Sawad - Knowledge (XXG)

2459: 738: 1884:. Abu Ubayd Allah stressed the importance of keeping in mind the financial needs of the taxpayers, and argued that a fixed tax would cause problems for taxpayers due to changes in prices. A key reason he and other officials supported this new system of taxation was that, this way, landlords would share the risk with the government in case of a bad harvest, thus reducing conflict between the state and the landed elite. Another reason was because, under the 'alā l-misāḥa system, independent grain merchants had a great deal of control over prices; by switching to the muqāsama system, the state could increase its control of the grain market in Iraq, where it needed to supply the most important cities in the caliphate. 2552:, or village chiefs, formed the lowest rung of the Sasanian landed elite. They remained after the Islamic conquest, with their village estates formed "the prevailing form of land-tenure in post-conquest Iraq." The government frequently consulted them on matters concerning land and irrigation, as well as for help with collecting taxes; the dihqans' local knowledge made them essential for this purpose. In return, they were allowed to collect a special tax on local cultivators. However, their importance began to decrease with the rise of new Arab landowners, including Sasanian urban and military converts to Islam and their descendants; this process happened gradually, over the course of 60 or 70 years. 448:

and economic collapse, with many villages destroyed, communications disrupted, robbery and brigandry were rampant, and cultivation was made practically impossible. By the early 10th century, 62% of settlements in the area around Baghdad had become abandoned. Yet at the same time, a movement of popular nostalgia emerged, "glorifying indigenous 'Nabataean' achievements, especially those connected with the spread of civilization and the improvement of agriculture. Even as actual conditions were deteriorating intolerably, exhaustively detailed compendiums were appearing with elaborate botanical nomenclature and careful specifications of all the procedures and requirements of good husbandry."

1210:

implies a density of about 95 date palms per hectare. Today, on the other hand, the typical practice in the area around Basra is to pack 450 trees into a hectare. The Neo-Babylonian standard of 227 trees per hectare is also much denser. The apparent low density of early Islamic date palm orchards remains an unsolved problem. It's possible, however, that this is just an artifact of how the contemporary taxes were set: they may have been intentionally set low in order to encourage more date palm production, and that in practice the actual density was much higher.

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tortured people who refused to comply with their demands. Abu Yusuf describes some of these tortures. Tax farmers would severely beat taxpayers, or make them stand out in the hot sun on one foot for a long time. The punishments for defaulters were even more severe: tax collectors would hang heavy stones or buckets filled with water around their necks, or tie them up with ropes and left to starve. Yet, despite these condemnations, the punishments and torture continued for a long time thereafter, sometimes even with official sanction. In 847,

2470: 503:. Insufficient gradient in local irrigation systems resulted in poor drainage of salts from the soil. To counter this, laborers, including the Zanj, were tasked with removing the salty topsoil and piling it up by the sides of the canals. As many as 45 million tons of soil were moved in this manner, but even this was insufficient. After Basra itself was sacked by the Zanj and then again by the Qarmatians, much of the fields were abandoned and never brought into cultivation again. 38: 160: 807:(both animal and human), or ash and cinders. Ibn Wahshiyya preferred this kind. The second kind was "composite" manure, which consisted of a mixture of several types of "natural" manure along with earth and water, and was left to decompose after mixing. Different crops called for different kinds of manure, and some needed no fertilization at all. Manure was traded and sold locally, according to several sources, including Ibn Wahshiyya, 607:, designed to relieve the weir during floods. The regulators were made of brick and date from the 9th century, although the arch on the right bank appears older and was probably built by the 8th century at the latest. Both regulators have vertical lines of holes, which were designed so that wooden beams could be inserted into them to hold the structures' planks in place when the sluice needed to be partially or fully closed. 616: 152: 335:

the Abbasid Caliphate led to a neglect of the rural economy and more corrupt exploitation of the peasantry in search of short-term profits. This led to a long period of decline in population and in cultivated area over the centuries until the Mongol conquest. The destruction accompanying the Mongol conquest was the dramatic final blow to the patterns of settlements in Iraq.

468: 367:'s invasion of Mesopotamia. The Persians destroyed dikes, which caused extensive flooding, while simultaneously damming up major waterways to prevent the Romans from being able to use them for transport. The Romans, meanwhile, burned small towns and villages in the countryside while also destroying farms and killing livestock. 2478:

technology, the total labor requirement would have been 1 million people. Assuming an average family size of 4 people, the total agricultural population of rural Iraq at that time would have been 4 million people. This is in addition to an assumed non-agricultural population in Iraq (also including cities) of 1.8 million.

313:, whereas the worst flood on the Euphrates was in 1929 with only 5,200 cumecs. The Euphrates was therefore more manageable, while settlements along the Tigris had to be built away from the river to avoid being destroyed by flooding. Additionally, the Tigris's banks were so deep that canals had to be extended far down the 241:) in the Batihah: Bahassa, Bakhmasa, Basriyatha, and finally al-Muhammadiyah, which was the largest. Below the Hawr al-Muhammadiyah, the channel called the Nahr Abi'l-As'ad finally carried the waters of the Batihah to the head of the Dijlah al-`Awra', or "one-eyed Tigris". The hydrography of the Bata'ih was not static. 2685: 305:

mountains, and melting snows in the mountains lead to high water in April. The Euphrates, on the other hand, mostly consists of water from the Anatolian highlands, and melting snow reaches lower Mesopotamia later, in early May. This is too late to help with growing crops for the May and June harvest season.

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manufacturing. At these sites today, there are vast mounds, hundreds of meters long, consisting mainly of glass slag. There are also numerous remains of what were once glass furnaces. This indicates the large scale of the glass industry here. Where the raw materials serving this industry came from is

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to grow there naturally. These weeds would draw out water from the soil and cause it to dry out, thus creating a dry subsoil below the root area and above the water table. When the field was irrigated the next year, the water would seep down into the dry layer and take any salts from the surface with

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were made from boiled and peeled wheat. Other dishes consisted of a paste made from mashed meat and pearl wheat. Most Iraqi peasants ate more barley-based breads, which were often made with millet and beans mixed in. Additionally, a kind of alcoholic beverage was prepared from a mixture of barley and

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movement that followed it was even larger and longer-lasting, leading to the area under state control shrinking dramatically and "prospects for any constructive, long-term approach to the agrarian economy diminished to the vanishing point." Contemporary sources report this as a time of administrative

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at one point used the term "jizya lands" to refer to the concept that would later become known as kharaj lands, and in one instance, the farmers of the Sawad apparently requested that their tax payments be changed from jizya to sadaqa. Over the centuries, however, a distinction emerged between these

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in 915: in many formerly prosperous districts, a drop by 90% or more took place "in this period of less than a single human life span." In the intervening years, there had been several decades of rural unrest and conflict, provoked by years of increasing tax burdens and abuses by state officials, as

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Later on, however, a vast canal system came to use the flow of the Tigris to supplement the Euphrates: during the winter growing season, when the Tigris was less prone to intense flooding, Tigris water was brought in, and then its headworks closed off and protected as much as possible, while now the

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Contemporary writers did not provide any extensive descriptions of rural villages. Ibn Wahshiyya gave only some details: he wrote that villages should be built on elevated ground such as hillocks, and if this was not naturally available then he said an artificial elevation should be built from wood

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weir in 1957–58, which al-Khatib al-Baghdadi mentioned as serving the Nahrawan canal and which serves as a model for our understanding of how weirs were built during that period. It served to raise the water level in front of it (i.e. upstream) to a height 3 meters above the area downstream, and it

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During this period, both large cities and small villages increased in number and in size, while medium-sized towns decreased in percentage of all settlements compared to the Parthian era. This indicates that the growing population in large cities consisted of people who originally had come from the

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and its hinterlands east of the Tigris, while investing less in the regions on the west bank. Thus, settlement retracted west of the Tigris from its peak during Parthian rule. In the Diyala valley east of the Tigris, however, settlement reached its peak, with over twice as many settlements and over

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The vast, complex systems that emerged during the Sassanid period ultimately made local self-sufficiency impossible. Lack of maintenance on canals could have a strong adverse effect on faraway regions. This made state supervision of the infrastructure absolutely necessary to maintain this degree of

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At its apex under the late Sasanian period, the irrigation system of the Sawad must have diverted virtually the entire flow of both the Tigris and Euphrates to agricultural purposes. Regarding the Euphrates, Robert M. Adams wrote that, "with a whole series of massive diversions upstream, it is not

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suggested that, after the opening of the Katul al-Kisrawi made water readily available to farmers in the lower Nahrawan region, over-irrigation caused the water table to rise dramatically. Today, much of this region's soil is too saline for irrigated agriculture, and the area is largely abandoned.

