866:
654:, black people were 42% of Florida's population. Yet according to the 1934–1936 report of the Florida Superintendent of Public Instruction, the value of "white school property" in the state was $ 70,543,000, while the value of African American school property was $ 4,900,000. The report says that "in a few south Florida counties and in most north Florida counties many Negro schools are housed in churches, shacks, and lodges, and have no toilets, water supply, desks, blackboards, etc. Counties use these schools as a means to get State funds and yet these counties invest little or nothing in them." At that time, high school education for African Americans was provided in only 28 of Florida's 67 counties. In 1939–1940, the average salary of a white teacher in Florida was $ 1,148, whereas for a black teacher it was $ 585.
51:
854:
1105:. This decision was based on the grounds that the separate school failed to qualify as being "equal", because of both quantitative differences, such as its facilities, and intangible factors, such as its isolation from most of the future lawyers with whom its graduates would interact. The court held that, when considering graduate education, intangible factors must be considered as part of "substantive equality". The same day, the Supreme Court in
4038:
949:, black students are emotionally impaired when segregated at a young age. In Texas, the state established a state-funded law school for white students but none for black students. As previously mentioned, the majority of counties in Florida during the 1930s had no high school for African-American students. African Americans had to pay state and local taxes that were used for the benefit of whites only. (See
995:
1991:
6475:
1658:
934:
944:
Equal facilities were unusual. The facilities and social services offered to
African Americans were almost always of a lower quality than those offered to white Americans, if they existed at all. Most African-American schools had less public funding per student than nearby white schools; they had old
919:
The "separate but equal" doctrine applied in theory to all public facilities: not only railroad cars but schools, medical facilities, theaters, restaurants, restrooms, and drinking fountains. However, neither state nor
Congress put "separate but equal" into the statute books, meaning the provision of
658:
During the era of segregation, the myth was that the races were separated but were provided equal facilities. No one believed it. Almost without exception, black students were given inferior buildings and instructional materials. Black educators were generally paid less than their white counterparts
1206:
We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation
915:
formalized the legal principle of "separate but equal". The ruling required "railway companies carrying passengers in their coaches in that State to provide equal, but separate, accommodations for the white and colored races". Accommodations provided on each railroad car were required to be the same
791:
mandated separate educational systems. In Texas, laws required separate water fountains, restrooms, and waiting rooms in railroad stations. In
Georgia, restaurants and taverns could not serve white and "colored" patrons in the same room; separate parks for each race were required, as were separate
725:
ended
Reconstruction and withdrew federal troops from all Southern states, many former slaveholders and Confederates were elected to office. The Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal protection to all people but Southern states contended that the requirement of equality could be met in a way that
1111:
ruled that segregation laws in
Oklahoma, which had required an African-American graduate student working on a Doctor of Education degree to sit in the hallway outside the classroom door, did not qualify as "separate but equal". These cases ended the "separate but equal" doctrine in graduate and
726:
kept the races separate. Furthermore, the state and federal courts tended to reject the pleas by
African Americans that their Fourteenth Amendment rights were violated, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment applied only to federal, not state, citizenship. This rejection is evident in the
745:(Morrill Act of 1862) had provided federal funding for higher education by each state with the details left to the state legislatures. The 1890 Act implicitly accepted the legal concept of "separate but equal" for the 17 states that had institutionalized segregation.
749:
Provided, That no money shall be paid out under this act to any State or
Territory for the support and maintenance of a college where a distinction of race or color is made in the admission of students, but the establishment and maintenance of such colleges
920:
equal services to non-whites could not be legally enforced. The only possible remedy was through federal court, but costly legal fees and expenses meant that this was out of the question for individuals; it took an organization with resources, the
881:, who was of mixed ancestry and appeared to be white, boarded an all-white railroad car between New Orleans and Covington, Louisiana. The conductor of the train collected passenger tickets at their seats. When Plessy told the conductor he was
916:
as those provided on the others. Separate railroad cars could be provided. The railroad could refuse service to passengers who refused to comply, and the
Supreme Court ruled this did not infringe upon the 13th and 14th amendments.
3410:
3405:
358:
3417:
3158:
3422:
1260:, stating that they gave more financial support to the predominantly white public colleges. The state settled the lawsuit in 2002, directing $ 503 million to three historically black colleges over 17 years.
