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Students mobbed her, initially shouting hate-filled epithets. Lucy had to be driven by university officials to her next class at the
Education Library building, all the while being bombarded with rotten eggsâ. The mobs were mostly able to freely march around campus harassing Lucy due to the police doing little to nothing to stop them. The university suspended Lucy âfor her own protection." Autherine Lucy and her legal team filed a case against the university, suing them for allowing the mob to congregate, but was not able to prove that they were responsible for the mob. After losing the case the University of Alabama had legal grounds to expel Lucy for defaming the school. In 1963, a federal court ruled that Vivien Malone and James Hood can lawfully enroll and attend the University of Alabama. Again, the federal decision caused ripples in the state, causing conflict between the anti-integration state laws and judgements put into action by the federal judges. âIn Alabama, the notoriously segregationist Governor George Wallace vowed to âstand in the schoolhouse doorâ in order to block the enrollment of a black student at the University of Alabamaâ. He eventually did stand in the doorway of Foster Auditorium in an infamous act to preserve the segregationist way of life in the South. According to HISTORY, âThough Wallace was eventually forced by the federalized National Guard to integrate the university, he became prominent symbol of the ongoing resistance to desegregation."
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could close with the admittance of the two black students, order was kept by on campus until
January 11. That night, an angry mob gathered outside Hunter's dormitory, causing significant property damage and gaining media attention for the university and the state. After the riots, even previously pro-segregation officials condemned the rioters. According to the New Georgia Encyclopedia, âEven Governor Ernest Vandiver Jr., who had campaigned for office on the segregationist slogan "No, Not One," condemned the mob violence, and perhaps as a result of the negative publicity suffered by the state in the national press, conceded that some integration might be unavoidableâ. Whether it was from the fear of the state closing the school or moral grounds, officials and professors favored admitting black students on a limited basis at the least.
286:, 347 U.S. 483, on May 17, 1954. Tied to the 14th Amendment, the decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional, and it called for the desegregation of all schools throughout the nation. After the decision, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) attempted to register black students in previously all-white schools in cities throughout the South. In Little Rock, Arkansas, the school board agreed to comply with the high court's ruling. Virgil Blossom, the Superintendent of Schools, submitted a plan of gradual integration to the school board on May 24, 1955, which the board unanimously approved. The plan would be implemented during the fall of the 1957 school year, which would begin in September 1957.
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Bishop Duncan Gray Jr., who was there when the violence erupted said,ââIt was a horrible thing, and I'm sorry we had to go through that, but it certainly marked a very definite turning point. And maybe a learning experience for some people, I think even the ardent segregationists didn't want to see violence like that againââ. Perhaps making this event extremely vital to civil right movement and it aims to change the mentality of segregationists and the movements calls for nonviolence. Escorted by federal marshals, U.S. Air Force veteran James
Meredith was able to register for classes and be the first black student to graduate in 1963.
923:, an in-depth study of how Hispanic populations were used by school districts to circumvent truly integrating their schools. It detailed that when school districts officially categorized Hispanic students as ethnically white, a predominantly African-American school and a predominantly Hispanic school could be combined and successfully pass the integration standards laid out by the U.S. government, leaving white schools unaffected. San Miguel describes how the Houston Independent School District used this loophole to keep predominantly white schools unchanged, at the disadvantage of Hispanic students.
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admission the following fall. Harrison noted that âThe decision was necessary⌠to forestall the possibility of federal intervention and to maintain administrative control over the school's admissionsâ. Though the decision was widely accepted by
Atlanta communities and groups, precautions were still taken to ensure peace. Ford Greene, Ralph Long Jr., and Lawrence Michael Williams, the school's first three black students, attended classes on September 27 with no resistance making Georgia Tech the first institution of higher education in the Deep South to integrate peacefully and at its own will.
245:, argued that racially separate schools were inherently unequal, as society as a whole looked down upon African Americans and racially segregated schools only reinforced this prejudice. They supported their argument with research from psychologists and social scientists that proved empirically that segregated schools inflicted psychological harm on black students. These expert testimonies, coupled with the concrete knowledge that black schools had worse facilities than white schools and that black teachers were paid less than white teachers, contributed to the landmark unanimous decision.
33:
889:
Sam Oni, a twenty-two-year-old student from Ghana, to become the first Black student to attend Mercer
University. Sam Oni, knowingly and intentionally, in part applied to Mercer for the purpose of helping to end racial segregation in the southern United States. Sam Oni succeeded despite pressure from segregationists in both the South and the Southern Baptists to keep Mercer racially segregated, including an airplane flying a banner that read "Keep Mercer Segregated" as the Board of Trustees successfully voted to fully integrate.
339:
872:. The rioters were protesting the presence of James Meredith after he was granted admission to the university from legal battle he won with the help of the NAACP. Authoritative officials had been stationed on the campus, but little was done to effectively control the crowd. By morning, two civilians were dead and 160 U.S. Marshals were injured, including 28 who were shot. No rioters and federal officers died in the event.