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Settlement in Iraq reached its apex during the late Sassanid period. The tumult surrounding the Islamic conquest led to a sudden, steep decline. Fairly quickly, however, the Muslims were able to restore much of the Sassanid establishment. However, from the mid-800s onward, political instability in

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Contemporary financial records seem to imply that the palm trees themselves were exceptionally spread out in early Islamic orchards. The tax schedules say that date orchards paid 5–10 dirhams per jarib in taxes, which at a rate of 1/2 dirham per ordinary tree and 1 dirham per finer "Persian" tree

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The timing of the flooding in the Euphrates was less helpful than the Tigris. The Tigris, however, is prone to flooding, since winter and spring storms in the Zagros mountains lead to highly destructive floods. The most destructive flood on the Tigris in modern times was in 1954, when there was a

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or fallow lands, as well as some limited and tightly controlled grazing from young barley shoots. Another important source is uncultivated land, but as the total cultivated area expanded under the Sasanians to reach almost the maximum potential capacity, the availability of this land for grazing

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for the pool. It was buttressed with a tower at each end and built on a raised platform at the same height as the spillway. In front of the abutments were two guide banks: the one on the right, as with the abutment on that side, helped serve as a closing wall, and the one on the left ended in a

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Under this model, the hypothetical annual net output per worker would be 2757 kg of grain. An average agricultural family of 4 is assigned a subsistence income of 1000 kg of grain per year, which would be equivalent to 154 dirhams per year, or 13 per month. This means that out of net

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condemned the injustices against taxpayers in the Sawad, saying that tax farmers were breaking the law for their own financial benefit. He said that they "rob the taxpayer by imposing on them taxes they do not owe and punish them in repulsive ways to secure their own profit". Tax farmers often

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wrote a detailed description of the cultivation of rice in the Sawad. There were two growing seasons for rice in the Sawad: a summer season, which was entirely dependent on irrigation, and a winter season, which was supported by rainfall. Summer rice was planted during the second half of July

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The lands of the Sawad were among the most fertile in the Islamic world, but this productivity was almost totally dependent on artificial irrigation: dry farming requires 200 mm of rainfall per year, an amount reached in almost nowhere in the Sawad. Basra, for instance, has 60 mm of

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was used to cover walls and floors, especially in rooms and buildings used for storage. He said that isolated, independently standing houses were best, but if space was tight then they could be built adjoining each other as long as the necessary ventilation was provided. He also stressed the

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The main crop-growing season in this region comes during the winter, and irrigation is needed at least monthly. However, neither the Tigris nor the Euphrates reaches its high water mark during the winter when farmers need water the most: the Tigris is fed by several tributaries in the Zagros

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The total rural population of the medieval Sawad can be calculated from the extent of the farmland. Assuming 3 million hectares of winter cereal crops in the late 8th/early 9th century, and the ability of a person to reap 3 hectares during the 2-month-long harvest season using contemporary

382:

Under the Sassanids, the area in cultivation in the Diyala basin reached an extent that had never been attained before, and never would be again. During this time, almost 8,000 square kilometers were brought into cultivation, almost totally covering the region with farmland. A two-field

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as well as various beverages, and, despite Islamic prohibition, they were used to make a type of intoxicant. Ibn Wahshiyya praises the myriad uses of the date palm, remarking that every part of the tree was useful – it provided timber for construction, its fronds could be used to make

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described the Bata'ih as covered by reed beds crossed by water channels, where enormous amounts of fish where caught, then salted and exported to neighboring provinces. The water level was too shallow for most river boats to pass through, and only special pole-propelled vessels called

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Much of the meat consumed in Baghdad would have come from the steppes of northern Iraq, but some would also have come from the Sawad as well. Southern Iraq does not have any natural pastures, so the livestock raised here had to be fed grain. In addition, they could partly be fed with

410:, however, the Tigris continued to rise even higher. He spent huge sums of money to finance the restoration of the systems, but in vain. In the final years of the Sasanian empire, these projects were abandoned due to war, and local dihqans couldn't finance such major undertakings. 1551:. However, this could not be repeated indefinitely — eventually, the salt concentration would become too high, preventing any plants from growing, and that land would have to be abandoned (although this was far from the only reason that land was abandoned in medieval Iraq). 2559:

and mud. This served two purposes: the first, he said, was for better health, and the second was to provide an elevated lookout point over the surrounding fields. Houses were built from either baked or sun-dried bricks, with high walls and many openings to provide

1035:. Rice bread, like barley, was cheaper than wheat bread, which resulted in it gaining a reputation as being food for poor people. Nonetheless, rice remained the single most important food for many people, especially the poor, in southern Iraq due to its low price. 1868:, people paid taxes in the form of a portion of their crops, rather than a fixed amount of money or crops. The rate was 50% for land irrigated by flooding, 33% for land irrigated by waterwheels, and 25% for land irrigated by animal-powered wheels. According to 1699:

Originally, the kharaj tax was supposed to represent a tax on the land of non-Muslims. However, over time, as the dihqans either sold their lands to Muslims or themselves converted to Islam, the status of kharaj land also applied to Muslims. The Umayyad caliph

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In Iraq, there are two very distinct seasons: summer and winter. Spring and autumn are very short. Summer, which lasts from May through October, is intensely hot and dry, with the sky mostly cloudless and rain extremely rare. The prevailing northwest wind (the

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was even used to cement the sides of the ponds. He said that these practices should be abolished and prescribed that drinking water should instead be provided by being collected on clean roofs of houses, and then directed down the sides of the houses into a

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greatly enlarged Euphrates was used to support irrigation efforts. This massive reshaping of the natural relationship between these rivers, which reached its peak during the Sasanian period, led to a mushrooming population and the rise of many new cities.

1735:, but it appears that this reduction's implementation was highly flawed, as many farmers filed complaints over the matter. This 40% tax rate was maintained at least nominally, but in practice, new taxes were introduced that cancelled out the reduction. 363:. There was widespread destruction of major urban centers as well as rural agricultural infrastructure that was necessary for recovery. For example, even the area of the Nahr al-Malik, deep within Sassanid territory, was devastated by the Roman emperor 818:

The Abbasid government played a role in supervising cultivation. It would sometimes loan money to farmers to help them buy seed and livestock. Some poorer farmers were directly given seeds. The government expected repayment in full after the harvest.

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During the Sasanian period, and probably continuing into the Early Islamic period, large-scale industrial operations were carried out even in the countryside, far from the major cities. For example, one newly-dug Sasanian canal in the area north of

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Over time, the distinction between kharaj lands and ushr lands became blurred, and eventually the two categories were merged into one category, which kept the name kharaj. This merger appears to have taken place during the reign of the caliph

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During the medieval period, the lower Tigris followed a different course than it does today. It had shifted further west due to the floods of the early 7th century (before this, its course was the same as it is today). It passed the city of

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were the most popular fruit in Iraqi markets. Ibn Wahshiyya wrote that they were widely cultivated in Iraq and listed eight different varieties of them, but said that it would be difficult to list all the varieties grown at the time.

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Michele Campopiano, “Land Tax Alā l-misāḥa and muqāsama: Legal Theory and Balance of Social Forces in Early Medieval Iraq (Sixth to Eighth Centuries)”, in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 54/2, 2011, 239–269

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At the maximum extent under the late Sasanian dynasty, the Iraqi countryside would have been under "virtually continuous cultivation", supporting a much larger population than in previous periods. During the time of the caliphs

1051:) was grown in large quantities throughout Iraq. Bread made from sorghum flour, especially when mixed with wheat and barley flour, was regarded more highly by Southern Iraqis than rice bread. Sorghum was also grown for use as 940:

noted that four districts paid taxes in barley and rice instead of the usual barley and wheat, indicating that rice was a particularly widespread crop there. These districts were Sura and Barbisama, Furat Badaqla, Nistar, and

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by Muslims shortly after the conquest of Iraq. In the Batiha area, the land had been reclaimed via drainage, and in the Ṣibākh area, it had been reclaimed by clearing the silt. Much of this process was described in detail by

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of the protective levees built along the river in order to keep a high enough water level. Yet these labor-intensive canal offtakes were directly exposed to the floods and could be suddenly buried under a deep layer of silt.