685:
of 1954. However, the subsequent overturning of segregation laws and practices was a long process that lasted through much of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, involving federal legislation (especially the
3093:
865:
737:
After the end of
Reconstruction, the federal government adopted a general policy of leaving racial segregation up to the individual states. One example of this policy was the second Morrill Act (
807:(HBCUs). In fact, some states adopted laws prohibiting schools from educating blacks and whites together, even if a school was willing to do so. The constitutionality of such laws was upheld in
1690:
1094:
6233:
4518:
904:
One month after his arrest, Plessy appeared in court before Judge John Howard
Ferguson. Plessy's lawyer, Albion Tourgee, claimed Plessy's 13th and 14th amendment rights were violated. The
6257:
3943:
3938:
3487:
2219:
2076:
905:
831:
710:
706:
603:
3750:
2207:
650:
In practice, the separate facilities provided to African Americans were rarely equal; usually they were not even close to equal, or they did not exist at all. For example, in the
627:
Supreme Court decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation. Though segregation laws existed before that case, the decision emboldened segregation states during the
6011:
3622:
4181:
6305:
6153:
6460:
2317:
6213:
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textbooks, discarded by the white schools, used equipment, and poorly paid, prepared, or taught and trained teachers. In addition, according to a study conducted by the
3400:
1962:
4764:
4655:
4075:
3948:
3188:
1995:
667:
Because new research showed that segregating students by race was harmful to them, even if facilities were equal, "separate but equal" facilities were found to be
6310:
4017:
3992:
6218:
4556:
4475:
4002:
3997:
2929:
846:
194:
2377:
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2911:
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1275:
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804:
460:
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6183:
5953:
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1329:
353:
5971:
4734:
3980:
2924:
2919:
1676:
614:, housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation be segregated by race, which was already the case throughout the states of the former
611:
4436:
901:
black, he was informed that he had to move to a coloreds-only car. Plessy said he resented sitting in a coloreds-only car and was arrested immediately.
6290:
4841:
4543:
3639:
3143:
2252:
766:, courts repealed the local "separate but equal" statute in 1938 and the last school for African-American children in New York was shut down in 1944.
6325:
6280:
5948:
4831:
4759:
4485:
4365:
3987:
3617:
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2360:
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for white and colored students shall be held to be a compliance with the provisions of this act if the funds received in such State or Territory be
450:
399:
257:
6239:
4627:
4227:
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3913:
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3659:
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1290:
702:
607:
599:
455:
440:
1410:
1691:"Louisiana Separate Car Act, 1890 · Separate not Equal: Plessy v. Ferguson's Influence on Modern Discrimination · The Making of the Modern U.S."
4605:
4012:
4007:
3975:
3745:
3649:
3612:
3393:
326:
2154:
2149:
1056:
5976:
4096:
3970:
3928:
3740:
2288:
2034:
1747:
1635:
578:
606:, which nominally guaranteed "equal protection" under the law to all people. Under the doctrine, as long as the facilities provided to each
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4774:
4720:
4122:
3918:
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3767:
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1280:
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and had more students in their classrooms.... In 1938, Pompano white schools collectively had one teacher for every 25 students, while the
6499:
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4705:
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425:
77:
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3118:
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2247:
1613:
1125:
1107:
1098:
946:
672:
1584:
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6285:
6158:
4632:
4409:
4030:
2420:
2071:
1670:
1102:
1070:
1038:
375:
1188:. The Warren Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for blacks and whites at the state level. The companion case of
1005:
1215:
overturned the doctrine of "separate but equal" in institutions of public education, it would be almost ten more years before the
6320:
6062:
4533:
4420:
3958:
3923:
3908:
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158:
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430:
348:
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without providing similar educational opportunities. In response to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states established separate
6504:
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6300:
6099:
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4414:
4232:
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3705:
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3128:
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1820:
1389:
1219:
would prohibit racial discrimination in facilities that were deemed public accommodations (transportation, hotels, etc.).
788:
615:
223:
4569:
6479:
6445:
6352:
6208:
6193:
5817:
5337:
4861:
4662:
4458:
3595:
3571:
3566:
3549:
3517:
3460:
2573:
2522:
2355:
1237:
784:
420:
1081:, the lower court continued the case for six months so that a state-funded law school for black students (now known as
618:. The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890, although the law actually used the phrase "equal but separate".
6252:
5986:
5747:
4744:
4710:
4690:
4574:
4453:
4160:
3860:
3852:
3795:
3710:
3198:
3103:
2959:
2941:
2843:
2502:
2472:
2197:
2117:
2096:
1941:
1145:
926:
681:
632:
524:
265:
1020:
663:
had one teacher for every 54 students. At the Hammondville School, the single teacher employed there had 67 students.
