389:, which hear labor disputes and cases involving Israel's social security system, are heard by professional judges sitting alongside lay judges. Cases in the Regional Labor Courts are heard by a single professional judge alongside two lay judges, one of whom has experience in the labor sector and another with experience in management, while appeals to the National Labor Court, which hears appeals from the Regional Labor Courts, are heard by three professional judges alongside a lay judge from the labor side and a lay judge from the management side. Lay judges in Israeli labor courts are appointed by the Minister of Justice and the Minister of Labor, and serve for a three-year period. They have equal voting power to the professional judges.
533:. From 1. January 2018, the Court of Appeal is convened with two professional- and five lay judges. Before 1. January 2018, if the crime carried a maximum sentence of six years imprisonment or more, the lay judges were replaced with a jury. The jury was chosen from the same list as the lay judges, meaning that lay judges in the appellate courts also served as jurors. If the jury found the defendant guilty, the jury spokesperson, and three other jurors selected at random, served as lay judges during the sentencing. In the few cases where a professional judges overturn the jury's verdict, regardless of whether the original verdict was one of guilt or innocence, the case was retried with three professional judges and four lay judges.
247:, nominative pl. lautamiehet) are called in for serious or complicated cases in district courts, to accompany a professional, legally trained judge. The professional judge is the chair of the panel, but otherwise the judges have equal rights. The aim is to introduce their "common sense of justice" into the process. Simpler cases are handled by one or three professional judges, and all Appeals Court, Supreme Court and administrative court judges are necessarily professional.
907:. After a 1958 reform they were elected for 2 years at general meetings of colleagues at their place of work or residence, or at higher levels appointed by the soviet. The incidence of lay judges overruling professional judges was rare, and was officially reported in only 1 case by the late 1960s. Unlike the juries of the United States, lay judges were not selected from panels that are cross-sections of the entire population, but selected by institutions in each district.
462:
191:
92:
289:; a kind of lay judge) sit side by side with professional judges. Section 263 of the German Code of Criminal Procedure requires a two-thirds majority for most decisions unfavorable to the defendant; denial of probation by simple majority is an important exception. In most cases lay judges do not directly examine documents before the court or have access to the case file.
251:
rights (a lay judge may not be a dependent or in bankruptcy), 25–64 years of age when elected, and general suitability for the position. Lay judges must resign at the age of 68 at the latest. Officials of the judicial, law enforcement or corrections authorities, such as prosecutors, attorneys, policemen, distrainers or customs officers, may not be elected as lay judges.
552:
proceedings, cases which are punishable by more than eight and up to twenty years' imprisonment are heard by a single professional judge and two lay judges, while cases involving offenses punishable by between thirty and forty years' imprisonment are heard by panels composed of two professional judges and three lay judges.
551:
In
Serbian courts, certain criminal and civil cases are heard by panels composed of professional and lay judges, while others are heard solely by professional judges. In non-litigious civil proceedings regarding housing rights, cases are heard by one professional judge and two lay judges. In criminal
376:
The
Fundamental Law of Hungary states that "non-professional judges shall also participate in the administration of justice in the cases and ways specified in an Act." In these cases, the court adjudicates in a panel which is composed of 1 professional judge and 2 lay judges or 2 professional judges
254:
New legislation (2009) has limited the role of lay judges. They are employed only in serious criminal cases, which comprised 6% of cases in 2013, while 29% of cases were handled in writing and 65% with a single professional judge. Almost all (>94%) cases concerning homicide, child molestation and
338:
Lay judges have historically been predominantly middle-aged men from middle-class backgrounds, largely due to a selection procedure in which personal acquaintance, political affiliation and occupation all play an important role. A study conducted in 1969 found that, of the lay judges in its sample,
250:
Lay judges are appointed by local municipal councils, in practice by negotiations between political parties, from among volunteers. Each municipality elects a number of lay judges depending on its size, with two as the minimum. The minimum qualifications are
Finnish citizenship, full citizenship
687:
The system whereby citizens were tried by their peers chosen from the entire community in open court was gradually superseded by an "engine of tyranny and oppression" in
Germany in which the process of investigation was secret and life and liberty depended upon judges appointed by the state. In
297:
if working alone, or housewives if overburdened, or have served as a lay judge in the preceding term. Applications can be made to become a lay judge by interested citizens, but this does not occur often, and welfare institutions, sports clubs, financial and health insurance institutions, trade
292:
The only statutory criterion is that lay judges must be citizens who have not been convicted of, or been under investigation for, a serious crime. However, people "ought not" to be chosen if they are under 25 years old or over 70 years old, very high government officials, judges, prosecutors,
46:
jurisdictions. Lay judges are appointed volunteers and often require some legal instruction. However, they are not permanent officers. They attend proceedings about once a month, and often receive only nominal or "costs covered" pay. Lay judges are usually used when the country does not have
592:
appoint lay judges for the appellate and county administrative courts. They are appointed for a period of 4 years, and may not refuse appointment without valid excuse such as an age of 60 years. Typically, a lay judge will serve one day per month in court during his or her tenure.