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it. Down there, the salts would become "trapped" and prevented from being brought up to the surface by capillary action. Another method farmers used involved planting a field with barley and then, after the harvest, having

292:, the climate of Iraq during the Abbasid era was probably similar to today, although the greater abundance of date palm orchards then "may have mitigated the violence of the winter winds and prevented the occurrence of the 347:, southern Mesopotamia was home to an urban civilization built upon irrigation agriculture. This enabled the security, stability, population density, and complex social organization that characterized this urban setting. 1583:

unknown, but Robert M. Adams provided one possible explanation: by late Sasanian times, the area to the south of this canal was increasingly becoming part of the great swamp. Here, there would have been large numbers of

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From the Sasanians to the Abbasids, the peasants of the Sawad formed "a legally subordinate class, working the estates of large landlords, and from which surplus in the form of taxes, rents, and labor were extracted".

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was practiced extensively in the Sawad. According to Umar's policy, any freeman was allowed to sell his Nabataean neighbor as a slave if they were in dire financial straits; this policy was upheld by the caliph

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The techniques used by farmers in the medieval Sawad were mostly the same as those used by twentieth-century Iraqi farmers. Buzjani and Ibn Wahshiyya both wrote extensively on such practices. Several different

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to abolish it. The governors of eastern Abbasid provinces gave hadaya to the caliph in the form of rare and valuable items made by local artisans from their province. For the festival of Nowruz in 282 AH,

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Construction of canals was very expensive. It was often financed by private investors who expected to turn a profit out of the deal. Usually, all the governor did was provide land for irrigation projects.

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Due to gravity, the canals of the Sawad had to be elevated slightly above the ground. This came with significant risk: if there was a breach in the canal's banks, the water would flood surrounding fields.

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maintaining the landlord's rural properties. These agents were responsible for overseeing daily work, providing necessities like seed and farm tools, and potentially hiring additional workers if needed.

1908:). There were 60 tassujs in total (48 at Ibn Khordadbeh's time). Many of these divisions bear Sasanian names, indicating that they had originally been established before the Islamic conquest of Iraq. 418:

Archaeological evidence indicates that there was "a precipitate retreat from a vast central area of the Sawad" during this period, only reversing itself in modern times. After the golden age of the

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production, 36% was kept by the peasants, while taxes were 26% and rents were 38%. Thus almost 2/3 of the Sawad's total net production went to supporting the urban population and upper classes.

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that were prevalent in the Sawad: people would dig holes or use natural slopes to collect rainwater in ponds without making sure that either the ground or the water itself was clean — cattle

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could be used for transport. Most of the marshes were covered by water, but there were some areas with good soil, where people formed settlements, grew crops, and dug canals for irrigation.

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in Iraq, although most of them were no longer extant or operational at the time he wrote. The most extensive archaeological work done on one of those weirs has been done on the Abbasid-era

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from 786 to 809, imperial revenues from the Sawad plummeted from 100 million dirhams to only 20 million by the early 10th century. The sharpest decline took place between the records of

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twice the built-up area as during the Parthian period. In this region, human settlement was as much as 35 times denser and more extensive than it had been under the Achaemenid kings.

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The enormous economic potential of the Sawad is reflected in early Abbasid revenue lists: the Sawad produced four times as much tax revenue as the second-highest-producing province,

1751:, it rose to as much as 50%. The ushr tax was regarded as illegitimate by Islamic jurists at the time, but nonetheless it remained an integral part of the government's tax policy. 603:

action from eroding the sides of the pool to a point where the water could spill around the weir on the other side. Finally, 140 meters upstream from the spillway, there were two

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The ushr tax was a tax on the agricultural output of lands owned by Muslims. The rate on this tax was usually lower than that of the kharaj, at 10% to 25%, but under the caliphs

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were built in front of the spillway, one on each side, to contain the water even during a flood. The right abutment was built more solidly than the left, and it also served as a

221:) or great swamp was the medieval name for the vast marshlands of southern Iraq, along the lower courses of the Tigris and Euphrates. In the northwest, it stretched almost up to 870:

Breads made from wheat and barley formed the main food for most Iraqis, especially in major urban areas such as Baghdad, Wasit, Basra, and Kufa. An especially popular dish was

710:, which was based in the capital and had branches in the provinces. It employed land surveyors and civil engineers for both construction of new projects and their maintenance. 549:

there. Fishing may have been done in some canals, with at least two canals being named after types of fish that lived in them. Canals could also be used to power mills or for

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Most of the inhabitants of the Sawad were called "Nabataeans". Although they converted to Islam, they maintained many pre-Islamic traditions and spoke a distinct dialect of

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to bring saline water up to the surface. Too little irrigation, on the other hand, left no extra water to leach the salts that had been deposited from previous irrigation.

265:) is a hot wind and is strong during the day but dissipates at night. Winter lasts from November until April, and the northwest winds are weaker and often interrupted by 1835:; prior to this, its value was estimated to be as much as that of all other taxes combined. However, it appears that this tax was again reinstated at some point, since 1193:. In the Sawad of Basra, dates were the main dietary staple for much of the population. Dates were not only eaten plain: they were used in producing a strong type of 199:, after about 1200, the Tigris and Euphrates started to gradually shift toward their present courses, which they finally reached during the 1500s. On the other hand, 3120: 459:

in the region, leading to widespread emigration. The repercussions were felt heavily in Baghdad, since there was a desperate lack of grain leading to starvation.

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Maintaining the vast irrigation systems of Iraq required a large number of workers. In addition to the surveyors and engineers mentioned above, there were also

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In order to protect against excessive salt or water buildup in the soil, farmers would leave fields uncultivated for a while, allowing deep-rooted weeds like

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in cultivation during a single winter. (Since land was fallowed every other year, the actual amount of land set aside for grains would have been twice that.)

1618:, in some cases, tax farmers demanded a payment greater than a farmer's entire harvest for the year, driving them to seek protection from higher officials. 737: 402:(r. 488–531), the Tigris overflowed its banks and flooded large areas of productive farmland. Kubadh was unable to do anything about it, but after his son 527:

observed, the Tigris watered the area to the east of the river, whereas the area to the west of the Tigris was irrigated with waters from the Euphrates.

1161:. It was planted in late February and in March, and harvested in June. Hemp was woven into a rough but durable cloth; its fibers were also used to make 3476: 3471: 3174: 1611:

to undertake a general land survey of the Sawad, in order to make the taxation of the Sawad more centralized. Taxpayers resented this land survey.

953:, constituted some of the richest rice-producing areas in the Sawad, which enticed government officials to compete for the control of the region. 2503:

According to Ibn Wahshiyya and Sabi, almost all the landlords of the Sawad lived in larger cities and towns, with their representatives, called

1791:, however, did the jizya constitute a separate tax. In other parts of Iraq, the jizya was collected as an addition to the ordinary kharaj tax. 281:

may occur anywhere in Iraq during the winter, except for the southernmost parts, and they come in the wake of the depressions, after the rain.

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According to Ibn Wahshiyya, six different kinds of wheat were grown in the Sawad. The most important wheat-growing areas were located around

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The Collapse of the World's Oldest Civilization: The Political Economy of Hydraulic States and the Financial Crisis of the Abbasid Caliphate

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and siege of Baghdad in 865, which "wiped out any notion that the government's reciprocal function of protection could be honoured". The

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eventually came to refer to the rural district around a particular city; thus, contemporary geographers made references to the Sawad of

1591:(they are still found in swampy areas around here today in "almost unbelievable numbers"). Plants native to the area may have supplied 3256: 1189:

was a crucial crop, almost as important as cereals like wheat, barley, and rice. Basra alone grew 300 varieties at the time of Caliph

3423:"Land Tax ʿalā l-misāḥa and muqāsama: Legal Theory and the Balance of Social Forces in Early Medieval Iraq (6th–8th Centuries C.E.)" 3387: 3266: 3082: 2555:

Under Persian rule, the Persian settlement had been heaviest in the area east of the Tigris, as well as in certain garrison cities.

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were also grown as fodder as well as to replenish soils, but their importance appears to have declined after the second century AH.