1310:
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6168:
5152:
4907:
4796:
4726:
4197:
3878:
3815:
3805:
3355:
3113:
3073:
2430:
2124:
960:(1954), the implementation of the changes this decision required was long, contentious, and sometimes violent (see
636:
331:
1016:
5996:
5827:
5797:
5732:
5217:
4856:
4836:
4806:
4715:
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571:
467:
24:
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2142:
2132:
2058:
1796:
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1216:
686:
309:
201:
4431:
972:
segregation on the basis of race, societal issues surrounding racial discrimination still remain topical (see
1570:
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5662:
5432:
5097:
5077:
4992:
4947:
4523:
4480:
4463:
4301:
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3810:
3360:
3014:
2983:
2763:
2703:
2568:
2311:
950:
235:
67:
34:
3725:
1560:" Act of 1890 Providing for the Further Endowment and Support Of Colleges of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.
552:
5702:
5437:
5422:
5417:
5292:
5147:
4987:
4932:
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4246:
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145:
113:
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534:
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299:
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2410:
2400:
2372:
2237:
2091:
1780:
1356:
1199:
714:
564:
547:
387:
370:
98:
94:
1330:"Rep John Lewis tells National Book awards how he was refused entry to library because he was black"
6078:
6039:
5587:
5547:
5497:
5407:
5367:
5342:
5297:
5102:
5057:
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4882:
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2367:
2257:
2187:
1536:
1207:
complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.
1090:
1074:
1066:
800:
796:
504:
445:
170:
118:
108:
1643:
956:
Although the "Separate but Equal" doctrine was eventually overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in
6395:
6163:
6147:
6140:
6119:
6105:
6068:
5902:
5812:
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1169:
1159:
1137:
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731:
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644:
623:
218:
213:
208:
103:
72:
42:
50:
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6263:
6178:
6173:
6133:
6006:
5777:
5762:
5727:
5507:
5427:
5372:
5157:
4321:
4316:
4188:
4174:
4167:
4128:
3345:
3066:
2728:
2698:
2293:
2050:
1743:
1666:
1533:"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875"
1190:
1177:
1176:(who became the first black Supreme Court Justice in 1967), was successful in challenging the
1173:
1061:
853:
668:
514:
403:
382:
6474:
779:
In the late 1800s, many states of the former Confederacy adopted laws, collectively known as
6440:
6425:
6415:
6385:
6126:
6073:
5922:
5907:
5872:
5737:
5682:
5672:
5567:
5442:
5377:
5252:
5167:
5127:
5117:
5107:
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5087:
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4952:
4336:
4251:
4214:
3501:
3472:
3467:
3365:
3333:
3306:
3031:
2648:
2618:
2608:
2603:
2170:
2009:
1966:
1065:, the Supreme Court addressed a legal challenge to the doctrine when a Texan black student,
973:
763:
509:
472:
1607:
1464:
6435:
6420:
6405:
6223:
5852:
5842:
5802:
5782:
5742:
5617:
5607:
5572:
5532:
5517:
5452:
5317:
5267:
5197:
5082:
5032:
5017:
5007:
5002:
4982:
4967:
4962:
4937:
4877:
4801:
4404:
4375:
4370:
4326:
4306:
4285:
4257:
3496:
3323:
3233:
3228:
3009:
2964:
2818:
2808:
2788:
2773:
2673:
2548:
2538:
2177:
1557:
1334:
858:
640:
410:
304:
163:
721:
brought new freedoms and laws promoting racial equality to the South. However, after the
1963:"Opposition strong to Barbour's plan to merge Mississippi's 3 black universities into 1"
6455:
6044:
5892:
5877:
5807:
5757:
5722:
5707:
5692:
5652:
5632:
5622:
5577:
5562:
5542:
5312:
5282:
5272:
5242:
5232:
5142:
5112:
4912:
4538:
4490:
4380:
3933:
3338:
3301:
3291:
3051:
3046:
2988:
2823:
2753:
2683:
2678:
2182:
2106:
1140:
and "separate but equal" throughout the United States in a series of landmark rulings.
338:
228:
1935:
1737:
1550:
908:
abolished slavery, and the 14th amendment gave equal protection to all under the law.
