392: in). It is brownish in color, with two yellowish stripes on its back. These stripes, which begin on the upper eyelids, may diverge or converge, resulting in a pattern resembling a lyre or an hourglass. Some specimens may be very dark, with less distinct markings. The skin is normally smoother and moister than other toads. Their skin is also sparsely peppered with little warts across the entirety of the body. The eastern spadefoot belongs in one of only four groups of burrowing terrestrial anurans. It has one spur on each of its back feet for burrowing. The spur is generally three times longer than the other toes.
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as quickly as under 12 hours, slowly as over 7 days, and develop into adults in 14-60 days. The eastern spadefoot toad can breed in almost any month of the year. Even though they can breed during any month they do always breed at night to lessen the threat of predation. Due to the explosive breeding, once eggs hatch often food becomes limited from the large populations of tadpoles.
418:
emerge about 43% of the nights they were monitored. They are much more likely to emerge if they had emerged the night prior as well. They also tended to emerge more frequently from their burrows on nights that were warmer and more humid, or the night after/during rain. Other than the emergence after
339:
forests with open understories from intermittent natural burn events. Most abundant in forests with little leaf litter and sparse shrubs. Research has looked into the habitat selection of the species and has found that it tends to hover around upland areas. It has shown preference for being close to
326:
It is mostly found in the southeastern United States, except for mountainous areas, and is also found northward along the
Atlantic coast into southern New England, where it is considered rare. It is found in inland states such as Pennsylvania and New York, but only as far westward as the Appalachian
451:
when not breeding. They use inguinal amplexus while mating. Eastern spadefoot toads are explosive breeders during sufficient rainfall and eggs are usually attached to submerged vegetation. Hatching and development rates are highly variable, mediated by ambient air and water temperatures, hatching
431:
is both diurnal and nocturnal, most foraging for food sources, consisting of small invertebrates such as termites, insects, arachnids, worms, ants, beetles, and grasshoppers is completed during the day. Some species will completely leave to burrow in search of prey; however, a common tactic for the
331:
in New York. Absent from the
Appalachians, but occurs west of them in Tennessee, Kentucky, and southern reaches Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. They are endangered Connecticut where it is found that they only have one viable population in the state.
895:. Johnson, L. M., & Hembree, D. I. (2015). Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record. Palaeontologia Electronica, 18(2), 1-29.
435:
Being burrowing species, spadefoot toads avoid a large amount of predation at the surface, but when exposed during foraging or breeding, they are preyed upon by mammals such as opossums and racoons, birds, and snakes.
830:
Greenberg CH, Tanner GW (2004) Breeding Pond
Selection and Movement Patterns by Eastern Spadefoot Toads (Scaphiopus holbrookii) in Relation to Weather and Edaphic Conditions. Journal of Herpetology 38:569–577.
1069:
Moran, Katherine, and
Charles E. Button. “A GIS model for identifying Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in Eastern Connecticut.” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2011, pp. 980–989,
878:
Moran, Katherine, and
Charles E. Button. “A GIS model for identifying Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in Eastern Connecticut.” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2011, pp. 980–989,
807:
Moran, Katherine, and
Charles E. Button. “A GIS model for identifying Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in Eastern Connecticut.” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2011, pp. 980–989,
536:
Moran, Katherine, and
Charles E. Button. “A GIS model for identifying Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in Eastern Connecticut.” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2011, pp. 980–989,
867:
Overduijn, K. (n.d.). Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii). Species
Profile: Eastern Spadefoot Toad (Scaphiopus holbrookii) | SREL Herpetology. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
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318:. Researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill believe this is because the eastern spadefoot is most representative of the first spadefoot toads to evolve.
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tadpoles are known to be omnivorous. In the event of food shortages some larvae adapt aggressive feeding habits consuming large animal prey including other
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1024:
Johnson, K. A. (2003). Abiotic factors influencing the breeding, movement, and foraging of the eastern spadefoot (scaphiopus holbrookii) in west virginia
821:
Johnson, K. A. (2003). Abiotic factors influencing the breeding, movement, and foraging of the eastern spadefoot (scaphiopus holbrookii) in west virginia
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is considered "threatened" in
Massachusetts and Connecticut. In that state and in 13 others, it is listed as a "Species of Greatest Conservation Need".
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rain and during breeding season, these animals do not have a specific pattern to their burrow emergence; the movements seem to be very random.