1492:. Ibn Wahshiyya warned that sesame should not be grown in back-to-back years because doing so would deplete the soil's nutrients. 1139:) was especially grown in the central part of the Sawad, where, besides being used for textiles, it also formed a dietary staple; 1876:

introduced a temporary reduction of the rate, from the common 50% to 40%. The muqāsama system was introduced with the support of

515:

Throughout its history, the Sawad was crisscrossed by many canals. In the Islamic period, most canals ran west to east, from the

3461: 973: 100:) was used to denote the irrigated and cultivated areas in any district. Unmodified, it always referred to southern Iraq, the 729:, who dredged canals; and workers (no name given) who carried loads of soil to reinforce structures such as dams and weirs. 1309:, grown in the mountains. He also described ten different specific varieties of fig, with varying size, taste, and color. 1624: 961: 1807:

rule. It had been collected from the peasants twice a year and spent to buy gifts for the king during the festivals of

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Since the destruction largely occurred west of the Tigris, the Sassanid emperors focused on developing the region of

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At first, the terms that would come to be used for various types of taxes were not clearly distinguished. The words

980:). Rice farming required meticulous preparation, fertilization, irrigation, and labor for harvesting and threshing. 803:

used to fertilize crops in the Sawad. The first was "natural" manure, which consisted of either dried plant matter,

2660: 2564: 2560: 627:, Syria. Mechanical waterwheels like this one once carried water from rivers and canals to the fields of the Sawad. 492: 1238:

was grown in Iraq, with Ibn Wahshiyya and al-Dinawari each distinguishing between two varieties of citron: sweet (

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was especially cultivated in the Sawad of Basra. Ibn Wahshiyya considered the ideal soil for growing cotton to be

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tax but would still have to pay kharaj. (Abbasid-period writers attributed this policy to the Rashidun caliph

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regions. Rice was often served with fish and/or vegetables. Various recipes called for rice to be cooked with

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succeeded him, he ordered the reconstruction of dykes and was able to reclaim part of the flooded land. Under

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unlikely that in Sasanian times the Euphrates entered the swamps ... with very little if any residual flow."

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The amount of water used in irrigation was crucial: excessive irrigation would cause a dangerous rise in the

910:, although both districts experienced a steep decline in wheat production by the end of the 3rd century AH. 2002: 277:) are accompanied by cold temperatures, cloudy skies, and rain. Average winter rainfall is about 5 inches. 3176:

Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates

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Ibn Wahshiyya also enumerates 35 different kinds of "unfruitful trees" which were planted to supply wood.

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was grown in the parts of the Sawad that were warm and humid – two conditions necessary for it to thrive.

403: 31: 2406: 2362: 2321: 2098: 863:

described the four districts surrounding Baghdad as extremely productive, which is partly why the caliph

1723:, with the tax rate being 50% of the crops grown on kharaj land. This rate was maintained by the caliph 1631:, introduced a "furnace of iron which had protruding nails inside it" to be used to punish tax evaders. 792:

were grown this way rather than from seeds. Ibn Wahshiyya wrote a detailed description of the practice.

775: 706:

The government ministry responsible for the construction and maintenance of irrigation projects was the

566: 344: 2469: 2249: 1900:

describe the general administrative setup of the 9th-century Sawad. It was divided into 12 districts (

1831:, its value rose to as much as 50 million dirhams annually. The hadaya was abolished a second time by 1608: 1353: 2490: 2312: 2307: 2285: 2081: 2012: 1947: 1893: 1877: 1712:, as a way of giving it more legitimacy, since the Umayyads had become infamous under the Abbasids.) 1312:

Ibn Wahshiyya listed the following as fruits grown widely in most parts of Iraq during his lifetime:

937: 707: 542: 535: 427: 2302: 2007: 1140: 969: 965: 37: 3377: 2413: 2392: 2230: 2057: 1942: 1293:

was especially known for growing figs. Al-Dinawari distinguished between four basic types of figs:

206:

In Sasanian times, the Euphrates likely entered the swamps close to the site of the modern town of

75:, it was an official political term for a province encompassing most of modern Iraq except for the 2418: 2220: 2194: 2177: 2153: 2072: 2021: 1997: 1978: 1971: 1925: 1904:; there were only 10 at Ibn Khordadbeh's time), each of which consisted of several sub-districts ( 950: 595: 3306: 3114: 3050: 2651: 2396: 2333: 2276: 2271: 2158: 2136: 2067: 2052: 1531: 1475: 1401: 691: 435:

well as outright looting by Turkish mercenaries. The single greatest precipitating event was the

176: 2438: 2428: 2348: 2261: 2204: 2168: 2028: 1704:

established a policy that, if a landlord converted to Islam, he would no longer have to pay the

1615: 1467: 1102: 680:) instead of water thrust. These were commonly used around Baghdad and Anbar. The third was the 634:

outlined five main mechanical devices used for irrigation purposes in the Sawad. The first, the

3029:"The Feeding of the five Hundred Thousand: Cities and Agriculture in Early Islamic Mesopotamia" 2382: 2293: 2235: 1129:

and free of salt. It was sown between late April and late May, and harvested in June and July.

207: 3383: 3262: 3232: 3078: 2760: 2754: 2670: 2655: 2513: 2387: 2373: 2163: 2127: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1824: 1812: 1588: 1548: 1547:) grow there without irrigation. This also had a similar effect, and had the added benefit of 1028: 419: 266: 80: 72: 68: 42: 2567:. (The walls were high to make space for all the openings.) Tree trunks were used either for 2213: 2047: 2033: 1952: 1845: 1463: 1032: 977: 230: 3430: 3298: 3040: 2423: 2038: 1800: 1759: 1592: 1445: 1020: 983:

Rice, and particularly rice bread, was a dietary staple in southern Iraq, especially in the

946: 488: 399: 364: 1507:

Various types of flowers were grown, mainly for use in medicine. Ibn Wahshiyya singled out

359:

sometimes threatened the security of the region, particularly the areas to the west of the

159: 2184: 1840: 1724: 1535: 1105:

district, millet was used alongside barley to pay taxes, indicating its local importance.

824: 812: 423: 192: 2591:

trees and then covered with a mixture of mud and straw. Ibn Wahshiyya also described how

2353: 762:, which documents many of the agricultural practices of the Sawad in the 3rd century AH. 644:

2643: 2612: 1897: 1849: 1772: 1251: 1190: 1098: 645: 472: 456: 440: 64: 56: 55:. It means "black land" or "arable land" and refers to the stark contrast between the 3455: 3054: 1828: 1748: 1720: 1628: 1614:

In practice, tax collectors often took far more than the official rate. According to

1271: 1255: 1223: 956: 758: 745: 384: 270: 76: 1565:

shrank, likely bringing people and livestock into direct competition for resources.

876:, which consisted of pieces of bread with either vegetable soup or a combination of 314: 2224: 2062: 1764: 1561: 1493: 1341: 1186: 1144: 907: 649: 395: 356: 140: 2530: 1873: 1732: 828: 452: 109: 3072: 2990: 1719:, the standard implementation of the kharaj tax in the Sawad came in the form of 2625: 2518: 2089: 1864:, at the behest of the Muslims of Iraq. Under this new system, which was called 1357: 1024: 1000: 641: 484: 387:

system was likely employed during this period, just as it was in Islamic times.

379:

medium-sized towns, rather than rural population moving to large urban centers.

196: 60: 2608:

in each village to supply residents with everyday items or building materials.

2575:

to support the ceilings, and the ceilings themselves were lined with wood from

1655:

were often used interchangeably in early Islamic writings. At one point in the

615: 590:, and small pieces of brick, all built on top of a stepped brick platform. Two 3045: 3028: 2597: 2198: 1485: 1361: 1286: 1279: 918: 808: 789: 524: 407: 391: 244: 151: 3434: 3236: 1595:, and sand may have been supplied from here as well, deposited by the water. 698:

was a simple animal-powered device used to transport water taken from wells.

2750: 2601: 2534: 2256: 2117: 1912:

Administrative divisions of the 9th-century Sawad (from El-Samarraie, 1970)

1869: 1836: 1744: 1728: 1619: 1516: 1489: 1455: 1449: 1199: 1126: 1012: 877: 864: 831:, the total winter acreage for cereal crops has been estimated at 3 million 653: 516: 467: 371: 293: 3289:

Waines, David (1977). "The third century internal crisis of the Abbasids".