713:
guaranteed equal protection under the law to all people, and Congress established the
6493:
6450:
6380:
6228:
6094:
5917:
5847:
5752:
5602:
5537:
5522:
5512:
5472:
5397:
5387:
5347:
5332:
5222:
5212:
5172:
5122:
4997:
4922:
4892:
2891:
2873:
2863:
2833:
2778:
2733:
2718:
2663:
2653:
2638:
2588:
2583:
2553:
2350:
2278:
2101:
1285:
1052:
870:
780:
628:
519:
497:
435:
343:
270:
4053:
6410:
6390:
5912:
5867:
5862:
5822:
5657:
5637:
5592:
5527:
5462:
5447:
5362:
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5307:
5257:
5247:
5237:
5207:
5202:
5192:
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5137:
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5052:
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5027:
5022:
5012:
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4927:
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3203:
2971:
2896:
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2853:
2838:
2793:
2768:
2748:
2658:
2628:
2623:
2593:
2543:
2395:
2081:
2003:
1863:
1764:
1585:"Nearly 70 years after Brown decision, New York schools still separate and unequal"
1181:
1129:
878:
1393:
186:
3159:
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)
2014:
610:
were equal, state and local governments could require that services, facilities,
6430:
6400:
6027:
5991:
5932:
5927:
5887:
5837:
5772:
5767:
5677:
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2798:
2563:
2558:
2405:
1858:
1257:
1245:
1121:
676:
492:
1831:
1739:
Social scientists for social justice : making the case against segregation
6054:
5712:
5642:
5612:
5482:
5457:
5402:
5302:
4917:
4887:
2758:
2743:
2713:
2708:
2457:
2425:
2264:
2232:
795:
Prior to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states excluded blacks from access to the
314:
89:
6032:
5502:
5487:
3372:
3218:
2723:
2507:
2445:
2340:
1742:. Internet Archive. New York : New York University Press. p. 113.
1639:
1489:
1269:
1101:. Here, the original decision was reversed and Sweatt was admitted into the
529:
319:
250:
245:
240:
179:
123:
1398:, State Archives of Florida: Collection M86-11, Box 04, Folder 5, p. 3
1990:
1718:
5392:
3845:
3840:
3350:
1722:
1229:
968:). While modern legal doctrine interprets the 14th amendment to prohibit
792:
cemeteries. These are just examples from a large number of similar laws.
717:
to assist in the integration of former slaves into Southern society. The
1097:, took the case to the federal courts, before it eventually reached the
933:
5981:
2462:
1532:
1165:
393:
3094:
Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
1911:
1884:
1514:
6049:
3296:
2019:
1395:
Report on the Educational Opportunities for Negroes in Florida, 1941
1023:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
1636:"Jim Crow Laws. Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Georgia, & Kentucky"
1573:" To eliminate segregationist language from the Second Morrill Act.
1551:
Act of August 30, 1890, ch. 841, 26 Stat. 417, 7 U.S.C. 322 et seq.
4784:
3109:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
3108:
1154:
932:
921:
864:
852:
84:
3153:
783:, that mandated separation of whites and African Americans. The
4057:
2023:
1184:
voted to overturn sixty years of law that had developed under
988:
1821:"The Warren Court: Completion of a Constitutional Revolution"
1606:
De LeĂłn, Arnoldo; Calvert, Robert A. (2010). "Segregation".
834:
was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of
16:
Discredited US legal doctrine used for racial segregation
1202:. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote in the court opinion:
1051:
The repeal of such restrictive laws, generally known as
6234:
Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
6012:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
1012:
937:
1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by
6258:
African American founding fathers of the United States
4611:
Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
4476:
John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
604:
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
2005:
A Study of Educational Inequalities in South Carolina
1828:
William & Mary Law School Scholarship Repository
1198:
outlawed such practices at the Federal level in the
1180:
viability of the "separate but equal" doctrine. The
1157:
referred to the phrase "equal but separate" used in
6371:
6306:
Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
6273:
6087:
6020:
5962:
5941:
4870:
4676:
4511:
4294:
4152:
4105:
4092:
3871:
3786:
3510:
3443:
3381:
3281:
3242:
3167:
3082:
3002:
2940:
2882:
2531:
2386:
2057:
1465:"Documents Related to Brown v. Board of Education"
631:, which had commenced in 1876, and supplanted the
1069:, was seeking admission into the state-supported
4842:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
3144:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
1378:, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 130
1256:In 1975, Jake Ayers Sr. filed a lawsuit against
1089:) could be created. When further appeals to the
857:"We cater to white trade only". A restaurant in
4832:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
4765:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
4656:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
3189:Black players in professional American football
3139:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
1885:"Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States"
844:doctrine was extended to the public schools in
803:for blacks which are now referred to as public
6311:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
1797:"The Court's Decision - Separate Is Not Equal"
1719:"Black-white student achievement gap persists"
1441:"The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal"
6219:List of lynching victims in the United States
4557:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
4069:
2035:
847:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
572:
8:
2902:Historically black colleges and universities
1311:"Separate but Equal – Separate Is Not Equal"
1276:Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States
1242:anti-miscegenation laws in the United States
805:historically black colleges and universities
4686:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
1350:"Statistical abstract of the United States"
4735:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
4102:
4076:
4062:
4054:
3171:
2042:
2028:
2020:
1376:Florida. A Guide to the Southernmost State
1240:, unconstitutional, thus invalidating all
579:
565:
29:
6291:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
3119:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
1136:constitutional revolution which outlawed
1039:Learn how and when to remove this message
6326:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
4366:University of Georgia desegregation riot
6240:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence
5977:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
5972:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
1996:Racial segregation in the United States
1859:"Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka"
1583:Rachel Silberstein (20 February 2022).