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Erickson, M.R., Scott, D.E., Jones, K.L. et al.; Development and characterization of ten microsatellite loci for the eastern spadefoot toad,
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tadpoles. These cannibalistic morphs develop at a heightened rate and become much larger tadpoles in comparison to the non-cannibal morphs.
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spends almost all of its life deep underground; emerging only to breed or feed. It remains in a type of hibernation almost all its life. It
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1000:
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Richmond ND (1947) Life
History of Scaphiopus Holbrookii Holbrookii (Harlan). Part I: Larval Development and Behavior. Ecology 28:53–67.
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782:
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Wasserman, A. O. (1968). Scaphiopus holbrookii. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles (CAAR). Retrieved February 11, 2023
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Levis, N.A.; Isdaner, A.J.; Pfennig, D.W. (2018). "Morphological novelty emerges from pre-existing phenotypic plasticity".
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348:. This environment provides an easy place to burrow, a dense prey biomass, and protection from predators.
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https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/45000/0070_Scaphiopus_holbrookii.pdf?sequence=1
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Wasserman, A. O. (1968). Scaphiopus holbrookii. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles (CAAR)
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Ryan, Calhoun, A. J. K., Timm, B. C., & Zydlewski, J. D. (2015). Monitoring Eastern Spadefoot (
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Timm, Brad C., et al. “Upland Movement Patterns and Habitat Selection of Adult Eastern Spadefoots (
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41:
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eastern spadefoot is to simply sit at the opening of the burrow and wait for prey to pass by.
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Moran, Katherine, and Charles E. Button. "A GIS model for identifying eastern spadefoot toad (
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778:
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A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. Second Edition
641:
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510:
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700:"Cannibalistic tadpoles and matricidal worms point to a powerful new helper for evolution"
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32:
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947:) Response to Weather with the Use of a Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) System.
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requires fish-free ephemeral ponds for breeding but occupies other habitats such as
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970:"Observations on Food Habits of Four Species of Spadefoot Toads, Genus Scaphiopus"
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https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/content/2015/1299-neoichnology-of-toads
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591:"Breeding Pond Selection and Movement Patterns by Eastern Spadefoot Toads (
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While not listed as an endangered species by the U.S. federal government,
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Prefers habitats with loose, commonly sandy, soils for burrowing like
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414:(PIT tags) to monitor emergence from burrows. The study found that
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The average length of an adult eastern spadefoot is 44–57 mm (
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832:
561:
Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0
128:
1323:
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Bo Beolens; Michael Watkins; Michael Grayson (22 April 2013).
1125:
List of Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern species
1085:"Meet the larval amphibians that morph to become cannibals"
1127:. Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. 2015
968:
Whitaker, John O.; Rubin, David; Munsee, Jack R. (1977).
589:
Greenberg, Cathryn H.; Tanner, George W. (2004-12-01).
1182:
USGS Core Science Analytics, Synthesis, and Libraries
706:. American Association for the Advancement of Science
259:
to the eastern United States. It is not considered a
1461:
1226:
263:, with Bufonidae being the family of "true toads".
665:
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314:never naturally develop cannibal tadpoles through
298:Unlike some other spadefoot toad species, such as
595:) in Relation to Weather and Edaphic Conditions"
915:
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516:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T59042A196336701.en
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8:
1072:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004
881:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004
810:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004
766:
764:
539:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004
491:IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2022).
291:, which was once considered a subspecies of
1001:"Scaphiopus holbrookii (Eastern Spadefoot)"
1214:
50:
31:
20:
514:
355:
1561:Fauna of the Southeastern United States
1551:Endemic amphibians of the United States
480:
449:longleaf pine and wiregrass ecosystems
1175:by state wildlife action plan (SWAP)"
1039:www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com
304:(the Mexican or desert spadefoot) or
7:
777:. Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 429 pp.
563:. American Museum of Natural History
1541:IUCN Red List least concern species
1209:Outdoor Alabama - Eastern Spadefoot
1149:) habitat in eastern Connecticut."
851:, vol. 48, no. 1, 2014, pp. 84–97.
643:The Eponym Dictionary of Amphibians
502:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
340:deciduous shrub edges, low-growing
847:) at Cape Cod National Seashore.”
646:. Pelagic Publishing. p. 96.
