very years some joint expeditions from the Italian maritime republics of 675: 2731:(i.e., prefect ruling over a province of the Abbasid empire). The third, and last, emir of Bari was Sawdan, who came to power around 857 after the murder of Mufarraq. He invaded the lands of the Lombard 2848:, the liberation of Sawdān, the terrible emir of Bari, prisoner for 4–5 years in Benevento and that he would then take refuge again in Taranto, perhaps having already been its commander before ʿUthmān. 1231: 2587:

in Sicily and accounted for a significant portion of Sicily's population. Such population was no longer present in Sicily by the early 17th century when, to escape the Spanish inquisition of the

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In 956, the Byzantines reconquered Reggio and invaded Sicily; a truce was signed in 960. Two years later a revolt in Taormina was bloodily suppressed, but the resistance of the Christians in the

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sacked the Arab held Reggio Calabria and massacred all the Saracens to the great jubilation of the local population. In 1006 a new Saracen fleet was defeated near Reggio Calabria by the Pisans.

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The local population conquered by the Muslims were Greek speaking Byzantine Christians, but there were also a significant number of Jews. These conquered people were afforded a limited

2164:, composed of the most eminent members of the local society, which was entrusted with the care of the public works and of the social order. The conquered Sicilian population lived as 2599:, however, it is doubtful that the order was carried out in practice. The main reason that some former Muslims were able to remain in Sicily was that they were openly supported by 2435:

in the southern tip of Sicily and the island of Malta, the last Arab strongholds, fell to the Christians. By the 11th century, Muslim power in the Mediterranean had begun to wane.

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Three years later, the same coalition of maritime powers, led by Caesar of Naples and supported by the Papal States, defeated another Arabic fleet near the recently refortified

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In the year 827, Mazara was occupied by the Arabs, who made the city an important commercial harbour. That period was probably the most prosperous in the history of Mazara.

2180:) contained the sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices, and a private prison. Ibn Hawqal reckoned there were 7,000 individual butchers trading in 150 shops. 2747: 1224: 3102:

itself, in which many Gaetans were killed or captured. Eventually peace was restored and the Saracens made a permanent settlement on the mouth of the Garigliano river.

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organised a vast alliance of southern powers, including Gaeta and Naples, the Lombard princes and the Byzantines; 'though, the Amalfitans stood aloof. The subsequent

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in 838), already intervened in the spring of 841, probably on behalf of the Byzantines, moving against Taranto with a fleet of sixty ships, but were defeated in the

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soldiers and farmers, following an initial settlement of 140 Provençal families in 1273. A remnant of the descendants of these Provençal colonists, still speaking a

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Throughout the ninth century, Arab ships dominated the Tyrrhenian Sea. Their pirates prowled the Italian coast launching hit and run attacks against the cities of

5037: 5012: 4446: 3885: 3010:, attacked the Arabs, hindered by booty and prisoners, in front of the city walls, pursuing a part of them until Centumcellae, while another group tried to reach 3258:

from the coastal towns. Details about the island's political situation in the following centuries are scarce. Because of the Saracen attacks in the 9th century,

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in the early 13th century, is said to have been able to speak Arabic (as well as Latin, Sicilian, German, French, and Greek) and had several Muslim ministers.

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Kenneth M. Setton, "The Byzantine Background to the Italian Renaissance" in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 100:1 (Feb. 24, 1956), pp. 1–76.

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Krueger, Hilmar C. (1969). "Conflict in the Mediterranean before the First Crusade: B. The Italian Cities and the Arabs before 1095". In Baldwin, M. W. (ed.).

1217: 7293: 6645: 419: 4977: 1143:, who had participated in the 728 attack, successfully captured Syracuse. Though ready to conquer the whole island, the expedition was forced to return to 3194:, despite frequent Italian quarreling at the time. The Neapolitan force met with the Turks in 1481, thoroughly annihilating them and recapturing Otranto. 2777:. What was initially an entrenched camp of Muslim warriors from Sicily was consolidated in 846, to resist as a settlement in Saracen hands until 880. The 7257: 6187: 5200: 916: 637: 580: 3312: 3245: 2739:

to pay a tribute. In 864, he obtained the official investiture requested by Mufarrag. The town was embellished with a mosque, palaces and public works.

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revolted again but after two resounding successes were decisively beaten at the gates of Palermo. An army was then sent by the new Fatimid caliph,

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from 806 to 821. In 812, Ibrahim's son, Abdallah I, sent an invasion force to conquer Sicily. His ships were first harassed by the intervention of

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Southern Italy in 1084, showing the remains of the Kalbid emirate, then fought over by multiple claimants, on the eve of the final Norman conquest

2286:, and the city soon fell to the Muslims, completing the Islamic conquest of Sicily. Manuel, along with 10,000 of his men, was killed in the fray. 4143: 3662: 3365: 2619:

and live accordingly.” On many occasions, the Duke of Osuna openly stressed the heroism of the Moors who had freed eight Christian prisoners in

6075: 3474: 2595:, a few Moriscos migrated to Sicily. During this time there were several attempts to rid Sicily of its formerly Muslim population. Unlike the 2096:

In the summer of 868, the Byzantines were defeated for the first time near Syracuse. Hostilities resumed in the early summer of 877 by the new

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to Palermo but was ousted again a few months later. The prince did not relent and sent another powerful army to Sicily under his son,

1847: 585: 4295:"Moriscos in Sicily in the Years of the Expulsion (1609–1614), Journal of Levantine Studies, Vol. 6, Summer/Winter 2016, pp. 333-355" 2263:. A second Calabrian campaign in 952 resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine army; Gerace was again besieged, but in the end Emperor 6618: 6593: 6436: 5885: 5124: 5073: 5054: 4950: 4812: 4762: 4648: 4618: 4571: 4494: 4469: 4412: 4387: 4186: 4159: 4107: 4080: 3857: 3609: 3571: 2427: 2405: 1024: 295: 7640: 1357: 3475:"Assessment of the status, development and diversification of fisheries-dependent communities: Mazara del Vallo Case study report" 6990: 6271: 6157: 5104: 4595: 4176: 3371: 2461: 1057: 550: 6567: 3370:

Arabic art and science continued to be influential in urban Sicily during the two centuries following the Christian reconquest.

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The Arab conquest of Sicily and parts of southern Italy lasted 75 years. According to some sources, the conquest was spurred by

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they then destroyed other Venetian ships coming from Sicily. The following year the Saracens of Taranto pushed again as far as

2068:, Cefalù, and, most important of all, Castrogiovanni, in winter 859. Many of the captives from Castrogiovanni were sent to the 452: 3339:, which began eighty years later. In 1022, some new invasion attempts were made by the Saracens, but a joint alliance between 3059: 2972:. No contemporary account hints at any Saracen attempt to penetrate the city, but it is possible that the Romans defended the 2964:

roads, as the Roman militia hastily retreated to the safety of the Roman walls. At the same time, other Arab forces landed at

2515:(Lugêrah, as it was known in Arabic). Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called 2199:

dynasty. Three years later, the Fatimid governor was ousted from Palermo when the island declared its independence under Emir

1827: 787: 7680: 7675: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7062: 6650: 6127: 5869: 5391: 5193: 4688: 3279: 2301:, capturing some strongholds. As the Byzantines were busy against the Fatimids in Syria and with the partial conquest of the 1428: 1312: 1117: 909: 630: 520: 175: 1977:. The war dragged on for several years with minor Ahglabid victories, while the Byzantines resisted in their strongholds of 1865: 1721: 425: 4097: 2255:

independent from the African government. In 950, Hassan waged war against the Byzantines in southern Italy, reaching up to

2072:, as a representation of Abbas ibn Fadhl's victory. In response, the Byzantine emperor sent a large force in 859–860 under 29: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7313: 7144: 7031: 6562: 6557: 5469: 5235: 4544: 3315:, records that Mujāhid had managed to take military control of the Sardinian coastal plain; the local Sardinian ruler and 2596: 2025: 1822: 1731: 1280: 1140: 826: 367: 362: 346: 6709: 1761: 7650: 7072: 7011: 6996: 6848: 6162: 5890: 5348: 4846: 3191: 2543: 2457: 2211: 1263: 1129: 1068:, count of Altamura, seized Lucera and exiled its population, bringing an end to the medieval Muslim presence in Italy. 555: 488: 3841: 1951:

when a plague killed many of their troops and Asad himself. They later returned to the offensive but failed to conquer

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forces also competing for control. Arabs were sometimes allied with various Christian factions against other factions.

7655: 7416: 7134: 6980: 6762: 6672: 6572: 6458: 6426: 6111: 5225: 5150:

Taylor, Julie Anne (April 2007). "Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century".

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which had fallen into the possession of the Saracens earlier that year. In response, a large Saracen force landed at

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A second Arab expedition to Sicily occurred in 669. This time, a strong, ravaging force consisting of 200 ships from

2293:(964–982) launched a series of attacks against Calabria in the 970s, while the fleet under his brother attacked the 7630: 7471: 7099: 6919: 6826: 6799: 6734: 6608: 6142: 6068: 5553: 5116: 3375: 1746: 1583: 1287: 782: 535: 494: 2101: 7501: 7267: 7190: 7154: 6172: 6137: 6132: 5220: 5186: 3205:

tried again to conquer Otranto and the Fortress of Castro, but the Turks were eventually repulsed from the city.