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integration. However, President
Eisenhower issued Executive order 10730, which federalized the Arkansas National Guard and 1,000 soldiers from the US Army and ordered them to support the integration on September 23 of that year, after which they protected the African American students. The Arkansas National Guard would escort these nine black children inside the school as it became the studentsâ daily routine that year.
184:, black schools began to establish themselves as esteemed institutions. These schools soon assumed prominent places in black communities, with teachers being seen as highly respected community leaders. However, despite their important role in black communities, black schools remained underfunded and ill-equipped, particularly in comparison to white schools. For example, between 1902 and 1918, the
753:
in his study of school desegregation in
Houston, Texas, described the process of white flight in Houston's Independent School District. He noted that white students made up 49.9 percent of HISD's enrollment in 1970, but that number steadily dropped over the decade. White enrollment comprised only 25.1 percent of HISD's student population by 1980.
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shortly after, Georgia Tech finally made steps towards integration. Using the
University of Georgia as a model not to follow, Georgia Tech began to plan integration strategies in January 1961. President Edwin Harrison announced in May that the school would admit three of thirteen black applicants for
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to the
University of Georgia on January 6, 1961, ending 160 years of segregation at the school. The decision by Judge Bootle conflicted with the state's previous enactment of law that stopped the funding of any school who admitted a black student to their establishment. Amongst rumors that the school
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Various options arose that allowed white populations to avoid the forced integration of public schools. After the Brown decision, many white families living in urban areas moved to predominantly suburban areas in order to take advantage of the wealthier and whiter schools there. William Henry Kellar,
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In 1956, Autherine Lucy was able to attend the
University of Alabama upon court order after a three-year court battle. According to the National Museum of African American History and Culture, âThere were no incidents during her first two days of classes. However, that changed on Monday, February 6.
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In 2003, the Supreme Court openly recognized the importance of diversity in education, where they noted that integrated classrooms prepare students to become citizens and leaders in a diverse country. Psychologists have studied the social and developmental benefits of integrated schools. In a study
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The implementation of school integration policies did not just affect black and white students; in recent years, scholars have noted how the integration of public schools significantly affected Hispanic populations in the south and southwest. Historically, Hispanic-Americans were legally considered
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to voluntarily desegregate. On April 18th, 1963, Mercer's Board of Trustees voted 13 to 5, with 3 abstentions, to ratify the policy that "Mercer University considers all applications based on qualification, without consideration of race, color of skin, creed, or origin.". This policy change allowed
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The subject of desegregation was becoming more inflamed. In March 1970, President Richard M. Nixon decided to take action. He declared Brown to be ''right in both constitutional and human terms'' and expressed his intention to enforce the law. He also put in place a process to carry out the court's
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When integration began on September 4, 1957, the Arkansas National Guard was called in to "preserve the peace". Originally at orders of the governor, they were meant to prevent the black students from entering due to claims that there was "imminent danger of tumult, riot and breach of peace" at the
73:
School segregation declined rapidly during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Segregation appears to have increased since 1990. The disparity in the average poverty rate in the schools whites attend and blacks attend is the single most important factor in the educational achievement gap between white
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President John F. Kennedy ordered thousands of federalized Mississippi National Guard and federal troops to the campus as a result of the fatal riots to prevent any more violence and carry out the federal ruling for James Meredith to be able to register at the university. In an interview with NPR
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In Spring 1955, Thelma Joyce White, the valedictorian of the segregated Douglass High School in El Paso, Texas, filed suit against the University of Texas system after her application to Texas Western College was rejected for the 1954â1955 school year. During the pendency of her case, the United
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was the first public college in Louisiana to integrate its student body. Southwest Louisiana Institute, as it was then known, admitted John Harold Taylor of Arnaudville in July 1954 without incident, and by September of that year when the fall semester began, 80 Blacks were in attendance and no
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decision. In response to the lawsuit and further guidance, the regents of the University of Texas voted to allow Black students to enroll in Texas Western College on July 8, 1955. On July 18, 1955, the federal judge hearing Ms. White's case ordered the desegregation of Texas Western College.
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In the early 1970s, Houstonians boycotted this practice: for three weeks, thousands of Hispanic students stopped attending their local public schools in protest of the racist integration laws. In response to this boycott, in September 1972 the HISD school board - following the precedent in
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Opposition to integration efforts occurred in northern cities as well. For instance, in Massachusetts in 1963 and 1964, education activists staged boycotts to highlight the Boston School Committeeâs failure to address the de facto racial segregation of the cityâs public schools.
615:- to their classes in the midst of violent protests from an angry mob of white students and townspeople. Escalating the conflict, Faubus closed all of Little Rock's public high schools in fall 1958, but the U.S. Supreme Court ordered them reopened in December of that year.
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was a group of nine African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. Their enrollment was followed by the Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Arkansas Governor
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which resulted in the UT School of Law enrolling its first two Black students and the school of architecture enrolling its first Black student, both in August 1950. The University of Texas enrolled the first Black student at the undergraduate level in August 1956.
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in schools also leads to de facto segregation within some public schools as racial and ethnic minorities are disproportionately overrepresented in lower track classes and white students are disproportionately overrepresented in AP and college prep classes.