1302:
1291:Racial segregation in the United States
705:to an end with the ratification of the
41:
6154:African-American women in the movement
4606:White House Conference on Civil Rights
4437:"Segregation now, segregation forever"
4018:Topics related to the African diaspora
3124:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
1571:104th Congress 1st Session, H. R. 2730
830:The legitimacy of such laws under the
4595:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
3998:Landmark African-American legislation
1906:
1904:
1853:
1851:
1791:
1789:
7:
6363:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
4827:Regional Council of Negro Leadership
4775:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
4721:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
4198:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
4123:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
3129:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
1515:"How Slavery Ended in the Civil War"
1513:Williams G. Thomas (June 24, 2008).
1361:United States Department of Commerce
1281:Federal voting rights in Puerto Rico
1172:enacted into law. The NAACP, led by
4770:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
4706:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
4376:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
3483:African-American Vernacular English
2015:Cornell Legal Information Institute
1783:, Virginia Code § 20–58 and § 20–59
1328:Flood, Alison (November 17, 2017).
6214:African-American churches attacked
4780:Montgomery Improvement Association
4755:Georgia Council on Human Relations
4740:Council of Federated Organizations
4711:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
4469:16th Street Baptist Church bombing
4427:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
4233:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
4137:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
3401:U.S. cities with large populations
3104:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
1661:. In Schultz, David Andrew (ed.).
1614:Texas State Historical Association
1248:wrote the court majority opinion:
1126:Chief Justice of the United States
1108:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
1099:Supreme Court of the United States
947:American Psychological Association
758:divided as hereinafter set forth.
741:). Before the end of the war, the
621:The doctrine was confirmed in the
14:
6286:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
6159:Jews in the civil rights movement
2274:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
2270:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009
2077:African American founding fathers
1103:University of Texas School of Law
869:A "colored" drinking fountain in
6480:Civil rights movement portal
6473:
6321:Freedom Riders National Monument
6063:The Kingdom of God Is Within You
4575:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
4534:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
4421:Second Emancipation Proclamation
4036:
3154:United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
2299:Nadir of American race relations
2008:is available for viewing at the
1989:
1663:The Encyclopedia of American Law
1417:. pp. 21–25. Archived from
1374:Federal Writers Project (1939),
993:
709:in 1865. Following the war, the
643:of African Americans during the
602:did not necessarily violate the
596:United States constitutional law
197: population exchange
49:
6348:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
6336:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
4812:National Council of Negro Women
4750:Deacons for Defense and Justice
2160:Civil rights movement 1954–1968
2150:Civil rights movement 1865–1896
1093:failed, Sweatt, along with the
1083:Thurgood Marshall School of Law
743:Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act
4228:Mansfield school desegregation
3149:Thurgood Marshall College Fund
2155:Civil right movement 1896–1954
1659:"Equal protection of the laws"
1519:University of Nebraska–Lincoln
911:The Supreme Court decision in
675:decisions under Chief Justice
1:
6358:National Voting Rights Museum
6301:Civil Rights Movement Archive
6100:Lynching in the United States
5987:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
4442:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
4415:University of Chicago sit-ins
4182:Davis v. Prince Edward County
3329:Cherokee freedmen controversy
2305:The Negro Motorist Green Book
1665:. Infobase. pp. 152–53.
1390:Florida Education Association
1222:Additionally, in 1967, under
1079:law school for black students
1077:. Since Texas did not have a
43:Racial and ethnic segregation
6353:National Civil Rights Museum
6209:March on Washington Movement
6194:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
4663:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
1238:Racial Integrity Act of 1924
1228:, the Warren Court declared
785:Florida Constitution of 1885
703:slavery in the United States
5997:"This Little Light of Mine"
4745:Dallas County Voters League
4691:Atlanta Negro Voters League
4454:Letter from Birmingham Jail
4161:Brown v. Board of Education
3199:Black players in ice hockey
3134:National Urban League (NUL)
2960:American Society of Muslims
2198:Selma to Montgomery marches
2118:Brown v. Board of Education
1942:Legal Information Institute
1146:Brown v. Board of Education
1019:the claims made and adding
958:Brown v. Board of Education
927:Brown v. Board of Education
840:, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). The
682:Brown v. Board of Education
21:Brown v. Board of Education
6531:
6500:American legal terminology
6331:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
6199:Holt Street Baptist Church
6169:16th Street Baptist Church
5153:Annie Bell Robinson Devine
4797:Nashville Student Movement
4727:An Appeal for Human Rights
3356:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
3114:Nashville Student Movement
2125:Children of the plantation
1634:McElrath, Jessica (2006).