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After the Norman conquest, many Muslims decided to leave Sicily and to go into exile like the famous poets like

2282:, who captured Messina in October 964. The Byzantine forces, however, were swiftly routed in Rometta and at the 7625: 7516: 7506: 7486: 7456: 7411: 7109: 6951: 6883: 6853: 6833: 6714: 6390: 6355: 6152: 5925: 5514: 5230: 3381:

The heritage of the Arabic language can still be found in numerous terms adapted from it and still used in the

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The end of the Islamic presence in the Apulian city occurred in 880, by the Byzantine forces and the commander

1944: 1925:, by knights. The first battle against Byzantine troops occurred on July 15, 827, near Mazara, resulting in an 1450: 1435: 1389: 1327: 1317: 1005: 974: 791: 545: 280: 138: 3808: 3190:

called for a crusade, and a massive force was built up by Ferdinand I of Naples, among them notably troops of

2917:, in 836. Sicard immediately responded with his own Saracen mercenaries and their usage soon became the norm. 2143:. Ibrahim died of dysentery on October 24. His grandson stopped the military campaign and returned to Sicily. 1241: 7685: 7635: 7396: 7159: 7016: 6986: 6961: 6878: 6838: 6777: 6676: 6441: 6411: 5353: 3213: 3142:

became a perennial thorn in the side for the Papacy and many expeditions sought to get rid of them. In 915,

3078: 2822: 2534:. After the expulsions of Muslims in Lucera, Charles II replaced Lucera's Saracens with Christians, chiefly 2520: 2444: 2128: 1756: 1706: 1659: 1643: 1638: 1603: 1352: 1322: 1155: 438: 310: 227: 2519:. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of the 2053: 1973:

of Sicily. He defeated the Byzantines in early 834, and in the following year his troops reached as far as

7094: 7082: 6858: 6843: 6535: 6177: 5736: 5729: 5266: 5256: 3152: 3085:, capturing 18 enemy vessels and freeing 600 Christian slaves. In 880 or 881, John rescinded his grant of 2969: 2623:. They were presented in such a positive light that Osuna did not hesitate to take them into his service. 2572: 2302: 2124: 2073: 2065: 1842: 1787: 1716: 1545: 1478: 1292: 570: 4043: 2333: 2325: 2109: 1986: 7401: 7328: 7308: 7222: 7171: 6929: 6909: 6719: 6313: 6281: 6167: 6147: 6061: 6006: 5859: 5536: 4518:

Skinner, see first chapter. See also the vast literature on the coming of the Normans to southern Italy.

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and were later destroyed in great number by a tempest. However, they managed to conquer the island of

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prudently retreated to Sicily without exploiting the victory. In 1005, a Christian fleet coming from

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for allowing the Moriscos to stay in Sicily, exempting them from enslavement or from expulsion to

969:(occupied from 847 until 871), were established on the mainland peninsula, especially in mainland 957:

lasted from 831 until 1061, and controlled the whole island by 902. Though Sicily was the primary

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Asad subsequently conquered the southern shore of the island and laid siege to Syracuse. After a

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rule and even remained significant during Islamic period. In 1245, Muslims were deported to the

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also fell, and the Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat near Butera, losing about 10,000 men.

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The last presumed emir of Taranto, a certain ʿUthmān, allegedly negotiated in 875 or 876 with

2743: 2645: 2592: 2551: 2535: 2526:. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery, with many finding asylum in 2338: 2223: 2189: 1918: 1455: 1440: 1094: 1041: 1020: 954: 856: 772: 752: 446: 256: 88: 2206:

The island was governed by a Fatimid emir for the following 20 years. In 937, the Berbers of

7531: 7353: 7303: 7284: 7279: 7232: 7139: 7077: 7057: 7045: 7001: 6804: 6784: 6772: 6635: 6603: 6516: 6233: 6096: 6088: 6011: 5920: 5834: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5773: 5714: 5673: 5586: 5484: 5446: 5401: 5315: 5209: 5159: 4971: 3521: 3340: 3320: 3198: 3139: 3124: 3020: 3007: 2782: 2760: 2712: 2318: 2271: 2244: 1922: 1870: 1837: 1812: 1741: 1726: 1711: 1701: 1664: 1654: 1633: 1593: 1588: 1525: 1510: 1411: 1307: 1273: 1109: 1082: 997: 942: 844: 831: 804: 747: 717: 712: 664: 62: 2344: 1166:, but this did not prevent Arab fleets from other areas of Africa and Spain from attacking 7441: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7318: 7242: 7104: 6623: 6521: 6406: 6306: 6213: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5829: 5808: 5688: 5663: 5648: 5596: 5576: 5548: 5509: 5494: 5411: 4938: 4898: 4315: 4208: 4163: 4129: 3669: 3221: 3208:

Ottoman incursions on the south and west coasts of Italy continued into the 17th century.

3051: 2929: 2921: 2897: 2893: 2702: 2649: 2563: 2423: 2411: 2310: 2132: 2029: 1792: 1674: 1540: 1535: 1445: 1362: 1297: 1268: 1121: 737: 685: 482: 285: 4156: 2060:. He started a campaign of ravages against the lands still in Byzantine hands, capturing 4996: 7574: 7521: 7491: 7436: 7343: 7217: 7164: 7124: 6794: 6789: 6640: 6540: 6496: 6448: 6350: 6318: 6276: 6253: 6016: 5976: 5915: 5788: 5755: 5724: 5618: 5613: 5591: 5531: 5504: 5436: 5373: 5109: 5021: 4068: 3728: 3598: 3455: 3291: 3187: 3111: 3107: 3070: 2973: 2925: 2889: 2852: 2490: 2486: 2294: 2061: 1774: 1624: 1483: 1466: 1342: 1332: 1195: 1061: 970: 851: 765: 702: 413: 217: 132: 1120:(completed around 700), attacks from Arab fleets repeated in 703 (during the reign of 7589: 7446: 7087: 6657: 6345: 6323: 6182: 5844: 5683: 5601: 5524: 5519: 5474: 5451: 5421: 5396: 5330: 5171: 4966: 4536: 4222: 2961: 2957: 2724: 2636: 2612: 2600: 2415: 2069: 2041: 2006: 1994: 1782: 1598: 1148: 707: 575: 126: 105: 4749:

The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance

3716: 1154:

In 805, the imperial patrician of Sicily, Constantine, signed a ten-year truce with

7564: 7371: 7176: 6946: 6550: 6416: 6365: 6340: 5778: 5751: 5678: 5653: 5276: 4704: 3447: 3433: 3404: 3271: 3082: 3047: 3043: 3035: 2965: 2949: 2814: 2653: 2531: 2453: 1941: 994: 892: 613: 334: 163: 119: 2952:

in 846, annihilating the local Christian garrison. The Arabs struck following the

2251:

as emir of the island. As his position soon became hereditary, his emirate became

5084: 4244: 3992: 3732: 3331:: these Pisan–Genoese expeditions to Sardinia were approved and supported by the 2309:

decided to intervene. The allied German-Lombard army was defeated in 982 at the

17: 7466: 7406: 7376: 6729: 6360: 5991: 5783: 5416: 5271: 3564:

History Through the Opera Glass: From the Rise of Caesar to the Fall of Napoleon

3328: 3305:

and attempted to establish political control over it. The twelfth-century Pisan

3233: 3143: 3116: 2830: 2583:

In the early years of Spanish rule, many Muslims or former Muslims were held as

2077: 1421: 730: 475: 388: 143: 5144:

Family Power in Southern Italy: The Duchy of Gaeta and its Neighbours, 850–1139

4271: 3002:) attempted to resist, but were defeated. In the meantime, an army coming from 1936:

and an attempted mutiny, his troops were able to defeat a large army sent from

965:, some temporary footholds, the most substantial of which was the port city of 6724: 6333: 5658: 5608: 5340: 5163: 3423: 3298: 3255: 3039: 2806: 2790: 2616: 2448: 2200: 2196: 2173: 1907: 1105: 468: 3899: 3850:

Religion, ritual and mythology : aspects of identity formation in Europe

3794:

The Fatimid Navy, Byzantium and the Mediterranean Sea, 909–1036 CE/297–427 AH

5638: 5628: 5406: 5287: 4246:

Frontiers of Heresy: The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily

3160: 3120: 2888:. During this period, as the cities took command of their own defences, the 2474: 2207: 1183: 1049: 155: 149: 2278:

to send an army of 40,000 Armenians, Thracians, and Slavs under his nephew

2228: 1982: 1202:, no subsequent Arab attacks on Sicily are mentioned by sources until 827. 3038:. The Saracen survivors were made prisoners, enslaved and sent to work in 3019:, where another battle was engaged. On that occasion, only the arrival of 2634:

by the inquisition. Four of these Muslims were executed at a special 1572

2267:

was forced to accept having the Calabrian cities pay a tribute to Sicily.

7381: 7366: 7361: 7262: 6296: 6291: 5966: 5698: 5499: 5479: 5261: 5251: 3386: 3336: 3327:

managed to repulse the invaders and thus preserved Sardinia as a part of

3302: 3267: 3263: 3251: 3209: 3131: 3055: 2995: 2991: 2901: 2786: 2755: 2688:, including two African slaves who "relapsed 'pertinaciously' to Islam." 2657: 2539: 2482: 2478: 2419:

counter-offensive reconquered all the cities captured by the Byzantines.

2358: 2120: 1998: 1974: 1926: 1855: 1462: 1167: 1163: 1125: 986: 351: 4779:

The Inception of the Career of the Normans in Italy: Legend and History.

2160:), along with the other functionaries. Each city had a council called a 6396: 6328: 5702: 5543: 5461: 5383: 4778: 3639:

The Stones of Naples: Church Building in the Angevin Kingdom, 1266–1343

3533: 3259: 3156: 3086: 3003: 2982: 2885: 2856: 2826: 2810: 2682: 2669: 2661: 2641: 2620: 2604: 2588: 2584: 2527: 2465: 2376:, protected peoples, but were subject to some legal restrictions. The 2193: 2140: 2116: 2037: 2021: 2002: 1969: 1937: 1171: 1144: 1028: 1016: 989:. The Arab raids were part of a larger struggle for power in Italy and 197: 4981:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 69. 4157:

Islamization of Shqeptaret: The clas of Religions in Medieval Albania.