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One overlooked aspect of school desegregation efforts is the persistence of structural racism as reflected in the composition of elected school boards. Long after their schools had desegregated, many continued to operate with predominantly white trustees.
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and segregationist politicians ensued. Although integration allowed more Black youth access to better-funded schools, in many areas the process also resulted in the layoffs of Black teachers and administrators who had worked in all-Black schools.
144:. As a result of these laws, African Americans were required to sit on different park benches, use different drinking fountains, and ride in different railroad cars than their white counterparts, among other segregated aspects of life. Though the
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919:(1970), the Federal District Court decreed that Hispanic-Americans should be classified as an ethnic minority group, and that the integration of Corpus Christi schools should reflect that. In 2005, historian Guadalupe San Miguel authored
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to achieve desegregation, despite racially segregated neighborhoods and limited radii of school districts. By 1988, school integration reached an all-time high with nearly 45% of black students attending previously all-white schools.
712:. The school superintendent made an agreement with local media not to discuss the event, and attempts to gain information by other sources were deliberately ignored. The process went very smoothly, followed by a similar action in
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by Killen, Crystal, and Ruck, researchers discovered that students in integrated schools demonstrate more tolerance and inclusionary behaviors compared to those who have less contact with students from other racial backgrounds.
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shows that school integration improved educational attainment and wages in adulthood for the black students who experienced integrated schools in the 1970s and 1980s, before schools began to increasingly re-segregate.
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prohibited segregation and discrimination based on race in public facilities, including schools, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited racial discrimination in voting affairs. In 1971, the Supreme Court in
326:(b. 1941). One black student, Minnijean Brown, was expelled for retaliating against the bullying and harassment she received. Ernest Green became the first black student to graduate from Central High in May 1958.
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By 1957, the NAACP had registered nine black students to attend the previously all-white Little Rock Central High, selected due to their grades and attendance. Called the "Little Rock Nine", they were
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After a fiery speech from Ross Barnett at an Ole Miss football game that some refer to as âa call to armsâ, white segregationists flooded the University of Mississippi campus and exploding into
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praised the Brown decision for upholding racial equality and civil rights. The editors of these newspapers recognized the momentous nature and symbolic importance of the decision. Immediately,
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For students who remained in public schools, de facto segregation remained a reality due to segregated lunch tables and segregated extracurricular programs. Today, the pedagogical practice of
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hastened the desegregation of public schools, private school attendance in the state of Mississippi soared from 23,181 students attending private school in 1968 to 63,242 students in 1970.
238:
697:. Though the NAACP lawyers argued for an immediate timetable of integration, the Supreme Court issued an ambiguous order that school districts should integrate with "all deliberate speed."
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as measures of achievement in schools is a part of the dialogue surrounding the relationship between race and education in the United States. Many studies have been done surrounding the
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128:, which were passed between 1865 and 1870, abolished slavery, guaranteed citizenship and protection under the law, and prohibited racial discrimination in voting, respectively. In 1868
2472:"74 Interview: Professor Rucker Johnson on How School Integration Helped Black Students â and How Much More Is Possible When It's Paired With Early Education & Spending Reforms"
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188:, a philanthropic organization created to strengthen public schools in the South, gave only $ 2.4 million to black schools compared to $ 25 million given to white schools.
2424:âAn Indomitable Spirit: Autherine Lucy.â National Museum of African American History and Culture, 16 Feb. 2018, nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/indomitable-spirit-autherine-lucy.
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Hatfield, Edward A. âDesegregation of Higher Education.â New Georgia Encyclopedia, www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/desegregation-higher-education
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Another way that white families avoided integration was by withdrawing their children from their local public school system in order to enroll them into newly founded "
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Federalized National Guard troops on the campus of the University of Alabama, June 11, 1963 when African Americans Vivian Malone and James Hood registered for classes
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Editors, History.com. âJames Meredith at Ole Miss.â History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2 Feb. 2010, www.history.com/topics/black-history/ole-miss-integration
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2384:. âIntegrating Ole Miss: A Transformative, Deadly Riot.â NPR, NPR, 1 Oct. 2012, www.npr.org/2012/10/01/161573289/integrating-ole-miss-a-transformative-deadly-riot
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that racially segregated public facilities such as schools, parks, and public transportation were legally permissible as long as they were equal in quality. This
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disturbances were recorded. SLI became the University of Southwestern Louisiana four years later and today is known as the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.
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Law and Medical Schools successfully admitted black students. Public schools integrated in the Arkansas cities of Charleston and Fayetteville in 1954 as well.
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filed lawsuits in South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware to challenge segregation in schools. At first the decision was split with United States Supreme Court
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Throughout the first half of the 20th century there were several efforts to combat school segregation, but few were successful. A rare success story was the
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Tyson, Karolyn (2013). "Tracking, Segregation, and the Opportunity Gap: What We Know and Why It Matters". In Carter, Prudence L.; Welner, Kevin G. (eds.).
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student, Caroline Van Vronker, attended the school in 1843. The integration of all American schools was a major catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement and
931:- ruled that Hispanic students should be an official ethnic minority, effectively ending the loophole that prevented the integration of white schools.