1656: 1077:

were also grown for use as fodder in the Sawad. Ibn Wahshiyya recorded the

855:

were grown in every district of the Sawad. In most of these districts, the

523:, since water level in the Tigris was lower than that of the Euphrates. As 51:

was the name used in early Islamic times (7th–12th centuries) for southern

1852:, indicating that the hadaya may have continued even through this period. 1787:

was a tax collected from all adult male non-Muslims in the Sawad. Only in

2576: 2240: 2122: 1962: 1861: 1804: 1716: 1676: 1604: 1512: 1349: 1148: 1055:; Ibn Wahshiyya considered it the ideal fodder for livestock, especially 793: 785: 749: 690:, was a bucket operated by four people; it was in use in the area of the 657: 591: 579: 444: 203:

described the shift as taking place in the period between 1500 and 1650.

717:, who supervised water levels, flow, and capacity of rivers and canals; 3310: 2621: 2605: 2592: 2580: 2525: 2462: 2144: 2043: 1832: 1788: 1701: 1471: 1429: 1397: 1381: 1313: 1194: 1158: 1106: 1078: 1044: 984: 942: 913:

Perhaps due to its greater resilience to the increasing soil salinity,

903: 881: 832: 668:, was another type of waterwheel; it was powered by animals (typically 661: 631: 550: 249: 214: 188: 136: 120: 105: 2616: 2588: 2572: 2568: 2549: 2538: 2497: 2189: 1933: 1881: 1820: 1816: 1808: 1709: 1680: 1668: 1648: 1644: 1544: 1497: 1481: 1459: 1437: 1421: 1389: 1385: 1377: 1345: 1333: 1329: 1290: 1235: 1219: 1178: 1122: 1110: 1074: 1052: 996: 914: 886: 872: 860: 856: 852: 800: 767: 686: 583: 520: 360: 226: 87: 17: 3422: 3302: 968:). Winter rice, meanwhile, was planted at the beginning of January ( 480:

rainfall per year. Without irrigation, agriculture here would fail.

2493:

wrote that "the inhabitants of the Sawad are servants and slaves."

1504:

was also an important sesame producer in the early 4th century AH.

2468: 2457: 2369: 2328: 2266: 2113: 1957: 1784: 1755: 1705: 1688: 1664: 1652: 1640: 1584: 1579: 1508: 1501: 1405: 1365: 1337: 1325: 1317: 1275: 1259: 1247: 1203: 1172: 988: 922: 848: 804: 736: 677: 669: 636: 620: 614: 587: 534:

The most detailed account of Islamic canals is that of Suhrāb, or

500: 466: 310: 278: 234: 184: 172: 168: 158: 150: 132: 124: 3261:. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press. pp. 67, 93. 3228:

Land Behind Baghdad: A History of Settlement on the Diyala Plains

2611:

Ibn Wahshiyya disapproved of the unsanitary methods of obtaining

1860:

A new system of taxation was introduced under the Abbasid caliph

443:

lasted for 15 years before finally being quelled in 883, and the

2584: 2378: 1684: 1575: 1393: 1321: 1246:). Later, in the early 4th century AH, citrus trees such as the 1162: 1154: 1132: 1060: 1008: 992: 933: 624: 600: 570: 541:

A canal could become the center of urban activity: for example,

282: 222: 128: 52: 1731:

urged him to lower it. It was lowered to 40% under the caliph

1417: 1070: 1066: 1056: 1004: 684:; it was a waterwheel powered by human labor. The fourth, the 546: 1691:

tax was also important for non-Muslim peasants in the Sawad.

545:

lined both sides of his canal with shops and moved the local

1880:, the vizier under al-Mahdi who authored the first book on 673: 582:, 37.56 meters wide and 30 meters deep, and made of a well- 1448:, which produced a dark orange dye and was also used for 917:

was a more common crop than wheat in the medieval Sawad.

3427:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

3291:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

3074:

A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times

1206:, and it produced a sweet syrup that was highly valued. 3250: 3248: 3246: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3150: 2541:

banned the purchase of dhimmi serfs because they were

1758:

Sawad was classified as ushr land because it had been

796:

was done with vines if there was enough space for it.

782:

was used to level a field after it had been ploughed.

3212: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3130: 2399:; possibly combined with Barusama as a single tassuj) 1011:. Rice-based pastries were also eaten, and a type of 859:

tax was paid mostly in the form of those two grains.