1209: 1139:

The first true conquest expedition was launched in 740. In that year,

7021: 5563: 3332: 3225: 3217: 3011: 2999: 2987: 2945: 2937: 2881: 2873: 2802: 2794: 2751: 2665: 2631: 2608: 2512: 2494: 2470: 2389: 2385: 2377: 2373: 2298: 2256: 2165: 2097: 2085: 2081: 2033: 1191: 1179: 1090: 1001: 990: 978: 958: 946: 938: 4294: 3525: 2785:(whose traffic had been threatened by a destructive Saracen raid on 1132:

as governor of Ifriqiya 727–732), 733, and 734 (during the reign of

5178: 4970: 4724:

The Medieval Abbey of Farfa: Target of Papal and Imperial Ambitions

4666:

Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries

4592:

Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries

3994:

Mediterranean Encounters, Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550

3717:

Overview of Italy in the late 9th century at cronologia.leonardo.it

2388:

or land tax, but were exempt from the tax that Muslims had to pay (

6301: 6084: 5706: 5668: 3229: 3135: 3050:. Rome would never again be threatened by an Arab army. After the 3016: 2953: 2941: 2877: 2860: 2834: 2825:. Thus not only Saracens from Sicily arrived in Taranto, but also 2706: 2547: 2381: 2354: 2343: 2227: 2177: 1948: 1187: 1175: 1113: 1009: 962: 950: 28: 6053: 4753:(illustrated ed.). University of California Press. pp. 4343:

Crouzet-Pavan, Elisabeth; Cochrane, Lydia G. (16 February 2005).

3767:, ed. Carole Hillenbrand, (Edinburgh University Press, 2009), 47. 3385:. Another legacy of Muslim rule is the survival of some Sicilian 6809: 6286: 3389:

of Arabic origin, for example "Calata-" or "Calta-" from Arabic

2798: 2720: 2432: 1978: 1952: 1913: 1159: 1036: 982: 966: 934: 6057: 5182: 1213: 4847:

Between Salt Water and Holy Water: A History of Southern Italy

3900:"Saracen Door and Battle of Palermo - Best of Sicily Magazine" 2630:, five Muslims were executed and another two were executed in 4643:(Vol 3 ed.). Rome: Gherardo Casini Editor. p. 103. 4613:(Vol 3 ed.). Rome: Gherardo Casini Editor. p. 100. 3236:

were raided and sacked in 1554, 1560, and 1620 respectively.

3110:

was sacked by "Saracens", who burned it to the ground. Abbot

2400:

Decline (1037–1061) and Norman conquest of Sicily (1061–1091)

4566:(Vol 3 ed.). Rome: Gherardo Casini Editor. p. 99. 2243:

After suppressing another revolt in 948, the Fatimid Caliph

1151:. A second attack in 752 aimed only to sack Syracuse again. 1081:

The first attacks by Arab ships on Sicily, then part of the

3031:

of Naples, decided the battle in favour of the Christians.

2859:, between 876 and 880 a huge fleet commanded by the Syrian 4830:"Library : How the 800 Martyrs of Otranto Saved Rome" 3549:

A History of the Crusades, vol. I: The First Hundred Years

3254:

from the recently conquered North Africa would harass the

2673:

three others to do the same. Between 1617 and 1640 (under

3551:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 40–53. 2940:. Before the battle, the alliance had already recaptured 2188:

In 909, the African Aghlabid dynasty was replaced by the

1906:, a Byzantine commander who feared punishment by Emperor 2414:

crossed the strait of Messina. This included a corps of

2313:. However, as al-Qasim himself had been killed, his son 2009:, granting the Muslims total control of western Sicily. 3779:

The Empire of the Mahdi : The Rise of the Fatimids

2546:, has survived till the present day in the villages of 1019:

established the independence of their emirate from the

4886:(III, 74). Bruce 2006, 132. For the Latin text of the 3737:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 156. 2332:(990–998), both patrons of the arts. The latter's son 2324:

The emirate reached its cultural peak under the emirs

3508:

Krueger, Hilmar C.; Musca, Giosue (1966). "Review of

1985:. New troops arrived in the island from the new Emir 3391: 945:, which was captured in 827. The subsequent rule of 7352: 7189: 7044: 6896: 6749: 6692: 6581: 6568:

Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia

6474: 6383: 6264: 6201: 6120: 6104: 6095: 6025: 5949: 5878: 5817: 5750: 5697: 5562: 5460: 5382: 5339: 5285: 5244: 5047:

Gli Arabi in Italia. Cultura, contatti e tradizioni

4668:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 55–56. 5108: 4746: 3597: 2805:and attempting an incursion from the mouth of the 2656:. They consisted of three renegade converts (from 2501:Deportation of the last Muslims from Lucera (1300) 1947:. However, the Muslims retreated to the castle of 1128:703–715), 728, 729, 730, 731 (during the reign of 1101:, came to Sicily to oust the invaders but failed. 4362:(1st ed.). Catania: Prampolini. p. 445. 4223:"Italian City States 1250–1453 by Sanderson Beck" 4787:, Vol. 23, No. 3. (Jul., 1948), pp. 353–396 4270:The James Blair Historical Review (2015-10-15). 3966:A.Lowe: The Barrier and the bridge, op cit;p.92. 2239:, showing the Kalbid emirate before its collapse 4144:Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera 3978:Roger Ii De Sicile – Un Normand En Méditerranée 3626:Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera 3352:independent states, with the sole exception of 3224:in Calabria in 1594 (cathedral destroyed); and 2781:, to defend their role as a commercial port of 2591:(Muslims who had converted to Christianity) in 1963:In February 832, Ziyadat Allah sent his cousin 5045:Gabrieli, Francesco; Umberto Scerrato (1993). 4178:Mercenaries in Medieval and Renaissance Europe 3934:Il breviario miniato dei Carmelitani di Sutera 3846:From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily 2909:hired them as mercenaries during his war with 2511:Some of the expelled Muslims were deported to 1035:and its citadel (1072) were captured. In 1091 6069: 5194: 3809:"Pisa e gli Arabi: il Mito di Kinzica (1005)" 3759: 3757: 3755: 2575:, which "functioned rather carefully" there. 2431:Eventually all of Sicily was taken. In 1091, 2119:in 886 also encouraged the Muslims to attack 1225: 931:history of Islam in Sicily and southern Italy 910: 631: 8: 4175:Janin, Hunt; Carlson, Ursula (2 July 2013). 3734:The Ismāʿı̄lı̄s: Their History and Doctrines 3628:, (Rowman & Littlefield Inc., 2003), 18. 3600:The Ismāʻı̄lı̄s: Their History and Doctrines 3408: 3403:) "fortress or citadel". Indeed the city of 3398: 3216:in the Bay of Naples were attacked in 1548; 2837:, attracted by the prospects of easy booty. 2365:, which were commanded by his son Abdallah. 4099:The Military Factor in Social Change Vol. 2 3937:(in Italian). Officina di Studi Medievali. 3266:after more than 1,800 years of habitation; 3081:and Gaeta and defeated a Muslim fleet near 33:Arabic painting made for the Norman kings ( 7195: 7050: 6902: 6755: 6101: 6076: 6062: 6054: 5201: 5187: 5179: 5036:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5011:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4445:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4329: 4327: 4325: 3884:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1911:entrusted its conquest to the 70-year-old 1232: 1218: 1210: 917: 903: 649: 638: 624: 47: 5825:Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent 5089:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 4585: 4583: 4345:Venice Triumphant: The Horizons of a Myth 3872:L'Italie meridionale et l'empire Byzantin 3658: 3656: 2797:, where the Muslims sacked the island of 2603:, now officially installed as viceroy in 44:, originally the emir's palace at Palermo 5146:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4925:God's War: A New History of the Crusades 4884:Omnia cum plano tenuit montana tyrampnus 3832:Salvatori 2002, 23; Heywood 1921, 22 n2. 2218:Independent emirate of Sicily (965–1091) 2156:) and those of the less important ones ( 2012:In 836, Muslim ships helped their ally, 4641:Storia della città di Roma nel Medioevo 4611:Storia della città di Roma nel Medioevo 4564:Storia della città di Roma nel Medioevo 4435:(1st ed.). Rome. pp. 113–114. 3520:(1). Medieval Academy of America: 761. 3466: 3360:Islamic and Arabic influence and legacy 2172:A description of the city was given by 1967:to the island and appointed him as the 663: 652: 61: 50: 5111:The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History 5029: 5004: 4863:. Sassari, it: Carlo Delfino Editore. 4438: 4311: 4300: 4204: 4194: 4125: 4115: 4044:"SARACENI DI SICILIA in "Federiciana"" 3877: 2924:, in alliance with maritime powers of 2607:, advocated to the Spanish monarch in 1116:after a month of pillaging. After the 1077:First Arab attacks on Sicily (652–827) 1048:had been prominent during the time of 4634: 4632: 4630: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4426: 4424: 4373: 4371: 4369: 4238: 4236: 4146:. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. 2003. 3926: 3924: 3922: 3650:Previté-Orton (1971), vol. 1, pg. 370 3641:, (Yale University Press, 2004), 107. 3313:1113–1115 Balearic Islands expedition 3246:Pisan–Genoese expeditions to Sardinia 2291:Abu'l-Qasim Ali ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi 973:, though Arab raids, mainly those of 7: 6614:Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy 5654:Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep Turkomans) 5066:Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. A Life 5026:(in Italian), vol. II, Florence 4943:Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. A Life 4683:. Rome: Newton&Compton editori. 3852:/ edited by Joaquim Carvalho, 2006, 3407:gets its name from the Saracen name 3183:the faith rather than reject Christ. 2976:, while outside of the city, around 2855:. Under the energetic leadership of 2020:troops, and with Neapolitan support 5001:(in Italian), vol. I, Florence 4927:, London: Penguin Books, p. 55 3957:N.Daniel: The Arabs; op cit; p.154. 3807:Campagnano, Gabriele (2017-06-01). 3409: 3399: 3278:In 1015 and again in 1016 the Emir 2896:gained their independence from the 2668:respectively) and a physician from 5659:Aq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans) 5152:Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 1940:backed by a Venetian fleet led by 1136:as governor of Ifriqiya 732–734). 1130:Ubayda ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami 25: 5886:Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia 4859:Casula, Francesco Cesare (1994). 4243:Monter, E. William (2003-11-13). 3066:forced the raising of the siege. 2558:During Aragonese rule (1412-1516) 2406:Norman conquest of southern Italy 2135:on the mainland on June 10, 901. 2052:In 851, the governor and general 1108:attacked the island. They sacked 953:started in the 10th century. The 7570: 7569: 7558: 5277:Second Islamic civil war (Fitna) 5068:. London: Secker & Warburg. 4945:. London: Secker & Warburg. 4596:University of Pennsylvania Press 4073:Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor 3916:Previte-Orton (1971), pg. 507-11 3596:Daftary, Farhad (19 July 1990). 3440: 3426: 3372:Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor 3335:, making them precursors of the 3192:Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus 2936:, defeated a Saracen fleet near 2681:), nine heretics were burned at 2615:, as long as they wanted “to be 2410:In 1038, a Byzantine army under 2115:The death of the strong Emperor 886: 674: 607: 72: 7299:Orders, decorations, and medals 5272:First Islamic civil war (Fitna) 5049:. Milan: Garzanti Scheiwiller. 5023:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia 4998:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia 4710:Chronica Monasterii Cassinensis 4639:Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1988). 4609:Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1988). 4562:Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1988). 4541:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia 4433:Cronache Veneziane antichissime 4360:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia 3097:. As Patricia Skinner relates: 2711:The capture of Bari led by the 2579:During Spanish rule (1516–1713) 1965:Abu Fihr Muhammad ibn Abd-Allah 1959:Abu Fihr Muhammad ibn Abd-Allah 4249:. Cambridge University Press. 3848:, Charles Dalli, page 153. In 3796:. Byzantion. pp. 220–252. 3694:, (Cosimo Classic, 2008), 307. 3604:. Cambridge University Press. 3250:Starting from 705 to 706, the 2900:. The Christian states of the 2750:, he fought his way deep into 2380:were also required to pay the 2152:governors of the main cities ( 832:From home rule to independence 176:Praetorian prefecture of Italy 1: 5236:Historiography of early Islam 5086:The Muslims of Medieval Italy 4489:. Bari: Dedalo. p. 118. 4382:. Bari: Dedalo. p. 136. 4276:James Blair Historical Review 3705:History of the Eastern Empire 3692:History of the Eastern Empire 3366:Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture 3058:force landed in Calabria and 2233: 2026:Muhammad Abul Abbas of Sicily 2024:was also conquered in 842 by 1141:Habib ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri 1118:Arab conquest of North Africa 286:Byzantine reconquest of Italy 34: 7621:History of religion in Italy 5891:Spread of Islam in Indonesia 4745:Peter Partner (1 Jan 1972). 4464:. Bari: Dedalo. p. 22. 4431:Monticolo, Giovanni (1890). 3681:Previté-Orton (1971), p. 370 3197:In 1537, the famous Turkish 2768:Emirate of Taranto (840–880) 2746:organised a response. After 2562:During Sicily's time in the 2102:Jafar ibn Muhammad al-Tamini 2028:, who later established the 1206:Conquest of Sicily (827–902) 1085:, occurred in 652 under the 1044:firmly in the region, where 347:Mid-16th c. to early 19th c. 7646:History of Islam by country 7339:Water supply and sanitation 6763:Italian geographical region 6631:Monarchy and the World Wars 6573:Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 6459:War of the Sicilian Vespers 6112:Timeline of Italian history 5226:Timeline of Islamic history 4019:"MONREALE in "Federiciana"" 3781:. Leiden. pp. 405–406. 3392: 3173:Ottoman invasion of Otranto 3167:Ottoman invasion of Otranto 3046:which was to encompass the 3006:and headed by Lombard Duke 2507:Muslim settlement of Lucera 1629:Nikephoros Phokas the Elder 1200:Ziyadat Allah I of Ifriqiya 1066:Giovanni Pipino da Barletta 985:and the northern region of 876:Timeline of Maltese history 7702: 7258:Inventions and discoveries 6668:Fall of the Fascist regime 6651:Fourth War of Independence 6609:Expedition of the Thousand 6599:Second War of Independence 5554:Federation of South Arabia 5142:Skinner, Patricia (1995). 5138:. Bari: Dedalo Litostampa. 