1556:February 20, 2009, at the
823:
18:
6469:
5828:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
5798:Modjeska Monteith Simkins
4862:Women's Political Council
4857:Wednesdays in Mississippi
4852:United Auto Workers (UAW)
4837:Southern Regional Council
4807:Northern Student Movement
4716:Committee for Freedom Now
4623:Memphis sanitation strike
4589:Voting Rights Act of 1965
4332:Savannah Protest Movement
4113:Journey of Reconciliation
4026:
3993:Index of related articles
3174:
2994:Doctrine of Father Divine
2378:Women's suffrage movement
2331:Reconstruction Amendments
2138:Voting Rights Act of 1965
1763:Kenneth B. Clark (1951).
1736:Jackson, John P. (2001).
1657:Failinger, Marie (2009).
1409:Hobby, Daniel T. (2012).
1087:Texas Southern University
1055:, was a key focus of the
810:Berea College v. Kentucky
689:), and many court cases.
25:Separate but Equal (film)
6510:Law of the United States
4696:Atlanta Student Movement
4645:Civil Rights Act of 1968
4570:1964–1965 Scripto strike
4551:Civil Rights Act of 1964
4449:1963 Birmingham campaign
4342:Civil Rights Act of 1960
4266:Civil Rights Act of 1957
4043:United States portal
3478:African-American English
2907:Inventors and scientists
2599:George Washington Carver
2203:Chicago Freedom Movement
1609:Handbook of Texas Online
1272:("separate development")
1217:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1112:professional education.
951:Florida A&M Hospital
687:Civil Rights Act of 1964
594:was a legal doctrine in
400:West Bank settlement law
6248:Voter Education Project
6002:"We Shall Not Be Moved"
5663:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
5098:Josephine Dobbs Clement
4524:Chester school protests
4519:Twenty-fourth Amendment
4481:Detroit Walk to Freedom
4223:Tallahassee bus boycott
4144:Baton Rouge bus boycott
3966:African-American firsts
3015:Back-to-Africa movement
2984:Black Hebrew Israelites
2764:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
2312:Partus sequitur ventrem
1766:Kenneth Clark Testimony
850:, 175 U.S. 528 (1899).
635:, which restricted the
175:French colonial empire
68:Anti-miscegenation laws
19:For the film about the
6461:Movement photographers
5703:Bernice Johnson Reagon
5423:Martin Luther King Sr.
5418:Martin Luther King Jr.
4988:William Holmes Borders
4760:Highlander Folk School
4650:Poor People's Campaign
4503:St. Augustine movement
4353:Gomillion v. Lightfoot
4276:Katz Drug Store sit-in
4247:Royal Ice Cream sit-in
4209:Montgomery bus boycott
3934:Spingarn Medal winners
3423:States and territories
3194:Black NFL quarterbacks
2694:Martin Luther King Jr.
2226:Dred Scott v. Sandford
2165:Montgomery bus boycott
1801:americanhistory.si.edu
1694:projects.leadr.msu.edu
1445:americanhistory.si.edu
1315:americanhistory.si.edu
1209:
941:
874:
862:
760:
665:
661:Pompano Colored School
204: in Europe
114:Housing discrimination
6296:Civil Rights Memorial
6184:Bethel Baptist Church
5833:Charles Kenzie Steele
5278:Audrey Faye Hendricks
5183:Myrlie Evers-Williams
5163:Patricia Stephens Due
5133:Abraham Lincoln Davis
5068:Colia Lafayette Clark
4822:Operation Breadbasket
4817:National Urban League
4564:Katzenbach v. McClung
4432:Atlanta's Berlin Wall
4085:Civil rights movement
3244:Athletic associations
3179:Negro league baseball
2950:African-American Jews
2669:Ketanji Brown Jackson
2634:Henry Highland Garnet
2493:Negro National Anthem
2243:George Floyd protests
2208:Post–civil rights era
1998:at Wikimedia Commons
1204:
1057:Civil Rights Movement
936:
924:, to file and pursue
868:
856:
789:that of West Virginia
747:
728:Slaughter-House Cases
656:
612:public accommodations
598:, according to which
535:Racial discrimination
359:South Asian labourers
292:Contemporary examples
6505:American phraseology
6341:other King memorials
6316:Freedom Rides Museum
6253:1960s counterculture
6204:Edmund Pettus Bridge
5883:Walter Francis White
5788:Alexander D. Shimkin
4302:New Year's Day March
4271:Ministers' Manifesto
4118:Executive Order 9981
3451:Afro-Seminole Creole
2977:Azusa Street Revival
2849:Booker T. Washington
2373:Underground Railroad
2238:Free people of color
2092:Atlantic slave trade
1936:"Loving v. Virginia"
1912:"Loving v. Virginia"
1781:Racial Integrity Act
1411:"Schools of Pompano"
1357:Bureau of the Census
1200:District of Columbia
1153:, attorneys for the
906:Thirteenth Amendment
832:Fourteenth amendment
711:Fourteenth Amendment
707:Thirteenth Amendment
388:Palestinian enclaves
219:Portugal & Spain
99:Institutional racism
6079:Mary McLeod Bethune
6040:Sermon on the Mount
6007:"We Shall Overcome"
5588:William Lewis Moore
5368:Frank Minis Johnson
5343:Richie Jean Jackson
5298:Donald L. Hollowell
5103:Charles E. Cobb Jr.