293:
lawyers, policemen, ministers, or priests, or don't live in the community at the time of selection, or have been a lay judge in the past two terms. In addition, people may refuse to serve if they are over 65 years old, members of the federal or state legislatures, doctors, nurses,
396:
also employs officers as lay judges. Hearings in district military courts are generally presided over by a professional military judge and two officers who serve in units based in the court's regional district who generally do not have a legal background. Hearings in the
367:
and the Code of
Criminal Procedure, all felonies except for a select few felonies of special nature (such as terrorism) must be tried by a "Mixed Jury Court" composed of three professional judges including the President of the Court and four lay judges.
944:
Lay judges in the district and regional courts were traditionally appointed by the assembly of the relevant socio-political community. In 1991, Serbia completely centralized the
Kosovar judges' appointment and dismissal, including lay judges.
426:. In 2009, as a part of a larger judicial reform project, laws came into force to introduce citizen participation in certain criminal trials by introducing lay judges. Lay judges comprise the majority of the judicial panel. They do not form a
2335:
Re. history and development of the pre-war jury system: Anna
Dobrovolskaia (trans.), The Jury System in Pre-War Japan: An Annotated Translation of “The Jury Guidebook (Baishin Tebiki), Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal, vol. 9, no. 2,
422:'s administration. Although the system generated relatively high acquittal rates, it was rarely used, in part because it required defendants to give up their rights to appeal the factual determinations made. The system lapsed by the end of
51:. Lay judges may be randomly selected for a single trial (as jurors are), or politically appointed. In the latter case they may usually not be rejected by the prosecution, the defense, or the permanent judges. Lay judges are similar to
1730:
The choice by the local community is now reflected in the appointment of the nämnd by the local authority. … Nämndemän are usually chosen from members of the authority in proportion to the political representation at the last local
1778:
After the Second World War, that is, from 1948 to 1950, the State of
Bavaria once again introduced trial by jury. Such courts were however abolished when in 1950 uniformity was once again applied to court procedure in the Federal
715:
during the
Confederation was the first to provide a mixed system of judges and lay judges in 1850, which was quickly adopted by a number of other states, with the Hanoverian legislation providing the model for the contemporary
844:
mainly heavy crimes resulting in death of a person (except negligence), or similar heavy crimes like inducing nuclear explosion, and crimes that may result in a punishment over four years, acting as first instance for those
152:
In Brazil, Law NÂş 9.099/1995 created the "Juizados
Especiais" (Special Petty Courts), with restricted jurisdiction to settle small claims (understood as those with a "lawsuit worth" lower than 40 times the country's
934:. Yugoslav trial courts consisted of 1 judge and 2 lay judges or 2 judges and 3 lay judges. Yugoslav law did not specify the qualifications (or disqualifications), and it was noted in the report by
161:(listed in the Executive Order NÂş 3.688/1941). In this procedure, lay judges act under supervision of judges to preside over the court as well as to act as conciliators. Their decisions, called "
736:(jury court) would consist of three judges and twelve jurymen, alongside the mixed court, with the jury court reserved for serious crimes except political crimes. Lay judges were in use in the
522:) may decree that a case have three lay judges sitting alongside two professional judges if its workload is particularly large or if there are other significant reasons. Decisions are made by
625:
discussed the implementation of lay judges within the Taiwanese legal system in 2016, and later convened the National Conference on Judicial Reform, which met through 2017. In July 2020, the
862:
can usually decide before or at start of a trial to limit itself to two professional judges and two lay jurymen, it cannot do so if it has to function in the above-mentioned three cases.