676:, although in the area of Anbar they were powered by 3231:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. 1848:records a gift-giving of this nature to the caliph 1289:were another commonly grown fruit. The district of 451:The intentional breaching of the Nahrawan canal by 394:first formed during the Sasanian era. According to 1157:was grown both for its textile use as well as for 3344: 3342: 3340: 475:as it appeared near the turn of the 20th century. 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 237:on the Tigris. Suhrab lists four great lagoons ( 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 925:in particular as an important barley producer. 867:chose Baghdad for the site of his new capital. 285:sometimes lays on the ground for several days. 108:. It replaced the earlier and more narrow term 2992:Agriculture in Iraq during the 3rd/9th century 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 1097:as producing these crops in large quantities. 499:A similar phenomenon occurred in the Sawad of 3416: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3406: 2545:: subject to payment of the kharaj land tax. 1488:, which in Iraq was far more widespread than 1043:Described as a summer crop by Ibn Wahshiyya, 799:Ibn Wahshiyya described two general types of 578:supplied 11 branch canals. It consisted of a 8: 3349:Allen, Robert C.; Heldring, Leander (2016). 2516:compared this system with that of the Roman 725:, who bound reeds for use in building dams; 95: 1578:was studded with sites that specialized in 599:tower. The closing walls served to prevent 3119:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2661:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 1603:In the year 105 AH (723–4 CE), the caliph 1019:was produced in many districts, including 3044: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3014: 3012: 3010: 2759:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 513. 1121:The most important textile crop in Iraq, 3382:. Abu Dhabi: Trident Press. p. 31. 2473:12th-century Iraqi earthenware water jar 1910: 1462:valley, and was grown in the regions of 36: 2742: 2696: 1444:), which produced a deep blue dye, and 1436:), which produced a yellow-orange dye, 3179:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 3112: 3066: 3064: 1511:in particular; they were used to make 296:that now sweep all over the country." 2756:A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic 1117:Textile crops: cotton, flax, and hemp 229:, while in the northeast it began at 7: 586:mixture of lime, pebbles, limestone 143:. This usage was exclusive to Iraq. 41:Map of the Sawad ("Irak") under the 2729:Quoted in Allen and Heldring, p. 11 2669:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 87. 1803:, or "gifts", had originated under 1625:Muhammad ibn Abdul-Malik al-Zayiyat 96: 3105:Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley (1925). 2989:El-Samarraie, Husam Qawam (1970). 1177:Contemporary date palm orchard at 721:, who disposed of unneeded waste; 27:Historical region in Southern Iraq 25: 1500:as ideal for sesame cultivation. 1297:, grown in gardens and orchards; 656:, and in the western part of the 3477:Iraq under the Abbasid Caliphate 3472:Iraq under the Umayyad Caliphate 1458:was introduced to Iraq from the 788:was practiced extensively: most 2995:. London: University of London 2465:-era bowl, 9th–10th century CE 2445:belonging to multiple tassujs) 2435:belonging to multiple tassujs) 945:. The rice plantations around 273:. The southeast winds (called 1: 3107:Four Centuries of Modern Iraq 3077:. Routledge. pp. 23–24. 1428:), which produced a red dye, 1258:were introduced to Iraq from 964:) and harvested in December ( 921:notes the region surrounding 3421:Campopiano, Michele (2011). 1815:. This tax was abolished by 1715:From the time of the caliph 1627:, the vizier for the caliph 754:Kitab al-filaha al-Nabatiyya 331:settlement and cultivation. 171:, and five times as much as 1305:, grown in flat areas; and 1218:These were used to produce 778:. An instrument called the 770:were in use, including the 430:in the mid-9th century and 3493: 1496:described the environs of 1185:In much of the Sawad, the 565:The 3rd-century AH author 343:From as early as the late 29: 3376:Potts, Daniel T. (2002). 3255:Adams, Robert M. (1972). 3225:Adams, Robert M. (1965). 3173:Adams, Robert M. (1981). 3046:10.1017/S0021088900000152 1819:, but it was restored by 759:The Nabataean Agriculture 748:wrote a detailed book on 702:Upkeep and administration 300:Challenges to agriculture 3435:10.1163/156852011X586804 1888:Administrative divisions 1416:Plants grown for use in 1143:was used to make bread. 972:) and harvested in May ( 290:Husam Qawam El-Samarraie 201:Stephen Hemsley Longrigg 163:Marshes of southern Iraq 155:Marshes of southern Iraq 2638:Schaeder, H.H. (1997). 1727:, although his advisor 1147:was also used to light 575:ash-Shadhirwan al-Asfal 471:The now-dry bed of the 455:in 937 led to a severe 3462:History of Mesopotamia 3027:Kennedy, Hugh (2011). 2474: 2466: 1182: 742: 628: 487:, as well as enabling 476: 398:, during the reign of 164: 156: 45: 32:Sawad (disambiguation) 3071:Hill, Donald (1984). 2472: 2461: 2441:(possibly a separate 2431:(possibly a separate 2003:al-Madinah al-ʽAtiqah 1679:at the time were the 1176: 740: 618: 611:Mechanical irrigation 567:al-Khatib al-Baghdadi 470: 345:fourth millennium BCE 162: 154: 86:As a generic term in 40: 3258:The Uruk Countryside 3109:. Oxford. p. 2. 2705:The Uruk Countryside 2344:al-Fallujah al-Sufla 2339:al-Fallujah al-ʽUlya 2109:al-Nahrawan al-Asfal 2104:al-Nahrawan al-Awsat 1663:is used to refer to 1007:, and seasoned with 694:canal. Finally, the 422:during the reign of 404:Khusraw I Anushirvan 30:For other uses, see 2718:Heartland of Cities 2407:Bih-Qubadh al-Asfal 2363:Bih-Qubadh al-Awsat 2322:Bih-Qubadh al- Aʽla 2099:al-Nahrawan al-Aʽla 1913: 1827:. Under the caliph 1667:. The early caliph 1101:wrote that, in the 648:, in the region of 3467:Historical regions 2475: 2467: 1911: 1823:and maintained by 1738: 1675:The main forms of 1526:Soil replenishment 1484:was grown to make 1234:At first only the 1183: 949:, as described by 743: 664:. The second, the 660:district, west of 629: 477: 233:, downstream from 165: 157: 73:Abbasid Caliphates 46: 2766:978-3-447-02002-2 2716:Quoted in Adams, 2703:Quoted in Adams, 2676:978-90-04-10422-8 2514:Alfred von Kremer 2451: 2450: 1894:Qudama ibn Ja'far 1825:Ali ibn Abi Talib 1589:calcium carbonate 1549:nitrogen fixation 1087:Asfal iqlīm Bābil 884:. Dishes such as 437:Abbasid civil war 420:Abbasid Caliphate 355:Warfare with the 81:Upper Mesopotamia 43:Abbasid Caliphate 16:(Redirected from 3484: 3446: 3445: 3443: 3441: 3418: 3401: 3400: 3398: 3396: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3357: 3346: 3315: 3314: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3252: 3241: 3240: 3222: 3189: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3170: 3125: 3124: 3118: 3110: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3068: 3059: 3058: 3048: 3024: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2986: 2771: 2770: 2747: 2730: 2727: 2721: 2714: 2708: 2701: 2680: 2652:Heinrichs, W. P. 2250:Ardashir-Babakan 1914: 1892:The accounts of 1609:Umar Ibn Hubayra 1593:sodium carbonate 1555:Animal husbandry 1354:black mulberries 844:Wheat and barley 741:Near Basra, Iraq 489:capillary action 269:coming from the 187:and entered the 99: 98: 21: 3492: 3491: 3487: 3486: 3485: 3483: 3482: 3481: 3452: 3451: 3450: 3449: 3439: 3437: 3420: 3419: 3404: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3348: 3347: 3318: 3303:10.2307/3631960 3297:(20): 282–306. 