5136:L'emirato di Bari, 847-871 5117:Cambridge University Press 4403:Lane, Frederic C. (2019). 4155:Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski. 4102:. Transaction Publishers. 3931:Ferlisi, Calogero (2004). 3874:. Paris. pp. 450–453. 3510:L'emirato di Bari, 847–871 3363: 3262:was abandoned in favor of 3243: 3170: 3052:Christian conquest of Bari 2719:The Adriatic port city of 2700: 2640:held at the waterfront of 2504: 2403: 2221: 2056:died. He was succeeded by 2040:was conquered in 846, and 2016:, when he was besieged by 1890: 977:, reached as far north as 7554: 7198: 7053: 7032:Security and intelligence 6905: 6758: 6619:Third War of Independence 6594:First War of Independence 5515:Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo 5216: 5164:10.1080/13602000701308889 5064:Masson, Georgina (1957). 4681:I Papi - storia e segreti 4679:Rendina, Claudio (2005). 4407:. Einaudi. pp. 8–9. 3765:Muslims of Medieval Italy 3562:Jellinek, George (1994). 3456:History of Islam in Malta 3299:Muslim Spain (al-Andalus) 2980:, members of the Vatican 2697:Emirate of Bari (847–871) 2249:al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi 2147:Aghlabid Sicily (827–909) 1893:Muslim conquest of Sicily 1675:George Maniakes in Sicily 1251: 862:European Union membership 190:Romano-Barbarian Kingdoms 6710:Istrian–Dalmatian exodus 6705:Institutional referendum 6033:Islamic Republic of Iran 4803:. Woodsbridge, Suffolk: 4797:Brown, R. Allen (1984). 4664:Kreutz, Barbara (1996). 4347:. JHU Press. p. 60. 3997:. Ashgate. p. 236. 3991:Abulafia, David (2000). 3416:('Fort of the Women'),. 3159:pilgrims returning from 3148:Battle of the Garigliano 2727:'s governor in Egypt as 2544:Franco-Provençal dialect 2439:Swabian rule (1194–1250) 2184:Fatimid Sicily (909–965) 1945:Giustiniano Participazio 975:Muhammad I ibn al-Aghlab 713:Phoenicians and Carthage 281:Italy in the Middle Ages 139:Roman expansion in Italy 7233:Emigration and diaspora 6442:Guelphs and Ghibellines 6427:the Sardinian Judicates 5083:Metcalfe, Alex (2009). 5020:Amari, Michele (1858), 4995:Amari, Michele (1854), 4978:Encyclopædia Britannica 4834:www.catholicculture.org 4726:, (Brill, 1997), 32–33. 4590:Barbara Kreutz (1996). 4358:Amari, Michele (1933). 3093:and gave it instead to 2801:, also setting fire to 2445:Abu Al Hasan Al Balnubi 2384:, or poll tax, and the 2168:or converted to Islam. 1156:Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab 489:European migrant crisis 439:Italian Social Republic 354:Italy (1801–1814) 311:Guelphs and Ghibellines 7616:11th-century conflicts 7611:10th-century conflicts 7115:Science and technology 7063:Italian regions by GDP 6864:Marine protected areas 6536:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 5870:Sultans on the Comoros 5257:Succession to Muhammad 5134:Musca, Giosuè (1964). 4849:, by Tommaso Astarita. 4703:Skinner, 33, based on 4547:, 1854, Vol. I, p. 364 4485:Musca, Giosuè (1992). 4460:Musca, Giosuè (1992). 4378:Musca, Giosuè (1992). 4310:Cite journal requires 4075:. London: Allen Lane. 3566:. Kahn & Averill. 3185: 3104: 2857:Basil I the Macedonian 2793:and pursued as far as 2716: 2349: 2240: 2074:Constantine Kontomytes 172:(286 AD–476 AD) 102:(12th–6th c. BC) 96:(18th–3rd c. BC) 45: 7681:11th century in Italy 7676:10th century in Italy 7606:9th-century conflicts 7601:8th-century conflicts 7596:7th-century conflicts 7314:Public administration 6422:the Holy Roman Empire 6007:Sultanate of Zanzibar 5926:Maguindanao Sultanate 5860:Muzaffarids (Gujarat) 5730:Expansion into Europe 5537:Mamluk dynasty (Iraq) 4861:La Storia di Sardegna 3976:Aubé, Pierre (2001). 3275:between 806 and 821. 3180: 3099: 2970:marching towards Rome 2710: 2648:) in the presence of 2593:the Iberian peninsula 2456:rule in Sicily under 2372:under the Muslims as 2347: 2305:, the German Emperor 2284:Battle of the Straits 2231: 2212:al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah 2054:Al-Aghlab Abu Ibrahim 432:Italy in World War II 135:(509 BC–27 BC) 129:(753 BC–509 BC) 108:(8th–3rd c. BC) 100:Etruscan civilization 32: 7671:9th century in Italy 7666:8th century in Italy 7661:7th century in Italy 7542:World Heritage Sites 6997:Council of Ministers 6735:Coronavirus pandemic 6133:Currency and coinage 5987:Sultanate of Bagirmi 5354:Caliphate of Córdoba 5105:Previte-Orton, C. W. 4972:"Caltanisetta" 4921:Tyerman, Christopher 4805:Boydell & Brewer 3904:www.bestofsicily.com 3792:Lev, Yaacov (1984). 3777:Halm, Heinz (1996). 3637:Caroline Bruzelius, 3201:and Ottoman admiral 3130:The Saracen camp at 3091:Docibilis I of Gaeta 2978:St. Peter's Basilica 2748:a five-year campaign 2524:Charles II of Naples 2487:Casal Monte Saraceno 2394:William II of Sicily 2276:Nikephoros II Phokas 2274:led the new emperor 2139:Calabria, besieging 2129:Abu l-Abbas Abdallah 2125:Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad 2112:was crushed in 887. 2070:Caliph Al-Mutawakkil 1768:Byzantine reconquest 1054:settlement of Lucera 1046:Eastern Christianity 812:British Protectorate 526:Currency and coinage 465:(1970s–1980s) 420:Italy in World War I 331:(14th–16th c.) 166:(27 BC–286 AD) 94:Nuragic civilization 42:Palazzo dei Normanni 7651:Invasions of Europe 7641:Arab–Byzantine wars 7073:Automotive industry 7012:Metropolitan cities 6558:Early Modern period 6531:Kingdom of Sardinia 6482:Italian city-states 6002:Sultanate of Darfur 5972:Sultanate of Dahlak 5769:Khwarazmian dynasty 5764:Kara-Khanid Khanate 5624:Khwarazmian dynasty 5475:Early Islamic Syria 4735:Mary Stroll, 24–25. 3870:Gay, Jules (1904). 3482:European Commission 3349:Sardinian Judicates 3311:, a history of the 2915:Prince of Benevento 2868:Latium and Campania 2833:corsairs exiled to 2650:Don Juan of Austria 2568:Spanish Inquisition 2517:Lucaera Saracenorum 2370:freedom of religion 2110:Seuàda ibn Muhammad 2014:Andrew II of Naples 1987:Al-Aghlab Abu Affan 1243:Arab–Byzantine wars 773:Knights Hospitaller 329:Italian Renaissance 306:Italian city-states 7656:Invasions of Italy 7135:Telecommunications 6502:Maritime republics 5962:Sultanate of Aussa 5644:Jalairid Sultanate 5572:Iranian Intermezzo 5326:Islamic Golden Age 5306:Abbasid Revolution 5296:Rashidun Caliphate 4897:2011-08-11 at the 4777:Joranson, Einar. " 4162:2009-11-25 at the 3668:2011-07-14 at the 3512:by Giosuè Musca". 3308:Liber maiolichinus 3153:Prince Guaimar III 3095:Pandenulf of Capua 2733:Duchy of Benevento 2717: 2426:, son of Tancred, 2363:al-Muizz ibn Badis 2350: 2261:Cassano allo Ionio 2241: 2092:Jafar ibn Muhammad 1898:Euphemius and Asad 1670:Straits of Messina 1489:2nd Constantinople 1474:1st Constantinople 1087:Rashidun Caliphate 302:Maritime republics 288:(6th–8th c.) 242:Carolingian Empire 46: 7631:Emirate of Sicily 7583: 7582: 7550: 7549: 7185: 7184: 7120:Southern question 7040: 7039: 6972:Political parties 6920:Foreign relations 6892: 6891: 6745: 6744: 6466:Kingdom of Naples 6454:Kingdom of Sicily 6051: 6050: 6043:Sultanate of Oman 6038:Pakistan Movement 5997:Sultanate of Adal 5982:Sultanate of Ifat 5957:Angoche Sultanate 5941:Mataram Sultanate 5936:Ternate Sultanate 5911:Malacca Sultanate 5865:Gujarat Sultanate 5855:Jaunpur Sultanate 5850:Bahmani Sultanate 5840:Deccan sultanates 5720:Anatolian beyliks 5490:Ikhshidid dynasty 5442:Marinid Sultanate 5432:Almohad Caliphate 5427:Almoravid dynasty 5369:Marinid Sultanate 5364:Almohad Caliphate 5359:Almoravid dynasty 5321:Fatimid Caliphate 5311:Abbasid Caliphate 5301:Umayyad Caliphate 5096:978-0-7486-2008-1 4870:978-88-7138-084-1 4598:. pp. 25–28. 4487:L'emirato di Bari 4462:L'emirato di Bari 4405:Storia di Venezia 4380:L'emirato di Bari 4256:978-0-521-52259-5 4004:978-0-86078-841-6 3944:978-88-88615-50-9 3744:978-0-521-37019-6 3484:. 2010. p. 2 3317:judge of Cagliari 3297:, in the east of 3280:Mujāhid al-‘Āmirī 3064:the Emperor Louis 2846:Duke of Benevento 2692:Italian Peninsula 2601:the Duke of Osuna 2552:Celle di San Vito 2224:Emirate of Sicily 2190:Fatimid Caliphate 2106:besieged Syracuse 2044:followed in 848. 1919:Asad ibn al-Furat 1888: 1887: 1099:exarch of Ravenna 1042:Roman Catholicism 1021:Fatimid Caliphate 955:Emirate of Sicily 927: 926: 857:Republic of Malta 845:Independent Malta 822:Language Question 783:French occupation 753:Kingdom of Sicily 648: 647: 495:COVID-19 pandemic 491:(2014–2016) 485:(2007–2009) 479:(1992–2001) 471:(1986–1992) 449:(1943–1945) 447:Italian Civil War 434:(1940–1945) 428:(1922–1943) 422:(1914–1918) 416:(1882–1960) 410:(1861–1946) 382:(1815–1871) 343:(1545–1648) 337:(1494–1559) 298:in southern Italy 266: 265: 257:Holy Roman Empire 89:Prehistoric Italy 18:Saracens in Italy 16:(Redirected from 7693: 7573: 7572: 7565:Italy portal 7562: 7561: 7502:National symbols 7196: 7051: 6903: 6756: 6636:Kingdom of Italy 6563:Napoleonic Italy 6102: 6078: 6071: 6064: 6055: 6012:Sokoto Caliphate 5921:Banten Sultanate 5901:Brunei Sultanate 5835:Bengal Sultanate 5804:Khanate of Sibir 5799:Khanate of Khiva 5794:Khanate of Kazan 5774:Chagatai Khanate 5715:Sultanate of Rum 5674:Afsharid dynasty 5587:Saffarid dynasty 5485:Hamdanid dynasty 5447:Wattasid dynasty 5402:Rustamid dynasty 5267:Muslim conquests 5210:History of Islam 5203: 5196: 5189: 5180: 5175: 5139: 5130: 5114: 5100: 5079: 5060: 5041: 5035: 5027: 5016: 5010: 5002: 4983: 4982: 4974: 4963: 4957: 4956: 4935: 4929: 4928: 4917: 4911: 4910:Bruce 2006, 134. 4908: 4902: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4856: 4850: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4828:Matthew Bunson. 4825: 4819: 4818: 4794: 4788: 4775: 4769: 4768: 4752: 4742: 4736: 4733: 4727: 4720: 4714: 4701: 4695: 4694: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4636: 4625: 4624: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4587: 4578: 4577: 4559: 4548: 4534: 4528: 4525: 4519: 4516: 4510: 4507: 4501: 4500: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4444: 4436: 4428: 4419: 4418: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4375: 4364: 4363: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4340: 4334: 4331: 4320: 4319: 4313: 4308: 4306: 4298: 4290: 4284: 4283: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4240: 4231: 4230: 4219: 4213: 4212: 4206: 4202: 4200: 4192: 4172: 4166: 4153: 4147: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4127: 4123: 4121: 4113: 4096:Barbera, Henry. 