14:
1035:"Virginia Herpetological Society"
75:
1059:https://doi.org/10.2307/1932918
925:Conservation Genetics Resources
789:, p. 299 + Plate 44 + Map 253.)
412:passive integrated transponders
787:Scaphiopus holbrooki holbrooki
727:Nature Ecology & Evolution
360:An American eastern spadefoot.
1:
833:https://doi.org/10.1670/5-04A
310:(the plains spadefoot toad),
1566:Amphibians described in 1835
1159:10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004
1091:. 2019-06-26. Archived from
1556:Amphibians of North America
1582:
933:10.1007/s12686-010-9198-1
739:10.1038/s41559-018-0601-8
551:Frost, Darrel R. (2015).
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72:Scientific classification
70:
48:
39:
30:
23:
671:"Eastern Spadefoot Toad"
322:Distribution and habitat
255:(family Scaphiopodidae)
247:, commonly known as the
1153:31.3 (2011): 980-989.
289:Hurter's spadefoot toad
287:. A similar species is
253:American spadefoot toad
949:Journal of Herpetology
849:Journal of Herpetology
599:Journal of Herpetology
509:: e.T59042A196336701.
361:
1285:Scaphiopus-holbrookii
1258:Scaphiopus holbrookii
1228:Scaphiopus holbrookii
1147:Scaphiopus holbrookii
1116:Scaphiopus holbrookii
945:Scaphiopus holbrookii
921:Scaphiopus holbrookii
845:Scaphiopus holbrookii
593:Scaphiopus holbrookii
555:Scaphiopus holbrookii
495:Scaphiopus holbrookii
429:Scaphiopus holbrookii
401:Scaphiopus holbrookii
359:
316:phenotypic plasticity
312:Scaphiopus holbrookii
281:John Edwards Holbrook
244:Scaphiopus holbrookii
226:Scaphiopus holbrookii
215:Scaphiopus solitarius
181:Scaphiopus holbrookii
25:Scaphiopus holbrookii
1005:Animal Diversity Web
698:(28 November 2018).
423:Diet & Predation
16:Species of amphibian
1114:"Eastern Spadefoot
927:2, 143–145 (2010).
464:Conservation status
329:Hudson River Valley
327:Mountains, and the
42:Conservation status
951:, 49(2), 257–263.
696:Pennisi, Elizabeth
362:
251:, is a species of
163:S. holbrookii
1528:
1527:
1423:Open Tree of Life
1220:Taxon identifiers
1151:Applied Geography
653:978-1-907807-44-2
301:Spea multiplicata
279:, is in honor of
249:eastern spadefoot
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557:(Harlan, 1835)"
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1397:NatureServe
1345:iNaturalist
1267:AmphibiaWeb
1252:Wikispecies
352:Description
283:, American
1546:Scaphiopus
1535:Categories
1478:Q109525967
1099:2022-04-06
1044:2022-04-05
476:References
342:pitch pine
277:holbrookii
150:Scaphiopus
986:0018-0831
755:256708228
619:0022-1511
567:4 January
427:Although
261:true toad
157:Species:
95:Kingdom:
89:Eukaryota
1472:Wikidata
1402:2.100521
1363:10189584
1237:Wikidata
1010:29 April
785:(pbk.) (
773:. 1975.
747:29988161
680:28 March
627:16533250
396:Behavior
267:Taxonomy
229:–
219:Holbrook
198:Synonyms
135:Family:
119:Amphibia
109:Chordata
105:Phylum:
99:Animalia
85:Domain:
62:IUCN 3.1
1505:2429799
1337:2429796
1243:Q932943
1089:Animals
675:eNature
405:burrows
387:⁄
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273:epithet
257:endemic
191:, 1835)
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522:12 May
233:, 1889
221:, 1836
189:Harlan
1492:6X2TS
1451:26123
1441:61440
1389:59042
1358:IRMNG
1350:26695
1311:79THZ
1191:5 May
1131:5 May
1121:(pdf)
751:S2CID
623:S2CID
129:Anura
1513:ITIS
1500:GBIF
1415:8435
1410:NCBI
1384:IUCN
1371:ITIS
1332:GBIF
1293:BOLD
1272:5275
1193:2020
1186:USGS
1133:2020
1012:2022
982:ISSN
779:ISBN
743:PMID
712:2020
682:2016
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615:ISSN
569:2016
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271:The
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