3288: 3287: 3283: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3254: 3253: 3244: 3224: 3223: 3192: 3182: 3180: 3172: 3171: 3128: 3111: 3104: 3103: 3099: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3070: 3069: 3062: 3026: 3025: 3008: 2998: 2996: 2988: 2987: 2774: 2767: 2749: 2748: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2733: 2728: 2724: 2715: 2711: 2702: 2698: 2693: 2677: 2644:Bosworth, C. E. 2637: 2634: 2596:necessity of a 2565:let sunlight in 2533:. According to 2456: 2313:al-Zab al-Asfal 2308:al-Zab al-Awsat 2286:Bih-Dhiumasufan 2185:Bahman-Ardashir 2082:Bazijan-Khusraw 2013:Radhan al-Asfal 1890: 1878:Abu Ubayd Allah 1858: 1841:Harun al-Rashid 1797: 1781: 1741: 1725:Harun al-Rashid 1697: 1637: 1601: 1587:as a source of 1571: 1557: 1528: 1414: 1376:These included 1374: 1268: 1232: 1216: 1171: 1119: 1041: 931: 846: 841: 825:Harun al-Rashid 813:Yaqut al-Hamawi 735: 708:Diwan al-Kharaj 704: 613: 569:listed some 30 563: 543:Bilal ibn Burda 513: 493:Robert M. Adams 465: 428:Ibn Khurdadhbeh 424:Harun al-Rashid 416: 353: 341: 328: 309:flow of 16,000 302: 258: 195:. According to 191:at the town of 149: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3490: 3488: 3480: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3454: 3453: 3448: 3447: 3402: 3388: 3379:Feast of Dates 3368: 3316: 3281: 3267: 3242: 3190: 3126: 3097: 3083: 3060: 3006: 2772: 2765: 2741: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2731: 2722: 2709: 2695: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2688: 2687: 2681: 2675: 2648:van Donzel, E. 2633: 2630: 2613:drinking water 2455: 2452: 2449: 2448: 2447: 2446: 2436: 2426: 2421: 2416: 2409: 2403: 2402: 2401: 2400: 2390: 2385: 2376: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2357: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2331: 2324: 2318: 2317: 2316: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2303:al-Zab al-Aʽla 2298: 2282: 2281: 2280: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2252: 2246: 2245: 2244: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2208: 2207: 2202: 2192: 2187: 2180: 2174: 2173: 2172: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2149: 2133: 2132: 2131: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2111: 2106: 2101: 2094: 2078: 2077: 2076: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2024: 2018: 2017: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2008:Radhan al-Aʽla 2005: 2000: 1995: 1986: 1981: 1974: 1968: 1967: 1966: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1938: 1922: 1921: 1918: 1898:Ibn Khordadbeh 1889: 1886: 1857: 1854: 1796: 1793: 1780: 1777: 1740: 1737: 1696: 1693: 1636: 1635:Types of taxes 1633: 1600: 1597: 1570: 1567: 1556: 1553: 1527: 1524: 1413: 1410: 1373: 1370: 1267: 1264: 1242:) and bitter ( 1231: 1228: 1215: 1212: 1170: 1167: 1141:flaxseed flour 1118: 1115: 1099:Ibn Khordadbeh 1040: 1037: 970:Kanun al-Akhir 966:Kanun al-Awwal 930: 927: 845: 842: 840: 837: 734: 731: 703: 700: 646:Nahrawan Canal 612: 609: 562: 559: 512: 509: 473:Nahrawan Canal 464: 461: 457:water shortage 441:Zanj rebellion 415: 412: 352: 349: 340: 337: 327: 324: 301: 298: 257: 254: 148: 145: 83:in the north. 65:Arabian Desert 57:alluvial plain 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3489: 3478: 3475: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3459: 3457: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3407: 3403: 3391: 3389:1-900724-59-6 3385: 3381: 3380: 3372: 3369: 3354: 3353: 3345: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3285: 3282: 3270: 3268:0-226-00500-3 3264: 3260: 3259: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3243: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3229: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3191: 3178: 3177: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3116: 3108: 3101: 3098: 3086: 3084:0-415-15291-7 3080: 3076: 3075: 3067: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3052: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3007: 2994: 2993: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2762: 2758: 2757: 2752: 2746: 2743: 2736: 2726: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2700: 2697: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2662: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2635: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2618: 2614: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2556: 2553: 2551: 2546: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2523: 2522: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2499: 2494: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2471: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2444: 2440: 2437: 2434: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2415: 2414:Furat-Badaqla 2412: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2398: 2394: 2393:Nahr al-Malik 2391: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2368: 2367: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2360: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2319: 2314: 2311: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2301: 2300: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2287: 2284: 2283: 2278: 2275: 2273: 2270: 2268: 2265: 2263: 2260: 2258: 2255: 2254: 2253: 2251: 2248: 2247: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2222: 2219: 2218: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2206: 2203: 2200: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2182: 2181: 2179: 2176: 2175: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2155: 2152: 2151: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2138: 2135: 2134: 2129: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2112: 2110: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2058:al-Bandanijan 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2019: 2014: 2011: 2009: 2006: 2004: 2001: 1999: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1976: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1943:Fayruz-Qubadh 1941: 1940: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1919: 1916: 1915: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1872:, the caliph 1871: 1867: 1863: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1794: 1792: 1790: 1786: 1778: 1776: 1774: 1768: 1766: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1750: 1749:al-Mutawakkil 1746: 1736: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1721:sharecropping 1718: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1694: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1634: 1632: 1630: 1629:al-Mutawakkil 1626: 1621: 1617: 1612: 1610: 1607:commissioned 1606: 1598: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1577: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1537: 1533: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1505: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1411: 1409: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1371: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1272:Ibn Miskawayh 1270:According to 1265: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1256:bitter orange 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1229: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1213: 1211: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1180: 1175: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1116: 1114: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1039:Other cereals 1038: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 981: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 958: 957:Ibn Wahshiyya 954: 952: 948: 944: 939: 935: 928: 926: 924: 920: 916: 911: 909: 905: 900: 897: 893: 889: 888: 883: 879: 875: 874: 868: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 843: 838: 836: 834: 830: 826: 820: 816: 814: 810: 806: 802: 797: 795: 791: 787: 783: 781: 777: 773: 769: 763: 761: 760: 755: 751: 747: 746:Ibn Wahshiyya 739: 732: 730: 728: 724: 720: 716: 711: 709: 701: 699: 697: 693: 689: 688: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 638: 633: 626: 622: 617: 610: 608: 606: 602: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 576: 572: 568: 560: 558: 554: 552: 548: 544: 539: 537: 532: 528: 526: 522: 518: 510: 508: 504: 502: 497: 494: 490: 486: 481: 474: 469: 462: 460: 458: 454: 449: 446: 442: 438: 433: 429: 425: 421: 413: 411: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 388: 386: 385:crop rotation 380: 376: 373: 368: 366: 362: 358: 350: 348: 346: 338: 336: 332: 325: 323: 319: 316: 312: 306: 299: 297: 295: 291: 288:According to 286: 284: 280: 276: 272: 271:Mediterranean 268: 264: 255: 253: 251: 246: 242: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 211: 209: 204: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 180: 178: 174: 170: 161: 153: 146: 144: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 113: 111: 107: 103: 93: 89: 84: 82: 78: 77:Syrian Desert 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 44: 39: 33: 19: 3438:. Retrieved 3426: 3393:. Retrieved 3378: 3371: 3359:. Retrieved 3351: 3294: 3290: 3284: 3272:. Retrieved 3257: 3227: 3181:. Retrieved 3175: 3106: 3100: 3088:. Retrieved 3073: 3036: 3032: 2997:. Retrieved 2991: 2755: 2745: 2725: 2717: 2712: 2704: 2699: 2666: 2659: 2610: 2557: 2554: 2547: 2543:ahl al-karaj 2542: 2524: 