4093: 4087: 4086: 4065: 4059: 4058: 4056: 4055: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4030: 4015: 4009: 4008: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3973: 3967: 3964: 3958: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3928: 3917: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3883: 3875: 3867: 3861: 3839: 3833: 3830: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3820: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3774: 3768: 3761: 3750: 3748: 3725: 3719: 3714: 3708: 3701: 3695: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3673: 3672:, by Alwi Alatas 3660: 3651: 3648: 3642: 3635: 3629: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3603: 3593: 3587: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3491: 3489: 3479: 3471: 3450: 3445: 3444: 3443: 3436: 3431: 3430: 3429: 3412: 3411: 3402: 3401: 3395: 3383:Sicilian dialect 3155:, and a band of 3140:Garigliano River 3125:Nocera Inferiore 3060:besieged Salerno 3029:Magister Militum 3021:Caesar of Naples 2890:Duchies of Gaeta 2811:canal of Otranto 2713:Emperor Louis II 2621:Bizerte, Tunisia 2303:Bulgarian Empire 2272:Siege of Rometta 2245:Ismail al-Mansur 2238: 2235: 1923:Mazara del Vallo 1655:Marianos Argyros 1531:Asia Minor (806) 1516:Asia Minor (782) 1505:Border conflicts 1402:Babylon Fortress 1246: 1244: 1234: 1227: 1220: 1211: 1112:and returned to 1110:Syracuse, Sicily 1097:, the Byzantine 1083:Byzantine Empire 937:colonization in 919: 912: 905: 893:Malta portal 891: 890: 889: 792:independent Gozo 693:Għar Dalam phase 678: 668: 650: 640: 633: 626: 614:Italy portal 612: 611: 610: 341:Catholic revival 194: 193: 76: 66: 48: 39: 36: 21: 7701: 7700: 7696: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7691: 7690: 7626:Spread of Islam 7586: 7585: 7584: 7579: 7559: 7546: 7517:Public holidays 7348: 7294:Life expectancy 7181: 7036: 6952:Law enforcement 6888: 6741: 6688: 6677:Social Republic 6641:Colonial Empire 6624:Capture of Rome 6577: 6470: 6379: 6272:Ancient peoples 6260: 6197: 6158:Historic states 6116: 6091: 6082: 6052: 6047: 6021: 5945: 5906:Johor Sultanate 5896:Kedah Sultanate 5874: 5830:Delhi Sultanate 5813: 5809:Crimean Khanate 5746: 5693: 5689:Pahlavi dynasty 5664:Safavid dynasty 5649:Timurid dynasty 5597:Ziyarid dynasty 5577:Tahirid dynasty 5558: 5549:Mahra Sultanate 5510:Ayyubid dynasty 5495:Uqaylid dynasty 5470:Muslim conquest 5456: 5412:Idrisid dynasty 5392:Muslim conquest 5378: 5349:Muslim conquest 5335: 5281: 5240: 5212: 5207: 5149: 5133: 5127: 5103: 5097: 5082: 5076: 5063: 5057: 5044: 5028: 5019: 5003: 4994: 4991: 4989:Further reading 4986: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4953: 4939:Georgina Masson 4937: 4936: 4932: 4919: 4918: 4914: 4909: 4905: 4899:Wayback Machine 4882: 4878: 4871: 4858: 4857: 4853: 4845: 4841: 4827: 4826: 4822: 4815: 4796: 4795: 4791: 4776: 4772: 4765: 4744: 4743: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4721: 4717: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4678: 4677: 4673: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4651: 4638: 4637: 4628: 4621: 4608: 4607: 4603: 4589: 4588: 4581: 4574: 4561: 4560: 4551: 4535: 4531: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4513: 4509:Skinner, 32–33. 4508: 4504: 4497: 4484: 4483: 4479: 4472: 4459: 4458: 4454: 4437: 4430: 4429: 4422: 4415: 4402: 4401: 4397: 4390: 4377: 4376: 4367: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4342: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4323: 4309: 4299: 4292: 4291: 4287: 4269: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4242: 4241: 4234: 4221: 4220: 4216: 4203: 4193: 4189: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4164:Wayback Machine 4154: 4150: 4141: 4137: 4124: 4114: 4110: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4083: 4069:Abulafia, David 4067: 4066: 4062: 4053: 4051: 4048:www.treccani.it 4042: 4041: 4037: 4028: 4026: 4023:www.treccani.it 4017: 4016: 4012: 4005: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3975: 3974: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3930: 3929: 3920: 3915: 3911: 3898: 3897: 3893: 3876: 3869: 3868: 3864: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3827: 3818: 3816: 3806: 3805: 3801: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3776: 3775: 3771: 3763:Alex Metcalfe, 3762: 3753: 3745: 3729:Daftary, Farhad 3727: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3711: 3702: 3698: 3689: 3685: 3680: 3676: 3670:Wayback Machine 3663:Islam in Sicily 3661: 3654: 3649: 3645: 3636: 3632: 3623: 3619: 3612: 3595: 3594: 3590: 3585: 3581: 3574: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3526:10.2307/2852342 3507: 3506: 3502: 3487: 3485: 3477: 3473: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3446: 3441: 3439: 3432: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3414:Qal‘at al-Nisā’ 3368: 3362: 3248: 3242: 3175: 3169: 3134:(in modern-day 2922:Duchy of Naples 2898:Duchy of Naples 2870: 2775:John the Deacon 2770: 2735:, forcing duke 2705: 2703:Emirate of Bari 2699: 2694: 2581: 2564:Crown of Aragon 2560: 2509: 2503: 2491:Castel Saraceno 2441: 2424:Robert Guiscard 2412:George Maniaces 2408: 2402: 2311:Battle of Stilo 2295:Adriatic coasts 2265:Constantine VII 2236: 2232:Southern Italy 2226: 2220: 2186: 2149: 2133:Reggio Calabria 2094: 2058:Abbas ibn Fadhl 2050: 2048:Abbas ibn Fadhl 2030:Emirate of Bari 1961: 1900: 1895: 1889: 1884: 1732:Gulf of Corinth 1254:Early conflicts 1247: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1208: 1134:Uqba ibn Qudama 1124:as governor of 1122:Musa ibn Nusayr 1079: 1074: 1008:and indigenous 923: 887: 885: 867: 866: 847: 837: 836: 807: 797: 796: 768: 758: 757: 738:Byzantine Malta 733: 723: 722: 688: 686:Ancient history 666: 659: 644: 608: 606: 604: 595: 594: 593: 591: 551:Historic states 515: 507: 506: 483:Great Recession 414:Colonial Empire 403: 395: 394: 393: 374: 324: 316: 315: 276: 268: 267: 191: 183: 182: 122: 112: 111: 84: 64: 57: 37: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7699: 7697: 7689: 7688: 7686:Arabs in Italy 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7636:Islam in Italy 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7588: 7587: 7581: 7580: 7578: 7577: 7567: 7555: 7552: 7551: 7548: 7547: 7545: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7358: 7356: 7350: 7349: 7347: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7290: 7289: 7288: 7287: 7272: 7271: 7270: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7199: 7193: 7187: 7186: 7183: 7182: 7180: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7168: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7127: 7125:Stock exchange 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7091: 7090: 7085: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7054: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7035: 7034: 7029: 7027:Municipalities 7024: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6987:Prime Minister 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6371:Western Empire 6363: 6358: 6356:Roman conquest 6353: 6348: 6338: 6337: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6310: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6277:Italic peoples 6268: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6259: 6258: 6257: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6216: 6205: 6203: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6124: 6122: 6118: 6117: 6115: 6114: 6108: 6106: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6083: 6081: 6080: 6073: 6066: 6058: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6029: 6027: 6023: 6022: 6020: 6019: 6017:Songhai Empire 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5977:Funj Sultanate 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5931:Sulu Sultanate 5928: 5923: 5918: 5916:Aceh Sultanate 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5882: 5880: 5879:Southeast Asia 5876: 5875: 5873: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5821: 5819: 5815: 5814: 5812: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5789:Kazakh Khanate 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5760: 5758: 5756:Eastern Europe 5748: 5747: 5745: 5744: 5742:Southern Italy 5739: 5734: 5733: 5732: 5725:Ottoman Empire 5722: 5717: 5711: 5709: 5695: 5694: 5692: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5614:Ghurid dynasty 5611: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5592:Samanid Empire 5589: 5584: 5579: 5568: 5566: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5540: 5539: 5532:Ottoman Empire 5529: 5528: 5527: 5522: 5512: 5507: 5505:Zengid dynasty 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5464: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5437:Hafsid dynasty 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5388: 5386: 5380: 5379: 5377: 5376: 5374:Nasrid dynasty 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5345: 5343: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5292: 5290: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5248: 5246: 5242: 5241: 5239: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5217: 5214: 5213: 5208: 5206: 5205: 5198: 5191: 5183: 5177: 5176: 5147: 5140: 5131: 5125: 5101: 5095: 5080: 5074: 5061: 5055: 5042: 5017: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4984: 4969:, ed. (1911). 4967:Chisholm, Hugh 4958: 4951: 4930: 4912: 4903: 4876: 4869: 4851: 4839: 4820: 4813: 4807:. p. 97. 4789: 4770: 4763: 4737: 4728: 4715: 4696: 4689: 4671: 4656: 4649: 4626: 4619: 4601: 4579: 4572: 4549: 4529: 4520: 4511: 4502: 4495: 4477: 4470: 4452: 4420: 4413: 4395: 4388: 4365: 4350: 4335: 4321: 4312:|journal= 4293:Salah, Asher. 4285: 4262: 4255: 4232: 4214: 4187: 4167: 4148: 4142:Julie Taylor. 