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1628:"A Dress Rehearsal for the Modern Civil Rights Movement: Raymond Pace Alexander and the Berwyn, Pennsylvania, School Desegregation Case, 1932-1935"
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ruled that school segregation was unconstitutional, the implementation of desegregation was discussed in a follow-up Supreme Court case termed
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A National Assessment of Educational Progress study showing the gap between reading test scores of white and African-American students
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Supporting this policy, a majority of Southern congressmen in the U.S. House of Representatives signed a document in 1956 called the
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magazine reviewed the status of desegregation efforts in the 17 Southern and border states, grading them from "A" to "F" as follows:
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In 1965, the first voluntary desegregation programâthe Urban-Suburban Interdistrict Transfer Programâwas implemented in
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2393:âWelcome to the Civil Rights Digital Library.â Civil Rights Digital Library, Galileo Initiative, 2013, crdl.usg.edu/.
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774:, then secretary of labor, were asked to lead a cabinet committee to manage the transition to desegregated schools.
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2618:"Social-emotional Factors Affecting Achievement Outcomes Among Disadvantaged Students: Closing the Achievement Gap"
1949:
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915:, challenged this classification, as it resulted in discrimination and ineffective school integration policies. In
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Despite these Reconstruction amendments, blatant discrimination took place through what would come to be known as
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2038:""They will liberate themselves": Education, Citizenship, and Civil Rights in the Appalachian Coalfields"
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had hoped when they devised the legal strategy behind it. Less than a year after the Brown decision, the
268:. After the Little Rock Nine, Arkansas experienced the first successful school integrations south of the
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prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, in 1896 the Supreme Court ruled in the landmark case
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Higher Education and the Civil Rights Movement: White Supremacy, Black Southerners, and College Campuses
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existed throughout most of American history and remains an issue in contemporary education. During the
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Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality
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and led to the closing of nine schools in four counties in Virginia between 1958 and 1959; those in
350:, integration was met with immediate opposition from some people, especially in the south. In 1955,
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Some schools in the United States were integrated before the mid-20th century, the first ever being
2255:"Waco's First Black School Board Trustees: Navigating Institutional White Supremacy in 1970s Texas"
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in Massachusetts, which has accepted students of all races since its founding. The earliest known
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1428:"Brown at 62: School Segregation by Race, Poverty and State â the Civil Rights Project at UCLA"
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On August 23, 1954, 11 black children attended school with approximately 480 white students in
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proved to be a catalyst in inciting the push for equal rights in southern communities, just as
176:âor segregated schools for African-American children. With the help of philanthropists such as
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Desegregating Private Higher Education in the South: Duke, Emory, Rice, Tulane, and Vanderbilt
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From Jim Crow to Civil Rights : The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality
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A Girl Stands at the Door: The Generation of Young Women Who Desegregated America's Schools
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The University of Texas was the subject of the seminal Supreme Court desegregation case of
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dispatched federal troops to safely escort the group of students - soon to be known as the
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2898:"From Little Rock to Seattle and Louisville: Is "All Deliberate Speed" Stuck in Reverse?"
2094:"The Boston Freedom Schools as Places of Possibility for Reciprocal Integrated Education"
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Historical Dictionary of School Segregation and Desegregation: The American Experience
2751:(2003). "Teachers' Perceptions and Expectations and the Black-White Achievement Gap".
1561:"Teaching Tolerance | Brown v. Board: Timeline of School Integration in the U.S."
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Lessons in Integration: Realizing the Promise of Racial Diversity in American Schools
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Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education
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Closing the Opportunity Gap: What America Must Do to Give Every Child an Even Chance
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By the 1960s and 70s, the Civil Rights Movement had gained significant support. The
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beganâanother important step in the fight for African-American civil rights. Today,
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case, the Supreme Court ruled segregation in public schools unconstitutional. The
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1787:"Minnijean Brown-Trickey: the teenager who needed an armed guard to go to school"
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Make Haste Slowly: Moderates, Conservatives, and School Desegregation in Houston
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that occurred in the United States during the latter half of the 20th century.
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The Moderates' Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia
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Jones, Leon (Winter 1978). "School Desegregation in Retrospect and Prospect".
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112:, the first legislation providing rights to African Americans was passed. The
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who differed in opinion on the case, and in a unanimous 1954 decision in the
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Rethinking Multicultural Education: Teaching for Racial and Cultural Justice
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Unequal by Design: High-Stakes Testing and the Standardization of Inequality
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Berlak, Harold (2009). "Race and the Achievement Gap". In Au, Wayne (ed.).
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2415:(photo), Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 11 June 1963. Courtesy of Library of Congress
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3290:(1954) during the 50th anniversary of the ruling. A website hosted by the
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Wallenstein, Peter; Harrold, Stanley; Miller, Randall M. (FRW) (2009).