600:, prosecutors, police, attorneys, and professionals engaged in judicial proceedings. In practice, lay judges in Sweden are elderly, wealthy, and better-educated. Lay judges are usually
255:
sabotage are handled by lay judges. Formerly they always sat in, for instance, family law proceedings. On average, lay judges sit in session for 12 days a year, or 20 days at maximum.
331:) who are also elected by two-thirds of the municipal council, and selects from the list of candidates the number needed to staff the various tribunals. The practice was similar in
574:) sit alongside professional judges in district and appellate general and administrative courts, but decide virtually no civil cases. Lay judges are always in the majority in
2215:
2302:
2271:
518:, lay judges sit alongside professional judges in mixed courts in most cases. In most cases, two lay judges sit alongside one professional judge. The court leader (
302:
are primarily called upon to nominate candidates. It appears that motivation includes social responsibility, image cultivation, advertising, and participation in
704:
called for jury trials for "the more serious crimes and all political offenses", but was never implemented. An 1873 draft on criminal procedure produced by the
931:
347:. A study published in 2009 put this number at 27% civil service employees versus 8% of the general population, and noted the relatively high numbers of
596:
In principle, any adult can become a lay judge. Lay judges must be Swedish citizens and over 18 years old. People that cannot be lay judges are judges,
377:
and 3 lay judges. Lay judges are elected by city councils and can be Hungarian citizens between the age of 30 and 70 years who have not been convicted.
74:
In criminal proceedings, lay judges sit alongside professional judges on cases carrying a maximum punishment of more than five years, as well as for
701:
941:
that in a particular case they were both retired police officers and one was reportedly a former head of the Criminal Investigation Department.
604:
with the local authority from which they are appointed, appointed in proportion to political party representation at the last local elections.
2165:
2144:
2123:
2098:
2077:
2056:
2035:
2014:
1990:
1922:
1908:
1897:
1800:
1723:
1700:
2350:
1765:
2325:
779:
and replaced it with a mixed system of three professional judges and six lay judges, but kept the original name. In 1934, nomination of
1276:
803:
returned to the jury trial as it had existed before the emergency decrees, but they were again abolished by the 1950 Unification Act (
401:, the supreme military court of Israel, are generally presided over by two professional judges and one officer acting as a lay judge.
2402:
935:
501:
230:
139:
566:
In first- and second-tier Swedish courts, both in the general and the administrative hierarchy, politically appointed lay judges (
2175:
762:
52:
2376:
2367:
893:
708:
Ministry of Justice proposed to abolish the jury and replace it with the mixed system, causing a significant political debate.
927:
873:
483:
212:
117:
836:(medium court level of a German federal state's jurisdiction), and again consists of three professional and two lay judges.
761:
of 4 January 1924, ostensibly as an emergency, money-saving measure in a period of acute financial stringency, during an
543:
Lay judges are not totally representative of the population. Only 2.8% are under 30 years of age and 60% are 50 or more.
2371:
585:
2344:
747:
740:
102:
2392:
1982:
1792:
1692:
877:
579:
479:
208:
113:
815:
was further reduced from six to two and in 1993 the number of professional judges was reduced from three to two.