4135: 4108: 4088: 4081: 4060: 4035: 4010: 4003: 3983: 3968: 3959: 3950: 3943: 3918: 3909: 3891: 3862: 3834: 3825: 3799: 3784: 3769: 3751: 3743: 3720: 3709: 3696: 3683: 3674: 3652: 3643: 3630: 3624:Julie Taylor, 3617: 3610: 3588: 3579: 3572: 3554: 3539: 3500: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3459: 3458: 3452: 3451: 3437: 3421: 3418: 3376:King of Sicily 3361: 3358: 3286:(Latinized as 3244:Main article: 3241: 3238: 3188:Pope Sixtus IV 3171:Main article: 3168: 3165: 3112:Peter of Farfa 3108:Abbey of Farfa 3071:Pope John VIII 2974:Aurelian Walls 2907:Duke Andrew II 2869: 2866: 2853:Leo Apostyppes 2827:African Berber 2769: 2766: 2701:Main article: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2597:Jewish Neofiti 2580: 2577: 2559: 2556: 2505:Main article: 2502: 2499: 2440: 2437: 2428:invaded Sicily 2404:Main article: 2401: 2398: 2330:Yusuf al-Kalbi 2328:(983–985) and 2315:Jabir al-Kalbi 2222:Main article: 2219: 2216: 2185: 2182: 2148: 2145: 2093: 2090: 2049: 2046: 1979:Castrogiovanni 1960: 1957: 1953:Castrogiovanni 1899: 1896: 1891:Main article: 1886: 1885: 1883: 1882: 1876: 1875: 1874: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1852: 1851: 1850: 1845: 1833: 1832: 1831: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1803: 1802: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1778: 1777: 1775:John Kourkouas 1765: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1694: 1683: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1667: 1662: 1657: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1636: 1631: 1625:Leo Apostyppes 1621: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1572:Southern Italy 1564: 1563: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1502: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1467:Constantinople 1459: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1443: 1438: 1425: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1386: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1328:Maraj-al-Debaj 1325: 1320: 1318:Sanita-al-Uqab 1315: 1313:Marj al-Saffar 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1277: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1239: 1237: 1236: 1229: 1222: 1214: 1207: 1204: 1196:Tyrrhenian Sea 1186:and to ravage 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1062:king of Sicily 1056:, by order of 1031:, and by 1071 1023:. In 1061 the 971:southern Italy 961:stronghold in 925: 924: 922: 921: 914: 907: 899: 896: 895: 882: 881: 880: 879: 869: 868: 865: 864: 859: 854: 852:State of Malta 848: 843: 842: 839: 838: 835: 834: 829: 824: 819: 817:British Colony 814: 808: 805:British Period 803: 802: 799: 798: 795: 794: 785: 780: 775: 769: 766:Modern history 764: 763: 760: 759: 756: 755: 750: 745: 740: 734: 729: 728: 725: 724: 721: 720: 715: 710: 705: 703:Saflieni phase 700: 698:Ġgantija phase 695: 689: 684: 683: 680: 679: 671: 670: 661: 660: 653: 646: 645: 643: 642: 635: 628: 620: 617: 616: 597: 596: 589: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 523: 517: 516: 513: 512: 509: 508: 505: 504: 503: 502: 492: 486: 480: 472: 460: 450: 435: 429: 423: 417: 411: 404: 401: 400: 397: 396: 392: 391: 385: 384: 383: 373: 372: 371: 370: 365: 357: 356: 355: 349: 344: 338: 332: 325: 322: 321: 318: 317: 314: 313: 308: 299: 289: 283: 277: 274: 273: 270: 269: 264: 263: 262:962–1801 260: 249: 248: 245: 234: 233: 230: 224: 223: 220: 214: 213: 210: 204: 203: 200: 192: 189: 188: 185: 184: 181: 180: 179: 178: 170:Western Empire 167: 161: 160: 159: 146: 141: 130: 123: 118: 117: 114: 113: 110: 109: 103: 97: 91: 85: 82: 81: 78: 77: 69: 68: 59: 58: 51: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7698: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7593: 7591: 7576: 7568: 7566: 7557: 7556: 7553: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7355: 7351: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7286: 7283: 7282: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7276: 7273: 7269: 7266: 7265: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7200: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7188: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7152: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7080: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7043: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6992: 6988: 6985: 6982: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6936: 6933: 6932: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6907: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6895: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6828: 6825: 6824: 6823: 6820: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6802: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6779: 6776: 6775: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6760: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6748: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6720:Years of Lead 6718: 6716: 6715:Economic Boom 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6702: 6701: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6691: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6658:Fascist Italy 6656: 6652: 6649: 6648: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6632: 6629: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6604:Niçard exodus 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6591: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6584: 6580: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6552: 6549: 6548: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6504: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6484: 6483: 6480: 6479: 6477: 6473: 6467: 6464: 6460: 6457: 6456: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6394: 6393: 6392: 6389: 6388: 6386: 6382: 6372: 6369: 6368: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6343: 6342: 6339: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6324:Magna Graecia 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6279: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6263: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6211: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6204: 6200: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6125: 6123: 6119: 6113: 6110: 6109: 6107: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6079: 6074: 6072: 6067: 6065: 6060: 6059: 6056: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6026:Modern states 6024: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5948: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5881: 5877: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5845:Mughal Empire 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5816: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5731: 5728: 5727: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5684:Qajar dynasty 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5602:Buyid dynasty 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5565: 5561: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5538: 5535: 5534: 5533: 5530: 5526: 5525:Burji dynasty 5523: 5521: 5520:Bahri dynasty 5518: 5517: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5459: 5453: 5452:Saadi dynasty 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5422:Muslim Sicily 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5397:Berber Revolt 5395: 5393: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5381: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5344: 5342: 5338: 5332: 5331:Sunni Revival 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5316:Shi'a Century 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5291: 5289: 5284: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5247: 5243: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5215: 5211: 5204: 5199: 5197: 5192: 5190: 5185: 5184: 5181: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5148: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5132: 5128: 5126:0-521-05993-3 5122: 5118: 5115:. Cambridge: 5113: 5112: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5092: 5088: 5087: 5081: 5077: 5075:0-436-27350-0 5071: 5067: 5062: 5058: 5056:88-7644-024-0 5052: 5048: 5043: 5039: 5033: 5025: 5024: 5018: 5014: 5008: 5000: 4999: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4980: 4979: 4973: 4968: 4962: 4959: 4954: 4952:0-436-27350-0 4948: 4944: 4940: 4934: 4931: 4926: 4922: 4916: 4913: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4880: 4877: 4872: 4866: 4862: 4855: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4840: 4835: 4831: 4824: 4821: 4816: 4814:0-85115-359-3 4810: 4806: 4802: 4799: 4793: 4790: 4786: 4785: 4780: 4774: 4771: 4766: 4764:9780520021815 4760: 4756: 4751: 4750: 4741: 4738: 4732: 4729: 4725: 4722:Mary Stroll, 4719: 4716: 4712: 4711: 4706: 4700: 4697: 4692: 4686: 4682: 4675: 4672: 4667: 4660: 4657: 4652: 4650:9788840381756 4646: 4642: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4627: 4622: 4620:9788840381756 4616: 4612: 4605: 4602: 4597: 4593: 4586: 4584: 4580: 4575: 4573:9788840381756 4569: 4565: 4558: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4545:lt=Le Monnier 4542: 4538: 4537:Michele Amari 4533: 4530: 4527:Skinner, 2–3. 4524: 4521: 4515: 4512: 4506: 4503: 4498: 4496:9788822061386 4492: 4488: 4481: 4478: 4473: 4471:9788822061386 4467: 4463: 4456: 4453: 4448: 4442: 4434: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4414:9788806228613 4410: 4406: 4399: 4396: 4391: 4389:9788822061386 4385: 4381: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4366: 4361: 4354: 4351: 4346: 4339: 4336: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4322: 4317: 4304: 4296: 4289: 4286: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4266: 4263: 4258: 4252: 4248: 4247: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4210: 4198: 4190: 4188:9780786472741 4184: 4181:. McFarland. 4180: 4179: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4158: 4152: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4136: 4131: 4119: 4111: 4109:9781412837811 4105: 4101: 4100: 4092: 4089: 4084: 4082:0-7139-9004-X 4078: 4074: 4070: 4064: 4061: 4049: 4045: 4039: 4036: 4024: 4020: 4014: 4011: 4006: 4000: 3996: 3995: 3987: 3984: 3979: 3972: 3969: 3963: 3960: 3954: 3951: 3946: 3940: 3936: 3935: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3919: 3913: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3892: 3887: 3881: 3873: 3866: 3863: 3859: 3858:88-8492-404-9 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3842:Archived link 3838: 3835: 3829: 3826: 3814: 3810: 3803: 3800: 3795: 3788: 3785: 3780: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3724: 3721: 3718: 3713: 3710: 3706: 3700: 3697: 3693: 3687: 3684: 3678: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3664: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3647: 3644: 3640: 3634: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3618: 3613: 3611:0-521-37019-1 3607: 3602: 3601: 3592: 3589: 3583: 3580: 3575: 3573:0-912483-90-3 3569: 3565: 3558: 3555: 3550: 3543: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3504: 3501: 3497: 3496: 3483: 3476: 3470: 3467: 3461: 3457: 3454: 3453: 3449: 3438: 3435: 3424: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3406: 3396: 3394: 3388: 3384: 3379: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3294: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3247: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3128: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3109: 3103: 3098: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3042:building the 3041: 3037: 3032: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2918: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2744:Emperor Louis 2740: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2725:al-Mutawakkil 2722: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2696: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2508: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2420: 2417: 2413: 2407: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2346: 2342: 2341:(1019–1037). 