2517: 2508: 2504: 2502: 2495: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2442: 2432: 2419:al-Saylahayn 2354:ʽAyn al-Tamr 2290: 2288: 2221:Fayruz-Sabur 2195:Dasti-Maysan 2178:Shadh-Bahman 2154:al-Zandaward 2141: 2139: 2086: 2084: 2073:al-Rustaqayn 2063:Baraz al-Ruz 2022:Shadh-Qubadh 1979:Buzurjisabur 1972:Shadh Hurmuz 1930: 1928: 1926:Shadh-Fayruz 1905: 1901: 1891: 1865: 1859: 1798: 1782: 1769: 1765:al-Baladhuri 1754:Most of the 1753: 1742: 1714: 1698: 1674: 1660: 1638: 1613: 1602: 1572: 1558: 1540: 1529: 1521: 1506: 1494:Al-Muqaddasi 1480: 1454: 1441: 1433: 1425: 1415: 1375: 1362:blackberries 1311: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1285: 1269: 1266:Other fruits 1244:aṭrunj ḥāmuḍ 1243: 1239: 1233: 1217: 1208: 1184: 1181:, near Basra 1153: 1145:Flaxseed oil 1136: 1131: 1120: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1065: 1048: 1042: 1016: 982: 955: 951:Qadi Tanukhi 932: 912: 901: 895: 891: 885: 871: 869: 847: 821: 817: 798: 784: 779: 771: 764: 757: 753: 744: 726: 722: 718: 714: 712: 705: 695: 685: 681: 665: 635: 630: 596:closing wall 564: 555: 540: 536:Ibn Serapion 533: 529: 514: 505: 498: 482: 478: 450: 417: 396:al-Baladhuri 389: 381: 377: 369: 357:Roman Empire 354: 342: 333: 329: 320: 307: 303: 287: 274: 262: 259: 243: 238: 218: 212: 205: 181: 166: 116: 114: 101: 91: 85: 67:. Under the 48: 47: 3429:: 239–269. 3395:12 February 3039:: 177–199. 2656:Lecomte, G. 2561:ventilation 2537:, however, 2489:The jurist 2397:al-Sayibayn 2395:(including 2334:Khutarniyah 2277:Nahr Jawbar 2272:Nahr Durqit 2159:al-Tharthur 2137:Shadh-Sabur 2090:al-Nahrawan 2068:al-Daskarah 2053:al-Dhaybayn 1850:al-Mu'tamid 1773:al-Mu'tasim 1659:, the term 1476:Khaṭarnīyya 1412:Other crops 1358:raspberries 1301:, or wild; 1280:watermelons 1240:aṭrunj ḥulū 1202:as well as 1191:Al-Mu'tasim 1095:al-Jarāmiqa 839:Major crops 790:fruit trees 733:Agriculture 485:water table 432:Ali ibn Isa 267:depressions 197:Donald Hill 61:Mesopotamia 3456:Categories 3361:31 October 3183:1 December 3090:1 December 2751:Wehr, Hans 2737:References 2665:Volume IX: 2624:by wooden 2598:blacksmith 2519:latifundia 2439:Hurmuzjird 2429:Rudhmastan 2349:al-Nahrayn 2262:al-Rumaqan 2205:Abz-Qubadh 2199:al-Ubullah 2169:al-Jawazir 2029:Rustuqbadh 1829:Mu'awiya I 1616:Jahshiyari 1486:sesame oil 1468:Saqī Jūkhā 1350:mulberries 1103:Rustuqbadh 1083:Saqī dijla 976:and June ( 919:Ibn Hawqal 809:Ibn Bassam 774:, or iron 642:waterwheel 605:regulators 463:Irrigation 408:Khusraw II 339:Background 294:sandstorms 245:Ibn Rustah 179:combined. 3237:899942882 3115:cite book 3055:128901895 2602:carpenter 2535:Abu Ubayd 2531:al-Ma'mun 2509:al-wuhata 2383:Barbisama 2294:al-Zawabi 2257:Bahurasir 2236:Qatrabbul 2118:Jarjaraya 1874:al-Ma'mun 1870:al-Tabari 1837:Abu Yusuf 1760:reclaimed 1745:al-Wathiq 1733:al-Ma'mun 1729:Abu Yusuf 1620:Abu Yusuf 1517:rosewater 1490:olive oil 1456:Asparagus 1450:cosmetics 1420:included 1200:furniture 1013:rice wine 878:olive oil 873:al-tharīd 865:al-Mansur 829:al-Ma'mun 654:Euphrates 592:abutments 517:Euphrates 453:Ibn Ra'iq 372:Ctesiphon 315:backslope 217:(plural: 208:Shinafiya 177:Palestine 147:Geography 115:The term 2753:(1979). 2720:, p. 223 2658:(eds.). 2577:tamarisk 2505:al-quwam 2388:Barusama 2374:al-Budat 2241:Baduraya 2225:al-Anbar 2164:al-Astan 2128:Bakusaya 2123:Badaraya 1993:Nahr Bin 1989:Kalwadha 1984:Nahr Buq 1963:Khanaqin 1948:al-Jabal 1920:Tassujs 1866:muqāsama 1862:al-Mahdi 1856:Muqasama 1813:Mihrijan 1805:Sasanian 1717:al-Mahdi 1683:and the 1677:land tax 1605:Yazid II 1599:Taxation 1569:Industry 1513:rose oil 1434:za'farān 1314:apricots 1224:currants 1079:nahiyahs 1029:Bakusaya 1025:Badaraya 899:millet. 896:disheesh 833:hectares 794:Layering 786:Grafting 750:agronomy 727:haffārūn 723:razzāmūn 719:naqqālūn 715:qaīyāsun 658:Baduraya 640:, was a 584:cemented 580:spillway 445:Qaramita 351:Sasanian 139:, or of 63:and the 3440:16 June 3311:3631960 3274:16 June 2999:30 June 2707:, p. 67 2667:San–Sze 2640:"Sawād" 2632:Sources 2626:gutters 2622:cistern 2593:plaster 2581:cypress 2573:rafters 2569:columns 2550:dihqans 2526:Slavery 2463:Abbasid 2454:Society 2214:al-ʽAli 2048:Jabilta 2044:Jalawla 2034:Mahrudh 1953:Tamarra 1846:Abshihi 1833:Umar II 1789:Baghdad 1702:Umar II 1672:terms. 1562:stubble 1464:Bājarmā 1430:saffron 1408:, etc. 1398:parsley 1382:chicory 1346:bananas 1342:pippins 1334:quinces 1330:damsons 1318:peaches 1295:bustānī 1220:raisins 1195:vinegar 1159:hashish 1107:Alfalfa 1045:sorghum 1033:Junhula 1015:called 985:Bata'ih 978:Haziran 943:Kashkar 904:Kashkar 892:habbīya 887:burghul 882:vinegar 776:coulter 768:ploughs 752:called 662:Baghdad 652:on the 632:Buzjani 553:cloth. 551:fulling 525:Ya'qubi 519:to the 414:Islamic 392:Bata'ih 326:History 256:Climate 250:mashhuf 231:al-Qatr 219:Bata'ih 215:Batihah 189:Batihah 137:Samarra 121:Baghdad 106:Baghdad 69:Umayyad 3386: 3309: 3265: 3235: 3081: 3053: 2763: 2673: 2654:& 2617:manure 2606:potter 2604:, and 2589:walnut 2587:, and 2571:or as 2539:Umar I 2498:Arabic 2491:Sharik 2424:Tistar 2231:Maskin 2190:Maysan 2145:Kaskar 2039:Silsil 1934:Hulwan 1906:tassūj 1882:kharaj 1839:urged 1821:Uthman 1817:Umar I 1809:Nowruz 1801:hadāyā 1795:Hadaya 1710:Umar I 1695:Kharaj 1687:. The 1681:kharaj 1669:Umar I 1661:kharāj 1657:Qur'an 1651:, and 1649:sadaqa 1645:kharaj 1585:snails 1545:clover 1498:Tikrit 1482:Sesame 1474:, and 1460:Jordan 1438:indigo 1426:fuwwah 1422:madder 1390:fennel 1386:capers 1366:olives 1364:, and 1338:apples 1326:prunes 1307:jabalī 1291:Hulwan 1276:melons 1254:, and 1252:orange 1236:citron 1230:Citrus 1214:Grapes 1179:al-Faw 1137:kattān 1127:clayey 1123:cotton 1111:clover 1093:, and 1075:millet 1073:, and 1053:fodder 1031:, and 1021:Abdasi 1017:nabīdh 997:butter 962:Tammuz 947:Jamida 938:Qudama 915:barley 894:, and 861:Tabari 857:kharaj 853:barley 811:, and 801:manure 780:mijrad 772:sikkah 692:Sarsar 687:shādūf 682:daliya 678:camels 670:horses 588:cherts 521:Tigris 511:Canals 400:Kubadh 365:Julian 361:Tigris 311:cumecs 275:Sharqi 263:Shamal 227:Nippur 110:Rādhān 88:Arabic 3356:(PDF) 3307:JSTOR 3051:S2CID 2691:Notes 2642:. In 2443:diyaʽ 2433:diyaʽ 2370:Jubba 2329:Babil 2267:Kutha 2114:Iskaf 1998:Jazir 1958:Arbil 1917:Astan 1902:astān 1785:jizya 1779:Jizya 1756:Basra 1739:'Ushr 1706:jizya 1689:jizya 1665:wages 1653:zakat 1641:jizya 1580:glass 1541:ritab 1509:roses 1502:Wasit 1472:Bābil 1446:henna 1406:basil 1372:Herbs 1322:pears 1303:sahlī 1299:barrī 1260:India 1248:lemon 1204:boats 1169:Dates 1163:ropes 1149:lamps 1091:Jūkhī 1061:goats 1049:dhura 1003:, or 989:Basra 974:Ayyar 923:Wasit 908:Anbar 849:Wheat 805:feces 756:, or 696:bakra 666:dūlāb 650:Anbar 637:nā'ūr 621:Noria 571:weirs 561:Weirs 501:Basra 279:Frost 235:Wasit 185:Wasit 173:Syria 169:Egypt 141:Anbar 135:, of 133:Wasit 131:, of 127:, of 125:Basra 123:, of 117:sawad 102:sawād 92:sawād 49:Sawad 18:Sawād 3442:2021 3397:2021 3384:ISBN 3363:2021 3276:2021 3263:ISBN 3233:OCLC 3185:2020 3121:link 3092:2020 3079:ISBN 3033:Iraq 3001:2020 2761:ISBN 2671:ISBN 2585:pine 2563:and 2548:The 2381:and 2379:Sura 2372:and 2116:and 2046:and 1991:and 1896:and 1811:and 1799:The 1783:The 1747:and 1685:ushr 1576:Uruk 1536:aqul 1534:and 1532:shuk 1515:and 1442:nīla 1418:dyes 1402:sage 1394:dill 1378:mint 1287:Figs 1278:and 1222:and 1187:date 1155:Hemp 1133:Flax 1109:and 1067:Oats 1059:and 1057:cows 1009:salt 993:milk 987:and 934:Rice 929:Rice 906:and 880:and 851:and 827:and 674:oxen 625:Hama 601:wave 390:The 283:Snow 239:Ḥawr 225:and 223:Kufa 213:The 193:Qatr 175:and 129:Kufa 97:سواد 79:and 71:and 53:Iraq 3431:doi 3299:doi 3041:doi 2507:or 2291:aka 2142:aka 2087:aka 1931:aka 1081:of 1071:rye 1005:fat 1001:oil 672:or 623:in 547:suq 104:of 59:of 3458:: 3425:. 3405:^ 3319:^ 3305:. 3295:20 3293:. 3245:^ 3193:^ 3129:^ 3117:}} 3113:{{ 3063:^ 3049:. 3037:73 3035:. 3031:. 3009:^ 2775:^ 2663:. 2650:; 2646:; 2628:. 2600:, 2583:, 2579:, 2500:. 2296:) 2147:) 2092:) 1936:) 1775:. 1767:. 1647:, 1643:, 1519:. 1478:. 1470:, 1466:, 1452:. 1404:, 1400:, 1396:, 1392:, 1388:, 1384:, 1380:, 1368:. 1360:, 1356:, 1352:, 1348:, 1344:, 1340:, 1336:, 1332:, 1328:, 1324:, 1320:, 1316:, 1274:, 1262:. 1250:, 1226:. 1165:. 1151:. 1089:, 1085:, 1069:, 1063:. 1027:, 1023:, 999:, 995:, 890:, 815:. 619:A 538:. 210:. 112:. 90:, 3444:. 3433:: 3399:. 3365:. 3313:. 3301:: 3278:. 3239:. 3187:. 3123:) 3094:. 3057:. 3043:: 3003:. 2769:. 2679:. 2521:. 2289:( 2227:) 2223:( 2201:) 2197:( 2140:( 2085:( 1929:( 1543:( 1440:( 1432:( 1424:( 1135:( 1047:( 960:( 94:( 34:. 20:)

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