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Brown Not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston
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1586:"How Iowa became the first state in the nation to desegregate schools"
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List of African-American pioneers in desegregation of higher education
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Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
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Protest of the integration of schools in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1959
2938:"Mexican-Americans and the Desegregation of Schools in the Southwest"
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to prevent nine black students from attending the newly desegregated
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1826:"Executive Order 10730: Desegregation of Central High School (1957)"
1812:"Executive Order 10730: Desegregation of Central High School (1957)"
1449:"60 Years AfterBrown: Trends and Consequences of School Segregation"
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Federal district court Judge W. A. Bootle ordered the admission of
716:, the same fall. The following year, the integration of schools in
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legal team representing Brown, led by future Supreme Court Justice
3237:"Lack of Order: The Erosion of a Once-Great Force for Integration"
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Death of a Suburban Dream: Race and Schools in Compton, California
2494:"A scholar revives the argument for racial integration in schools"
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3178:"Segregation by Race in Public Schools Retrospect and Prospect"
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RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences
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Brown v. Board of Education: Caste, Culture, and Constitution
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This institutionalized discrimination led to the creation of
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became the first state in the nation to desegregate schools.
3070:. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press.
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A Class of Their Own: Black Teachers in the Segregated South
1741:"Before Little Rock: Successful Arkansas School Integration"
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After Brown: The Rise and Retreat of School Desegregation
1491:"School Segregation and Racial Academic Achievement Gaps"
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In 1957, in accordance with massive resistance, Governor
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Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
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In the United States, school integration (also known as
2997:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 169â180.
2957:. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
2855:. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
1764:"Barclay: Charleston saw little integration resistance"
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Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies
272:. In 1948, nine years before the Little Rock Nine, the
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helped the Black community reintegrate local schools.
2733:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
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Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
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Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District
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Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District
2874:. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.
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United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education
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school integration became a priority, but since then
3255:
Qiu, Yue; Hannah-Jones, Nikole (December 23, 2014).
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Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
815:
States Supreme Court issued further guidance on the
264:. They attended after the intervention of President
2320:"Apr 4, 1955 Issue | Texas Observer Print Archives"
2221:"How a Republican Desegregated the South's Schools"
1721:
1719:
3257:"A National Survey of School Desegregation Orders"
3154:
3089:
2976:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
2914:
2704:
2411:Leffler, Warren K., U.S. News & World Report:
884:Mercer was the first college or university in the
2805:. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
2784:. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
2175:
2173:
666:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
607:in Little Rock, Arkansas. In response, President
2921:. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.
2902:University of Arkansas at Little Rock Law Review
2799:Jencks, Christopher; Phillips, Meredith (1998).
1555:
1553:
1379:Virginia Commission on Constitutional Government
763:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
651:is largely viewed as the starting point of the
3117:. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
2711:. Princeton, NJ: University Press of Kansas.
2685:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
1243:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
1155:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
1021:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
8:
2917:The Civil Rights Movement in American Memory
2663:. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Rethinking Schools.
1904:. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. 2012
1834:National Archives and Records Administration
1743:. University of Arkansas. September 10, 2007
1211:Pasadena City Board of Education v. Spangler
1067:Hedgepeth and Williams v. Board of Education
56:within American public and private schools.
1282:Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974
770:mandate. Vice President Spiro T. Agnew and
279:The U.S. Supreme Court issued its historic
158:doctrine legalized segregation in schools.
3135:Encyclopedia of African American Education
2641:
2270:
2109:
2081:. Athens GA: University of Georgia Press.
2053:
1506:
1394:Youth March for Integrated Schools (1959)
1389:Youth March for Integrated Schools (1958)
3284:- Examines the impact of the court case
1272:Clinton High School desegregation crisis
943:
830:University of Georgia desegregation riot
358:
337:
70:segregation has again become prevalent.
31:
3313:School segregation in the United States
3049:. New York: New York University Press.
1531:"What Was Brown Vs Board Of Education?"
1419:
1327:School segregation in the United States
1307:New Orleans school desegregation crisis
1297:Mansfield school desegregation incident
855:and death of its progressive president
623:Prominent black newspapers such as the
249:Initial responses to school integration
84:School segregation in the United States
1785:Andrews, Kehinde (November 26, 2020).
1187:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver
3176:Sutherland, Arthur E. (Winter 1955).
3096:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2342:
2340:
1973:
1971:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1762:Barclay, Leland (February 13, 2018).
1227:Bob Jones University v. United States
760:". After the 1968 Supreme Court case
7:
3235:Hannah-Jones, Nikole (May 1, 2014).
2347:MARTIN, CHARLES H. (June 15, 2010).
2133:Parker, Sally (September 29, 2021).
1603:
1601:
1439:
1437:
800:University of Texas System 1950-1956
793:University of Louisiana at Lafayette
787:University of Louisiana at Lafayette
782:Integration of Southern universities
3308:Events of the civil rights movement
2253:James-Gallaway, ArCasia D. (2023).
2036:McCullum, Kristan (November 2021).
577:" was declared by Virginia Senator
89:Early history of integrated schools
2470:Phenicie, Carolyn (May 27, 2019).