629:
passed the National Judges Act to regulate lay judges. The system is scheduled to be implemented in January 2023.
472:
201:
121:
106:
2213:
Wolfe, Nancy Travis (December 1994). "Lay Judges in German Criminal Courts: The Modification of an Institution".
1676:
725:
589:
575:
398:
319:) with a two-thirds majority of attending local councilors. The selection committee consists of a judge from the
385:
While all criminal cases in Israel are tried by professional judges without any lay participation, cases in the
1845:
869:
530:
439:
43:
1889:
792:
537:
515:
313:
1168:
770:
697:
442:
legal tradition. They actively analyze and investigate evidence presented by the defense and prosecution.
386:
364:
1218:"Lov om rettergangsmĂĄten i straffesaker (Straffeprosessloven). Femte del. Saksbehandlingens enkelte ledd"
1132:
393:
672:
the jury was composed of 30 citizens and councilors. The modern jury trial was first introduced in the
419:
1810:
1169:"The Jury System in Pre-War Japan: An Annotated Translation of "The Jury Guidebook" (Baishin Tebiki)"
669:
616:
597:
435:
309:
Lay judges are selected by a selection committee from lists that are approved by municipal councils (
278:
264:
69:
2337:
2157:
International Territorial Administration: How Trusteeship and the Civilizing Mission Never Went Away
2048:
The Creation of the Modern German Army: General Walther Reinhardt and the Weimar Republic, 1914-1930
1217:
2184:
2006:
Can Liberal Pluralism be Exported?: Western Political Theory and Ethnic Relations in Eastern Europe
1671:
561:
451:
410:
1820:
299:
2224:
2201:
1960:
1870:
1862:
897:
712:
344:
2296:
2265:
2161:
2140:
2134:
2119:
2109:
2094:
2073:
2067:
2052:
2046:
2031:
2025:
2010:
2004:
1986:
1941:
1918:
1893:
1824:
1796:
1786:
1769:
1748:
1719:
1711:
1696:
1686:
693:
661:
2155:
2088:
1976:
1912:
1883:
2193:
1950:
1932:
1854:
1744:
626:
1273:
2397:
1280:
758:
668:'s charter of 1442 secured the right to be tried in all cases by 24 fellow equals, and in
274:
75:
1814:
1145:
989:
1955:
1936:
1836:
938:
889:
416:
352:
303:
35:
876:
in West Berlin, which declared the defendants had the right to a jury trial under the
2386:
2000:
1874:
340:
270:
2332:(note that the translation differs in some regards from the law as finally enacted).
2179:
848:
for preventive detention decisions or official consignment to a mental hospital, and
2318:
1972:
1061:
964:
904:
866:
796:
766:
744:
679:
622:
423:
332:
170:
154:
2280:
2249:
1738:
1239:
1978:
The Kosovo Conflict and International Law: An Analytical Documentation 1974-1999
653:
461:
320:
190:
158:
91:
2027:
Democracy in the Courts: Lay Participation in European Criminal Justice Systems
1840:
1764:. British Institute Studies in International and Comparative Law. Vol. 3.
2072:. Readings in Russian Civilization. Vol. 3. University of Chicago Press.
969:
911:
665:
601:
431:
1773:
1752:
1828:
1477:
1475:
851:
if complexity or difficulty of the case requires a third professional judge.
784:
673:
348:
294:
169:", are submitted to the judge for homologation before it has any effects on
1192:
Haley, JO, The Spirit of Japanese Law, Univ. of Georgia Press, 1998, p. 52.
78:. Lay judges are also used in labor, social, and commercial law disputes.
2115:
722:(lay judge or mixed court). The German code on court constitution called
689:
523:
323:, a representative of the state government, and ten "trusted citizens" (
243:
In Finland, two (previously and sometimes also today three) lay judges (
2205:
1964:
800:
737:
705:
657:
486: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
215: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
174:
17:
2228:
2139:. International and Comparative Criminal Justice. Ashgate Publishing.