4908:Gwendolyn Armstrong
4903:William G. Anderson
4883:Victoria Gray Adams
4847:The Freedom Singers
4701:Black Panther Party
4486:March on Washington
4399:Garner v. Louisiana
4360:Boynton v. Virginia
3846:Trinidad and Tobago
3461:Black American Sign
3288:By African descent
3282:Ethnic subdivisions
3269:Southwestern (SWAC)
3184:Baseball color line
3099:Black Panther Party
3003:Political movements
2920:in computer science
2579:Carol Moseley Braun
2368:Tulsa race massacre
2361:Treatment of slaves
2193:March on Washington
2188:Birmingham movement
1969:. November 19, 2009
1537:Library of Congress
1363:. 1931. p. 13.
1091:Texas Supreme Court
1075:University of Texas
1067:Heman Marion Sweatt
985:Before Warren Court
801:land-grant colleges
797:land-grant colleges
770:Early legal support
739:Morrill Act of 1890
505:Forced assimilation
139:Historical examples
119:Exclusionary zoning
109:Forced displacement
6396:Michael Eric Dyson
6281:In popular culture
6164:Fifth Circuit Four
6148:Loving v. Virginia
6141:Hernandez v. Texas
6120:Buchanan v. Warley
6112:Separate but equal
6106:Plessy v. Ferguson
6069:Frederick Douglass
5903:Robert F. Williams
5813:Kelly Miller Smith
5793:Fred Shuttlesworth
5718:Frederick D. Reese
5698:George Raymond Jr.
5688:A. Philip Randolph
5668:Fay Bellamy Powell
5583:Queen Mother Moore
5468:Z. Alexander Looby
5413:Coretta Scott King
5358:Barbara Rose Johns
5338:Jimmie Lee Jackson
5263:William E. Harbour
5043:Stokely Carmichael
4958:Randolph Blackwell
4628:King assassination
4617:Loving v. Virginia
4601:March Against Fear
4581:How Long, Not Long
4459:Children's Crusade
4410:Cambridge movement
4347:Ax Handle Saturday
4312:Greensboro sit-ins
4239:Give Us the Ballot
3944:US representatives
3939:US cabinet members
3831:Dominican Republic
3418:Metropolitan areas
3259:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
3084:Civic and economic
3062:Self-determination
2883:Education, science
2804:Fred Shuttlesworth
2784:A. Philip Randolph
2689:Coretta Scott King
2614:Frederick Douglass
2441:Harlem Renaissance
2346:Separate but equal
2336:Reconstruction era
2324:Plessy v. Ferguson
2215:Cornerstone Speech
2129:Civil Rights Acts
2112:Black Lives Matter
2087:American Civil War
1252:After Warren Court
1234:anti-miscegenation
1225:Loving v. Virginia
1170:racial segregation
1160:Plessy v. Ferguson
1138:racial segregation
1059:prior to 1954. In
1004:possibly contains
966:Southern Manifesto
962:massive resistance
942:
939:John T. McCutcheon
913:Plessy v. Ferguson
875:
863:
837:Plessy v. Ferguson
826:Plessy v. Ferguson
819:Plessy v. Ferguson
732:Civil Rights Cases
723:Compromise of 1877
719:Reconstruction Era
699:American Civil War
645:Reconstruction era
624:Plessy v. Ferguson
600:racial segregation
592:Separate but equal
327:Bosnia–Herzegovina
276:Separate but equal
214:Partition of India
209:Pale of Settlement
104:Ethnic nationalism
73:Crime of apartheid
6487:
6486:
6264:Eyes on the Prize
6179:A.G. Gaston Motel
6174:Kelly Ingram Park
6134:Sweatt v. Painter
5818:Mary Louise Smith
5778:Cleveland Sellers
5763:Michael Schwerner
5728:Gloria Richardson
5508:Thurgood Marshall
5428:Bernard Lafayette
5158:John Wesley Dobbs
4672:
4671:
4391:Birmingham attack
4371:Rock Hill sit-ins
4322:Sibley Commission
4317:Nashville sit-ins
4189:Gebhart v. Belton
4175:Briggs v. Elliott
4168:Bolling v. Sharpe
4129:Sweatt v. Painter
4051:
4050:
3879:African Americans
3751:Dallas–Fort Worth
3346:Black Southerners
3277:
3276:
2729:Thurgood Marshall
2699:Bernard Lafayette
2294:Million Man March
2051:African Americans
1994:Media related to
1749:978-0-8147-4266-2
1679:on July 24, 2020.