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2289:The new emir 2287: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2230: 2225: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2175: 2169: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2136: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2113: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2047: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1995:Caltabellotta 1992: 1989:and occupied 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1971: 1966: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1934:year of siege 1930: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1915: 1909: 1905: 1897: 1894: 1881: 1878: 1877: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1858: 1857: 1854:Campaigns of 1853: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1839: 1836:Campaigns of 1835: 1834: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1810: 1809: 1808:Nikephoros II 1806:Campaigns of 1805: 1804: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1785: 1784: 1783:Sayf al-Dawla 1781:Campaigns of 1780: 1779: 1776: 1773:Campaigns of 1772: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1688: 1687: 1686:Naval warfare 1681: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1668: 1666: 1663: 1661: 1658: 1656: 1653:Campaigns of 1652: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1630: 1626: 1623:Campaigns of 1622: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1569: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1507: 1506: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1468: 1464: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1393: 1392: 1391: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 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Retrieved 4050:(in Italian) 4047: 4038: 4027:. Retrieved 4025:(in Italian) 4022: 4013: 3993: 3986: 3977: 3971: 3962: 3953: 3933: 3912: 3903: 3894: 3871: 3865: 3849: 3845: 3837: 3828: 3817:. Retrieved 3815:(in Italian) 3812: 3802: 3793: 3787: 3778: 3772: 3764: 3733: 3723: 3712: 3704: 3703:J. B. Bury, 3699: 3691: 3690:J. B. Bury, 3686: 3677: 3646: 3638: 3633: 3625: 3620: 3599: 3591: 3582: 3563: 3557: 3548: 3542: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3503: 3494: 3493: 3488:28 September 3486:. Retrieved 3469: 3448:Islam portal 3434:Italy portal 3413: 3405:Caltanisetta 3390: 3380: 3369: 3306: 3292: 3287: 3277: 3272:Porto Torres 3249: 3214:Castellamare 3207: 3196: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3129: 3105: 3100: 3083:Mount Circeo 3068: 3048:Vatican Hill 3044:Leonine Wall 3033: 3028: 2981: 2966:Centumcellae 2919: 2871: 2850: 2839: 2821:, prince of 2815:Kvarner Gulf 2771: 2741: 2728: 2718: 2685: 2654:Papal legate 2635: 2625: 2582: 2573:Ferdinand II 2561: 2532:Adriatic Sea 2516: 2510: 2497:took place. 2462:Frederick II 2460:and his son 2454:Hohenstaufen 2442: 2421: 2409: 2367: 2351: 2323: 2288: 2269: 2252: 2242: 2205: 2187: 2170: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2137: 2114: 2095: 2051: 2011: 1968: 1962: 1931: 1912: 1901: 1843:Alexandretta 1767: 1766: 1747:Thessalonica 1685: 1684: 1660:2nd Taormina 1644:1st Taormina 1614:3rd Syracuse 1604:2nd Syracuse 1579:1st Syracuse 1571: 1566: 1565: 1546:Mauropotamos 1504: 1503: 1479:Sebastopolis 1461: 1460: 1429:North Africa 1427: 1426: 1388: 1387: 1293:al-Qaryatayn 1279: 1278: 1253: 1153: 1138: 1103: 1080: 1058:Frederick II 1014: 930: 928: 874: 827:World War II 788:Insurrection 742: 600: 590: 498: 497:(2020– 474: 456: 455:(1946– 379:Risorgimento 377: 335:Italian Wars 323:Early modern 291: 154: 148: 120:Ancient Rome 26: 7467:Italophilia 7427:Coat of arm 7377:Cinquecento 7253:Immigration 7203:Aristocracy 7068:Agriculture 6962:Nationality 6935:LGBT rights 6849:Earthquakes 6730:Mani pulite 6646:World War I 6589:Unification 6582:Late modern 6546:Renaissance 6391:Middle Ages 6384:Middle Ages 6361:Roman Italy 6128:Citizenship 5992:Mali Empire 5784:Nogai Horde 5634:Muzaffarids 5417:Muhallabids 5231:Shi'a Imams 4800:The Normans 4333:Kreutz, 45. 4205:|work= 4126:|work= 3410:قلعة النساء 3329:Christendom 3301:, attacked 3290:) from the 3234:Manfredonia 3144:Pope John X 3117:Saracinesco 3106:In 898 the 3040:chain gangs 2920:In 846 the 2742:In 866 the 2530:across the 2422:The Norman 2237: 1000 1639:2nd Milazzo 1634:1st Milazzo 1619:Caltavuturo 1561:Bathys Ryax 1373:Iron Bridge 1338:Marj ar-Rum 1064:. In 1300, 1015:In 965 the 933:began with 778:Great Siege 743:Arab period 731:Middle Ages 665:History of 521:Citizenship 476:Mani pulite 389:Young Italy 208:Ostrogothic 144:Roman Italy 63:History of 38: 1150 7590:Categories 7537:Traditions 7527:Television 7512:Philosophy 7477:Literature 7417:Cathedrals 7387:Settecento 7248:Healthcare 7213:Corruption 7208:Censorship 6967:Parliament 6925:Government 6725:Maxi Trial 6673:Resistance 6402:Ostrogoths 6334:Messapians 6219:Villanovan 6209:Prehistory 6202:Prehistory 5818:South Asia 5609:Ghaznavids 5341:Al-Andalus 5288:caliphates 5245:600–700 AD 4690:8822738365 4272:"Volume 6" 4054:2022-12-15 4029:2022-12-15 3819:2022-10-28 3813:Zhistorica 3462:References 3364:See also: 3256:Sardinians 3203:Barbarossa 2831:Andalusian 2791:Ionian Sea 2675:Philip III 2617:Christians 2536:Burgundian 2449:Ibn Hamdis 2201:Ibn Qurhub 2174:Ibn Hawqal 2032:. In 845, 2018:Beneventan 1908:Michael II 1866:2nd Aleppo 1737:Cephalonia 1649:Garigliano 1551:Faruriyyah 1521:Kopidnadon 1407:Alexandria 1397:Heliopolis 1383:Germanicia 1368:1st Aleppo 1288:Marj Rahit 1281:The Levant 1106:Alexandria 718:Roman rule 469:Maxi Trial 352:Napoleonic 7497:Mythology 7472:Libraries 7392:Ottocento 7334:Terrorism 7275:Languages 7228:Education 7150:Transport 7100:Companies 7007:Provinces 6977:President 6942:Judiciary 6915:Elections 6827:Volcanoes 6822:Volcanism 6815:Apennines 6800:Mountains 6768:Peninsula 6751:Geography 6682:Civil War 6407:Byzantium 6314:Etruscans 6249:Canegrate 6244:Golasecca 6229:Rinaldone 6224:Terramare 6214:Neolithic 5639:Chobanids 5629:Ilkhanate 5407:Aghlabids 5172:216117913 4441:cite book 4207:ignored ( 4197:cite book 4128:ignored ( 4118:cite book 3880:cite book 3220:in 1544; 3161:Jerusalem 3138:) by the 3121:Ciciliano 3023:, son of 2962:Portuense 2809:. In the 2783:Byzantium 2779:Venetians 2679:Philip IV 2628:Philip II 2540:Provençal 2475:Girifalco 2396:in 1189. 2208:Agrigento 1929:victory. 1904:Euphemius 1813:5th Crete 1798:Andrassos 1757:4th Crete 1752:3rd Crete 1707:2nd Crete 1702:1st Crete 1680:2nd Malta 1609:1st Malta 1417:Darishkur 1378:2nd Emesa 1358:Jerusalem 1184:Lampedusa 1050:Byzantine 998:Byzantine 995:Christian 443:Partisans 198:Odoacer's 156:Optimates 150:Populares 40:) in the 7575:Category 7462:Internet 7452:Folklore 7382:Seicento 7367:Trecento 7362:Duecento 7324:Religion 7285:Regional 7263:Italians 7238:Gambling 7130:Taxation 6957:Military 6898:Politics 6700:Republic 6487:Florence 6412:Lombards 6351:Republic 6297:Samnites 6292:Picentes 6234:Apennine 6193:Railways 6173:Military 6121:By topic 6105:Overview 6089:articles 5967:Dar Sila 5699:Anatolia 5500:Crusades 5480:Tulunids 5262:Rashidun 5252:Muhammad 5107:(1971). 5032:citation 5007:citation 4941:(1957). 4923:(2006), 4895:Archived 4892:this PDF 4784:Speculum 4707:and the 4227:beck.org 4160:Archived 4071:(1988). 3980:. 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of 7532:Theatre 7507:Palaces 7487:Museums 7457:Gardens 7442:Fashion 7432:Cuisine 7412:Castles 7354:Culture 7304:Poverty 7280:Italian 7191:Society 7172:Welfare 7140:Tourism 7110:Exports 7078:Banking 7058:Economy 7046:Economy 7002:Regions 6884:Valleys 6854:Islands 6834:Beaches 6805:Prealps 6785:Geology 6773:Climate 6437:Normans 6397:Odoacer 6346:Kingdom 6329:Ligures 6265:Ancient 6239:Nuragic 6188:Postage 6163:Judaism 6153:Genetic 6143:Fashion 6138:Economy 6097:History 5703:Balkans 5582:Alavids 5544:Kathiri 5462:Mashriq 5384:Maghreb 5221:Leaders 3534:2852342 3354:Arborea 3268:Caralis 3260:Tharros 3199:corsair 3087:Traetto 3079:Salerno 3025:Sergius 3004:Spoleto 2983:scholae 2886:Salerno 2842:Adelchi 2823:Salerno 2683:Palermo 2670:Granada 2662:Corsica 2646:Lepanto 2644:(after 2642:Messina 2613:Barbary 2605:Palermo 2528:Albania 2521:Angevin 2466:Muslims 2416:Normans 2307:Otto II 2194:Ismaili 2141:Cosenza 2117:Basil I 2038:Lentini 2022:Messina 2003:Marineo 1991:Platani 1938:Palermo 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7482:Media 7344:Women 7218:Crime 7083:Banks 6859:Lakes 6844:Caves 6795:Flora 6790:Fauna 6512:Genoa 6497:Milan 6492:Siena 6432:Arabs 6319:Celts 6302:Umbri 6178:Music 6148:Flags 6085:Italy 5707:Italy 5669:Hotak 5168:S2CID 4888:Liber 3530:JSTOR 3478:(PDF) 3345:Genoa 3325:Genoa 3293:taifa 3284:Denya 3230:Vasto 3136:Lazio 3075:Capua 3054:, an 3036:Ostia 3017:Gaeta 2954:Tiber 2950:Ostia 2946:Porto 2942:Ponza 2926:Gaeta 2878:Gaeta 2861:Nasar 2835:Crete 2686:autos 2548:Faeto 2382:jizya 2355:Zirid 2197:Shi'i 2192:, an 2178:Kalsa 2158:hakim 1949:Mineo 1848:Syria 1793:Raban 1536:Anzen 1484:Tyana 1446:Mamma 1390:Egypt 1363:Hazir 1343:Emesa 1298:Bosra 1269:Firaz 1264:Balqa 1188:Ponza 1176:Gaeta 1147:by a 1114:Egypt 1027:took 963:Italy 951:Malta 941:, at 667:Malta 571:Music 541:Flags 292:Islam 83:Early 65:Italy 7447:Flag 7177:Wine 7165:road 7160:rail 6991:List 6981:List 6810:Alps 6675:and 6517:Pisa 6287:Osci 6183:Name 6168:LGBT 5754:and 5705:and 5121:ISBN 5091:ISBN 5070:ISBN 5051:ISBN 5038:link 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Knowledge (XXG)

History of Islam in southern Italy

Index