2135:"RCSD honors an education pioneer"
1690:"Fred M. Vinson Court (1946-1953)"
1374:Tinsley Voluntary Transfer Program
25:
1465:10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043152
1059:Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada
1005:Clark v Board of School Directors
227:should stand. He was replaced by
2913:Romano, Renee Christine (2006).
2780:Frankenberg, Erica, ed. (2007).
2092:Napier, Alyssa (February 2023).
1950:Little Rock School Desegregation
3213:. University Press of Florida.
1856:"National Affairs: REPORT CARD"
1287:Elliott-Larsen Civil Rights Act
893:University of Alabama 1956/1963
3161:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
2953:San Miguel, Guadalupe (2005).
2849:Kellar, William Henry (1999).
2822:The Journal of Negro Education
2802:The Black-White Test Score Gap
2492:Barshay, Jill (June 3, 2019).
2259:History of Education Quarterly
2098:History of Education Quarterly
2042:History of Education Quarterly
1362:Seattle school boycott of 1966
902:Impact on Hispanic populations
864:University of Mississippi 1962
720:, drew national coverage from
585:, remained closed until 1964.
583:Prince Edward County, Virginia
346:Despite the federal ruling in
124:Amendments, also known as the
1:
3182:Law and Contemporary Problems
1664:"Brown v. Board of Education"
1352:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
724:, and bitter opposition from
58:Racial segregation in schools
689:Brown vs. Board of Education
599:of Arkansas called upon the
281:Brown vs. Board of Education
221:Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson
27:Racial desegregation process
3292:Southern Poverty Law Center
3287:Brown v. Board of Education
3153:Raffel, Jeffrey A. (1998).
3132:Lomotey, Kofi, ed. (2010).
2936:Salinas, Guadalupe (1970).
2765:10.1177/0042085903038004006
2079:The Way It Was in the South
1898:"Integration: 1954 to 1963"
1564:Southern Poverty Law Center
1403:Brown v. Board of Education
1267:Boston busing desegregation
1163:Brown vs Board of Education
870:riots on September 30, 1962
817:Brown v. Board of Education
701:Integration in response to
649:Brown v. Board of Education
633:Brown v. Board of Education
348:Brown v. Board of Education
234:Brown v. Board of Education
48:) is the process of ending
40:, Washington, D.C., in 1957
36:An integrated classroom in
3329:
2972:Strauss, Emily E. (2014).
2870:Lassiter, Matthew (1998).
2562:Jencks and Phillips, p. 1.
2535:Becker and Luthar, p. 198.
2077:Grant, Donald Lee (2001).
2004:Ogletree and Eaten, p. 279
1940:Ogletree and Eaton, p. 281
1931:Ogletree and Eaton, p. 280
1453:Annual Review of Sociology
827:
824:University of Georgia 1961
180:and black leaders such as
165:
81:
3043:Jackson, John P. (2005).
2634:10.1207/S15326985EP3704_1
2016:"Hoxie - The First Stand"
1029:Berea College v. Kentucky
997:Roberts v. City of Boston
748:Opposition to integration
499:
442:
404:
371:
126:Reconstruction Amendments
3111:Kluger, Richard (2011).
2622:Educational Psychologist
2324:issues.texasobserver.org
2206:Clotfelter, pp. 8-9, 56.
1766:. Southwest Times Record
968:The growing emphasis on
940:Educational implications
935:Impact on modern schools
851:After the controversial
726:White Citizen's Councils
660:Civil Rights Act of 1964
215:In the early 1950s, the
146:Civil Rights Act of 1875
3024:Devlin, Rachel (2018).
2597:. New York: Routledge.
1591:The Des Moines Register
1508:10.7758/RSF.2016.2.5.03
1368:The Shame of the Nation
601:Arkansas National Guard
186:General Education Board
3064:Kean, Melissa (2008).
2679:Clotfelter, Charles T.
1862:. September 19, 1955.
1626:Canton, David (2008).
949:
880:Mercer University 1963
714:Fayetteville, Arkansas
645:Montgomery bus boycott
343:
274:University of Arkansas
210:Raymond Pace Alexander
41:
3138:. Los Angeles: SAGE.
2349:"WHITE, THELMA JOYCE"
1447:; Owens, Ann (2014).
1317:Ole Miss riot of 1962
1075:Mendez v. Westminster
947:
913:Corpus Christi, Texas
758:segregation academies
653:Civil Rights Movement
341:
308:Carlotta Walls LaNier
62:Civil Rights Movement
38:Anacostia High School
35:
2612:Becker, Bronwyn E.;
2526:Tyson, pg. 169, 173.
2517:Clotfelter, pg. 127.
2498:The Hechinger Report
2299:diversity.utexas.edu
1836:. September 29, 2021
1044:Lemon Grove Incident
742:Alice Holloway Young
710:Charleston, Arkansas
669:approved the use of
609:Dwight D. Eisenhower
324:Melba Pattillo Beals
266:Dwight D. Eisenhower
182:Booker T. Washington
74:and black students.
3086:Klarman, Michael J.
2749:Ferguson, Ronald F.
2580:Frankenberg, p. 17.
2571:Frankenberg, p. 10.
2451:San Miguel, p. 117.