1866:
1133:
https://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Colby-final.pdf
915:
643:
2197:
809:) for the Federal Republic. In 1974 the number of lay judges in the
2317:
Johnson, David T., Early Returns from Japan's New Criminal Trials,
1858:
959:
281:
all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges (
39:
2338:
http://www.hawaii.edu/aplpj/articles/APLPJ_09.2_dobrovolskaia.pdf
954:
788:
754:
427:
48:
2090:
The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany
676:
in 1798, with a court consisting most commonly of 12 citizens (
2051:. Monographs in German History. Vol. 12. Berghahn Books.
1402:
1400:
1387:
1385:
1330:
1328:
780:
607:
The use of lay judges in Sweden goes back to the Middle Ages.
455:
415:
A system for trial by jury was first introduced in 1923 under
277:
which are tried before a panel of professional judges, in the
184:
85:
1569:
1567:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
787:
as lay judges was forbidden, and selection was restricted to
578:, whereas the professional judges are in the majority in the
1843:(January 1972). "Lay Judges in the German Criminal Courts".
2362:
642:
There have been lay judges in Germany since early times. A
824:
appears as embodiment for three special task areas of the
173:. According to the law, lay judges must be selected among
1360:
1358:
1345:
1343:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1291:
1289:
1200:
1198:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1024:
1022:
1020:
2281:"Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz(GVG)-Einzelnorm §76 No.(2)"
2250:"Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz(GVG)-Einzelnorm §74 No.(2)"
1766:
British Institute of International and Comparative Law
1714:. In Dashwood, Alan; Bell, John; Ward, Angela (eds.).
1584:
1582:
1073:
1071:
1069:
990:"Lautamiehet mukana enää 6 prosentissa rikosjutuista"
918:
in 1993, and extended to another 69 regions in 2003.
646:
ordinance of 1562 called for the summons of jurymen (
2241:
The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich
588:appoint lay judges for the district courts and the
2237:Der Hitler-ProzeĂź vor dem Volksgericht in MĂĽnchen
2216:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
773:. The emergency decree abolished the jury in the
1146:"Early Returns from Japan's New Criminal Trials"
163:
2283:. Bundesministerium der Justiz & juris GmbH
2252:. Bundesministerium der Justiz & juris GmbH
1688:Judiciaries Within Europe: A Comparative Review
1653:
743:of November 1918 to May 1924, and the infamous
692:the jury trial was suppressed by decree of the
529:Lay judges also serve in criminal cases in the
355:employees, and relative old age of lay judges.
880:, and hence were tried by a West German jury.
2326:An Annotated Translation of Japan's Proposed
568:
8:
1716:Cambridge Yearbook of European Legal Studies
1454:
1406:
1391:
1334:
1120:
1049:
1011:
857:
831:
825:
819:
810:
804:
774:
731:
723:
717:
677:
647:
343:employees, compared to only about 12% being
325:
311:
283:
273:is a single professional judge, and serious
55:, but magistrates sit about twice as often.
2377:Government video explaining new jury system
2330:Law, Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal
2301:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2270:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1481:
730:(GVG) of 27 January 1877 provided that the
120:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
932:Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija
888:Trial by jury was first introduced in the
1954:
1885:Press and politics in the Weimar Republic
1274:Courts of Sweden: District court judgment
502:Learn how and when to remove this message
231:Learn how and when to remove this message
140:Learn how and when to remove this message
2111:World Criminal Justice Systems: A Survey
1937:"On Uses and Misuses of Comparative Law"
1510:
434:system, but participate in the trial as
42:in a trial. Lay judges are used in some
1629:
1573:
1376:
1364:
1349:
1261:
980:
298:unions, industrial companies and other
2294:
2263:
1558:
1546:
1534:
1522:
1498:
1295:
1204:
1176:Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal
1144:Johnson, David T. (7 September 2009).
1108:
1028:
652:), and various methods were in use in
177:with more than 2 years of experience.