2272:10.1017/heq.2022.26
2219:(January 8, 2003).
2197:Clotfelter, p. 109.
2188:Clotfelter, p. 101.
2111:10.1017/heq.2022.42
2055:10.1017/heq.2021.46
1670:. October 27, 2009
1616:Fairclough, p. 248.
1337:Segregation academy
1312:Nikole Hannah-Jones
1203:Milliken v. Bradley
1195:Norwood v. Harrison
989:Related court cases
980:Social implications
738:Rochester, New York
629:Atlanta Daily World
605:Central High School
316:Gloria Ray Karlmark
198:Berwyn School Fight
3282:Teaching Tolerance
2942:Houston Law Review
2701:Cottrol, Robert J.
2593:Au, Wayne (2007).
2460:San Miguel, p. 185
2225:The New York Times
2158:Clotfelter, p. 96.
1814:. October 4, 2023.
1347:Southern Manifesto
1342:Separate but equal
1302:Massive resistance
970:standardized tests
952:Work by economist
950:
907:white. A group of
590:Southern Manifesto
575:massive resistance
344:
225:Plessy v. Ferguson
156:separate but equal
151:Plessy v. Ferguson
136:The Jim Crow South
95:Lowell High School
42:
18:School integration
2890:Ogletree, Charles
2614:Luthar, Suniya S.
2553:Ferguson, p. 462.
2442:San Miguel, p. 81
2217:Shultz, George P.
1887:Jones, pp. 46-57.
1725:Cottrol, pg. 123.
1713:Cottrol, pg. 122.
1219:Runyon v. McCrary
1123:Briggs v. Elliott
1115:Bolling v. Sharpe
1107:Gebhart v. Belton
1091:Sweatt v. Painter
909:Mexican-Americans
857:Blake R. Van Leer
847:Georgia Tech 1961
807:Sweatt v. Painter
641:Thurgood Marshall
571:
570:
320:Thelma Mothershed
296:Elizabeth Eckford
284:of Topeka, Kansas
243:Thurgood Marshall
16:(Redirected from
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2727:Fairclough, Adam
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2139:Rochester Beacon
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2014:Appleby, David.
2011:
2005:
2002:
1996:
1995:Cottrol, p. 184.
1993:
1987:
1984:
1978:
1977:Cottrol, p. 186.
1975:
1966:
1965:Cottrol, p. 185.
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1487:Reardon, Sean F.
1483:
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1441:
1432:
1431:
1424:
1235:Sheff v. O'Neill
1051:Hocutt v. Wilson
840:Charlayne Hunter
625:Chicago Defender
613:Little Rock Nine
359:
304:Terrence Roberts
300:Jefferson Thomas
270:MasonâDixon line
256:Little Rock Nine
178:Julius Rosenwald
99:African American
21:
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3028:. Basic Books.
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3015:
3013:Further reading
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2753:Urban Education
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2179:Kellar, p. 166.
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1607:Cottrol, p. 29.
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1401:, plaintiff in
1399:Zelma Henderson
1262:
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1139:Cooper v. Aaron
991:
982:
974:achievement gap
942:
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921:Brown Not White
904:
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866:
853:1956 Sugar Bowl
849:
836:Hamilton Holmes
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718:Hoxie, Arkansas
706:
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637:Charles Houston
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336:
322:(b. 1940), and
312:Minnijean Brown
251:
223:believing that
204:, in which the
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103:racial violence
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2104:(1): 84â106.
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1566:. Spring 2004
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46:desegregation
39:
34:
30:
19:
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3266:December 17,
3264:. Retrieved
3260:
3246:December 17,
3244:. Retrieved
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2894:Eaton, Susan
2871:
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2828:(1): 46â57.
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2503:December 14,
2501:. Retrieved
2497:
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2477:December 14,
2475:. Retrieved
2465:
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2429:
2420:
2407:
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2356:. Retrieved
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2298:
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2258:
2248:
2236:. Retrieved
2224:
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2193:
2184:
2163:
2154:
2142:. Retrieved
2138:
2128:
2101:
2097:
2087:
2078:
2072:
2045:
2041:
2031:
2019:. Retrieved
2009:
2000:
1991:
1982:
1945:
1936:
1927:
1918:
1906:. Retrieved
1901:
1892:
1883:
1871:. Retrieved
1859:
1850:
1838:. Retrieved
1829:
1820:
1806:
1794:. Retrieved
1791:The Guardian
1790:
1780:
1768:. Retrieved
1757:
1745:. Retrieved
1709:
1697:. Retrieved
1693:
1684:
1672:. Retrieved
1667:
1658:
1648:– via
1637:
1631:
1621:
1612:
1589:
1580:
1568:. Retrieved
1563:
1540:. Retrieved
1534:
1525:
1501:(5): 34â57.