2319:The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
1641:
1466:
1442:
1430:
1418:
1150:The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
1089:
865:In 1979, the United States tried the
791:supporters. Between 1948 and 1950 in
269:Except for most crimes for which the
7:
1670:Bauer, Franz J. (23 December 2009).
1612:
1600:
1588:
1319:
1307:
1077:
484:adding citations to reliable sources
213:adding citations to reliable sources
118:adding citations to reliable sources
27:Person assisting a judge in a trial
1956:10.1111/j.1468-2230.1974.tb02366.x
1909:German Federal Ministry of Justice
430:separate from the judges, as in a
25:
936:United Nations Special Rapporteur
896:in 1864, and abolished after the
769:caused by events surrounding the
392:The military court system of the
2192:(6). footnote 7, pp. 1069-1070.
2136:A World View of Criminal Justice
1762:The Accused: A Comparative Study
988:Ahtokivi, Ilkka (10 June 2014).
460:
189:
90:
53:magistrates of England and Wales
1785:Delmas-Marty, Mireille (2002).
1760:Coutts, John Archibald (1966).
1740:European Constitutional History
1283:, retrieved on February 1, 2010
894:Judicial reform of Alexander II
471:needs additional citations for
351:, the relatively low number of
200:needs additional citations for
2324:Anderson & Saint, trans.,
1743:. Jennings & Pye. p.
928:Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
926:Lay judges were in use in the
903:Lay judges were in use in the
874:United States Court for Berlin
438:judges in accordance with the
1:
2180:"Criminal Justice in Germany"
2003:; Opalski, Magdalena (2001).
2368:Saiban-in (Lay Judge) System
2108:Terrill, Richard J. (2009).
1788:European Criminal Procedures
1677:Historisches Lexikon Bayerns
1421:, footnote 7, pp. 1069-1070.
1167:Dobrovolskaia, Anna (2008).
2160:. Oxford University Press.
2087:Shirer, William L. (1990).
2009:. Oxford University Press.
1914:Criminal Justice in Germany
1654:Kymlicka & Opalski 2001
830:(Grand Penal Chamber) at a
797:Federal Republic of Germany
765:state of emergency and its
540:, there are no lay judges.
2419:
2045:Mulligan, William (2005).
1983:Cambridge University Press
1793:Cambridge University Press
1693:Cambridge University Press
1672:"Volksgerichte, 1918-1924"
878:United States Constitution
839:Its three competences are
614:
559:
449:
408:
262:
67:
38:, is a person assisting a
793:American-occupied Germany
726:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz
516:district courts of Norway
399:Military Court of Appeals
34:, sometimes called a lay
2403:Civil law (legal system)
2133:Vogler, Richard (2005).
2069:Soviet Russia, 1917-1963
2024:Malsch, Marijke (2009).
1882:Fulda, Bernhard (2009).
1846:Journal of Legal Studies
1819:. J. W. Parker. p.
1816:History of Trial by Jury
1407:Casper & Zeisel 1972
1392:Casper & Zeisel 1972
1335:Casper & Zeisel 1972
1240:"Jurisdiction of courts"
1121:Casper & Zeisel 1972
1050:Casper & Zeisel 1972
1012:Casper & Zeisel 1972
870:LOT Flight 165 hijacking
806:Vereinheitlichungsgesetz
2343:Anderson & Ambler,
1890:Oxford University Press
339:approximately 25% were
2093:. Simon and Schuster.
2030:. Ashgate Publishing.
858:
832:
826:
820:
811:
805:
775:
771:occupation of the Ruhr
732:
724:
718:
698:Frankfurt Constitution
678:
648:
569:
387:Labor Courts of Israel
365:Constitution of Greece
326:
312:
284:
164:
59:In different countries
2154:Wilde, Ralph (2010).
2066:Riha, Thomas (1969).
1737:Case, Nelson (1902).
1484:, footnote 73, p. 18.