1498:
1494:
1481:
1456:
1452:
1422:
1402:
1366:
1357:Stanley Plan
1249:
1241:
1233:
1225:
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1209:
1201:
1193:
1185:
1177:
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1153:
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928:
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920:
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905:
896:
883:
874:
867:
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833:
816:
813:
805:
803:
790:
776:
768:
761:
755:
751:
735:
731:
707:
702:
692:
688:
686:
664:
657:
648:
632:
622:
597:Orval Faubus
594:
587:
572:
533:
500:
443:
405:
372:
351:
347:
345:
328:
292:Ernest Green
288:
283:
280:
278:
262:Orval Faubus
254:
252:
232:
224:
214:
202:Pennsylvania
195:
192:Legal action
171:
168:Black school
149:
139:
107:
92:
72:
65:
43:
29:
2238:December 5,
1908:October 13,
1668:History.com
1570:October 13,
1037:Lum v. Rice
559:Mississippi
318:(b. 1942),
314:(b. 1941),
310:(b. 1942),
306:(b. 1941),
298:(b. 1941),
294:(b. 1941),
229:Earl Warren
54:segregation
3302:Categories
3261:ProPublica
3241:ProPublica
2964:1585441155
2928:0820328146
2881:0813918162
2862:0890968187
2812:0815746105
2692:0691126372
2295:"Timeline"
2021:January 4,
1410:References
886:Deep South
118:Fourteenth
114:Thirteenth
108:After the
78:Background
2281:252491036
2265:: 59â83.
2233:0362-4331
2120:256417002
2064:240357519
1868:0040-781X
1840:April 20,
1796:April 13,
1699:April 13,
1674:April 13,
1646:0031-4528
1542:April 20,
1517:2377-8253
1473:0360-0572
1415:Footnotes
554:Louisiana
478:Tennessee
334:Criticism
122:Fifteenth
110:Civil War
3229:Articles
3088:(2004).
2896:(2008).
2773:31105065
2729:(2007).
2703:(2004).
2681:(2004).
2652:23255834
2616:(2002).
2144:March 4,
1489:(2016).
1260:See also
962:tracking
694:Brown II
683:Brown II
627:and the
511:Virginia
473:Delaware
454:Arkansas
435:Maryland
421:Oklahoma
416:Kentucky
383:Missouri
67:de facto
3294:(SPLC).
3202:1190281
2842:2967099
2643:3523355
2587:Sources
2358:July 6,
2329:July 6,
2304:July 6,
1277:Day Law
549:Georgia
544:Alabama
525:Florida
52:-based
3217:
3200:
3165:
3142:
3121:
3100:
3074:
3053:
3032:
3001:
2980:
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2840:
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2715:
2689:
2667:
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2601:
2279:
2231:
2118:
2062:
1866:
1694:Justia
1644:
1515:
1471:
1254:(2007)
1246:(1991)
1238:(1989)
1230:(1983)
1222:(1976)
1214:(1976)
1206:(1974)
1198:(1973)
1190:(1973)
1182:(1971)
1174:(1969)
1166:(1954)
1158:(1969)
1150:(1964)
1142:(1958)
1134:(1955)
1126:(1954)
1118:(1954)
1110:(1952)
1102:(1952)
1094:(1950)
1086:(1948)
1078:(1947)
1070:(1944)
1062:(1938)
1054:(1933)
1046:(1931)
1040:(1927)
1032:(1908)
1024:(1899)
1016:(1885)
1008:(1868)
1000:(1850)
687:After
671:busing
619:Praise
367:State
364:Grade
120:, and
3198:JSTOR
3018:Books
2838:JSTOR
2769:S2CID
2759:(4).
2277:S2CID
2116:S2CID
2060:S2CID
1650:JSTOR
703:Brown
459:Texas
239:NAACP
217:NAACP
206:NAACP
3268:2016
3248:2016
3215:ISBN
3163:ISBN
3140:ISBN
3119:ISBN
3098:ISBN
3072:ISBN
3051:ISBN
3030:ISBN
2999:ISBN
2978:ISBN
2959:ISBN
2923:ISBN
2876:ISBN
2857:ISBN
2807:ISBN
2786:ISBN
2735:ISBN
2713:ISBN
2687:ISBN
2665:ISBN
2648:PMID
2599:ISBN
2505:2021
2479:2021
2360:2020
2331:2020
2306:2020
2240:2018
2229:ISSN
2146:2024
2023:2018
1910:2016
1875:2017
1864:ISSN
1860:Time
1842:2022
1798:2024
1772:2020
1749:2020
1701:2024
1676:2024
1642:ISSN
1572:2016
1544:2022
1513:ISSN
1469:ISSN
838:and
791:The
639:and
353:Time
253:The
208:and
130:Iowa
50:race
3190:doi
2830:doi
2761:doi
2638:PMC
2630:doi
2267:doi
2106:doi
2050:doi
1536:LDF
1503:doi
1461:doi
911:in
740:by
505:D+
486:C-
448:C+
429:B-
410:B+
391:A-
200:in
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2100:.
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2058:.
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2044:.
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1970:^
1956:^
1900:.
1858:.
1832:.
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1692:.
1666:.
1638:75
1636:.
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1600:^
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1497:.
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1467:.
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1455:.
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744:.
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538:F
519:D
467:C
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3250:.
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1499:2
1475:.
1463::
1430:.
534:F
501:D
444:C
406:B
373:A
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