757:was abolished by the
560:Further information:
450:Further information:
394:Israel Defense Forces
263:Further information:
68:Further information:
1907:Jehle, Jörg-Martin;
914:was reintroduced in
617:Lay judges in Taiwan
586:Municipal assemblies
480:improve this article
279:judiciary of Germany
265:Judiciary of Germany
209:improve this article
114:improve this section
70:Judiciary of Austria
2372:Ministry of Justice
2363:Estonian lay judges
2185:Michigan Law Review
1710:Bell, John (2004).
1685:Bell, John (2006).
1603:, pp. 641–642.
1576:, pp. 438–439.
1310:, pp. 299–300.
1264:, pp. 248–249.
1092:, pp. 503–504.
892:as a result of the
702:Revolutions of 1848
633:Historical examples
562:Judiciary of Sweden
452:Judiciary of Norway
411:Lay judges in Japan
345:blue-collar workers
2321:, online 9-07-2009
2176:Wolff, Hans Julius
1279:2018-04-06 at the
898:October Revolution
713:Kingdom of Hanover
327:Vertrauenspersonen
300:public authorities
157:) and/or criminal
2393:Legal professions
2167:978-0-19-957789-7
2146:978-0-7546-2467-7
2125:978-1-59345-612-2
2100:978-0-671-72868-7
2079:978-0-226-71857-6
2058:978-1-57181-908-6
2037:978-0-7546-7405-4
2016:978-0-19-924063-0
1992:978-0-521-80071-6
1942:Modern Law Review
1933:Kahn-Freund, Otto
1924:978-3-936999-51-8
1899:978-0-19-954778-4
1802:978-0-521-59110-2
1725:978-1-84113-361-4
1702:978-0-521-86072-7
1455:Volksgericht 1924
859:GroĂźe Strafkammer
827:GroĂźe Strafkammer
694:Habsburg monarchy
674:Rhenish provinces
512:
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2312:Further reading
2309:
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2279:GVG§76 (2013).
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1837:Casper, Gerhard
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1718:. Vol. 3.
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1281:Wayback Machine
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2223:(4): 495–515.
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2114:(7 ed.).
2105:
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2015:
2001:Kymlicka, Will
1997:
1991:
1973:Krieger, Heike
1969:
1929:
1923:
1917:. Forum-Verl.
1904:
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1859:10.1086/467481
1853:(1): 135–191.
1833:
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1646:
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1605:
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1578:
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741:People's Court
700:of the failed
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1643:
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1524:
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1511:Mulligan 2005
1507:
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1207:, p. 47.
1206:
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992:(in Finnish).
991:
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821:Schwurgericht
816:
813:
812:Schwurgericht
807:
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798:
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786:
782:
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776:Schwurgericht
772:
768:
764:
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749:
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742:
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734:
733:Schwurgericht
728:
727:
720:
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709:
707:
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699:
696:in 1786. The
695:
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538:Supreme Court
534:
532:
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506:
503:
495:
492:November 2018
485:
481:
475:
474:
469:This section
467:
463:
458:
457:
453:
445:
443:
441:
437:
436:inquisitorial
433:
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341:civil service
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307:
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296:
290:
288:
286:
280:
276:
272:
271:trier of fact
266:
258:
256:
252:
248:
246:
235:
232:
224:
221:November 2018
214:
210:
204:
203:
198:This section
196:
192:
187:
186:
180:
178:
176:
172:
168:
166:
160:
156:
144:
141:
133:
130:November 2018
123:
119:
115:
109:
108:
104:
99:This section
97:
93:
88:
87:
81:
79:
77:
71:
63:
58:
56:
54:
50:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2351:Pennealr.com
2327:
2285:. Retrieved
2254:. Retrieved
2243:]. 1924.
2240:
2236:
2220:
2214:
2189:
2183:
2156:
2135:
2110:
2089:
2068:
2047:
2026:
2005:
1977:
1946:
1940:
1913:
1884:
1850:
1844:
1841:Zeisel, Hans
1815:
1787:
1777:
1761:
1739:
1729:
1715:
1712:"Lay Judges"
1687:
1675:
1649:
1637:
1630:Krieger 2001
1608:
1596:
1574:Terrill 2009
1554:
1542:
1530:
1518:
1506:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1426:
1414:
1377:Forsyth 1852
1372:
1365:Forsyth 1852
1350:Forsyth 1852
1315:
1303:
1269:
1262:Terrill 2009
1234:
1222:. Retrieved
1212:
1188:
1179:
1175:
1162:
1153:
1149:
1139:
1128:
1116:
1085:
1057:
983:
965:Lay assessor
943:
925:
909:
905:Soviet Union
902:
887:
884:Soviet Union
864:
855:
838:
817:
767:enabling act
752:
710:
686:
641:
623:Tsai Ing-wen
620:
606:
595:
584:
567:
565:
550:
542:
535:
528:
520:Sorenskriver
519:
513:
498:
489:
478:Please help
473:verification
470:
424:World War II
414:
391:
384:
375:
362:
337:
333:East Germany
324:
310:
308:
306:allocation.
291:
282:
268:
253:
249:
244:
242:
227:
218:
207:Please help
202:verification
199:
162:
159:misdemeanors
155:minimum wage
151:
136:
127:
112:Please help
100:
73:
31:
29:
1949:(1): 1–27.
1559:GVG§76 2013
1547:GVG§74 2013
1535:Coutts 1966
1523:Shirer 1990
1499:Vogler 2005
1296:Malsch 2009
1205:Malsch 2009
1109:Vogler 2005
1029:Malsch 2009
867:East German
833:Landgericht
654:Emmendingen
602:politicians
321:Amtsgericht
314:Gemeinderat
171:the parties
2387:Categories
2379:(Japanese)
2345:Anu.edu.au
1731:elections.
1663:References
1642:Wilde 2010
1467:Fulda 2009
1443:Bauer 2009
1431:Wolff 1944
1419:Wolff 1944
1090:Wolfe 1994
970:Side judge
922:Yugoslavia
912:jury trial
818:Nowadays,
785:Communists
763:Article 48
666:Hauenstein
621:President
432:common law
363:Under the
349:housewives
2328:Saiban-In
1875:144941508
1779:Republic.
1774:470998549
1753:608806061
1613:Riha 1969
1601:Riha 1969
1589:Riha 1969
1320:Bell 2004
1308:Bell 2004
1182:(2): 238.
1078:Bell 2006
900:in 1917.
690:Constance
662:Oberkirch
649:urtheiler
570:nämndemän
440:civil law
295:druggists
245:lautamies
165:pareceres
101:does not
44:civil law
32:lay judge
2297:cite web
2266:cite web
2116:Elsevier
1975:(2001).
1911:(2009).
1829:29739821
1813:(1852).
1277:Archived
1224:1 August
1062:§ 33 GVG
949:See also
856:While a
795:and the
738:Bavarian
706:Prussian
285:Schöffen
36:assessor
2349:Weber,
2206:1283584
1965:1094713
845:crimes,
801:Bavaria
670:Friburg
658:Oppenau
644:Swabian
638:Germany
536:In the
514:In the
372:Hungary
259:Germany
181:Finland
175:lawyers
122:removed
107:sources
64:Austria
18:Schöffe
2398:Judges
2287:9 July
2256:9 July
2229:986849
2227:
2204:
2164:
2143:
2122:
2097:
2076:
2055:
2034:
2013:
1989:
1963:
1921:
1896:
1873:
1867:724014
1865:
1827:
1799:
1772:
1751:
1722:
1699:
916:Russia
680:BĂĽrger
660:, and
611:Taiwan
556:Sweden
547:Serbia
446:Norway
381:Israel
359:Greece
82:Brazil
49:juries
2239:[
2225:JSTOR
2202:JSTOR
1961:JSTOR
1871:S2CID
1863:JSTOR
1172:(PDF)
1156:(36).
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