1469:National Archives
1392:(April 9, 1941),
1191:Bolling v. Sharpe
1174:Thurgood Marshall
1062:Sweatt v. Painter
1049:
1048:
1041:
1006:original research
953:for an example.)
715:Freedmen's Bureau
589:
588:
515:Income inequality
6522:
6478:
6477:
6441:Charles M. Payne
6426:Steven F. Lawson
6416:David Halberstam
6386:Clayborne Carson
6127:Hocutt v. Wilson
6074:W. E. B. Du Bois
5923:Sammy Younge Jr.
5908:Q. V. Williamson
5873:Wyatt Tee Walker
5738:Bernice Robinson
5683:Lincoln Ragsdale
5673:Rodney N. Powell
5568:Douglas E. Moore
5443:Sanford R. Leigh
5378:J. Charles Jones
5253:Fannie Lou Hamer
5168:Joseph Ellwanger
5128:Jonathan Daniels
5118:Claudette Colvin
5108:Annie Lee Cooper
5093:Kathleen Cleaver
5088:Eldridge Cleaver
5063:Shirley Chisholm
4953:Gloria Blackwell
4544:workers' murders
4491:"I Have a Dream"
4386:Anniston bombing
4337:Greenville Eight
4252:Little Rock Nine
4215:Browder v. Gayle
4103:
4078:
4071:
4064:
4055:
4041:
4040:
4039:
4003:Lynching victims
3502:Louisiana Creole
3473:American English
3361:Louisiana Creole
3334:Choctaw freedmen
3172:
2709:Huddie Ledbetter
2649:Fannie Lou Hamer
2619:W. E. B. Du Bois
2609:Claudette Colvin
2604:Shirley Chisholm
2421:Family structure
2289:Military history
2171:Browder v. Gayle
2044:
2037:
2030:
2021:
2010:Internet Archive
1993:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1967:Associated Press
1959:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1908:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1855:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1836:
1830:. Archived from
1825:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1793:
1784:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1769:. pp. 16Sa.
1760:
1754:
1753:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1725:. July 14, 2009.
1715:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1696:. Archived from
1687:
1681:
1680:
1675:. Archived from
1654:
1648:
1647:
1642:. Archived from
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1580:
1574:
1567:
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1547:
1541:
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1529:
1523:
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1510:
1504:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1486:
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1476:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1354:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1307:
1244:. Chief Justice
1124:became the 14th
1116:The Warren Court
1044:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1024:
1021:inline citations
997:
996:
989:
974:racial profiling
900:
899:
895:
890:
889:
885:
679:, starting with
669:unconstitutional
581:
574:
567:
510:Gender apartheid
431:Northern Ireland
293:
203:
196:
164:Indian hospitals
159:Separate schools
53:
30:
6530:
6529:
6525:
6524:
6523:
6521:
6520:
6519:
6490:
6489:
6488:
6483:
6472:
6465:
6446:Thomas E. Ricks
6436:Diane McWhorter
6421:Vincent Harding
6406:Adam Fairclough
6373:
6367:
6269:
6224:Freedom Schools
6083:
6016:
5964:
5958:
5949:Omaha, Nebraska
5937:
5853:Hartman Turnbow
5843:Dorothy Tillman
5803:Glenn E. Smiley
5783:Charles Sherrod
5743:Jo Ann Robinson
5618:Charles Neblett
5608:Elijah Muhammad
5573:Harriette Moore
5533:Floyd McKissick
5518:Franklin McCain
5453:Stanley Levison
5318:T. R. M. Howard
5268:Vincent Harding
5198:Walter Fauntroy
5083:Xernona Clayton
5033:John H. Calhoun
5018:Aurelia Browder
5008:Stanley Branche
5003:Raylawni Branch
4983:Joseph E. Boone
4968:Ezell Blair Jr.
4963:Unita Blackwell
4938:Harry Belafonte
4878:Ralph Abernathy
4866:
4802:Nation of Islam
4678:
4668:
4507:
4464:Birmingham riot
4405:Albany Movement
4327:Atlanta sit-ins
4307:Sit-in movement
4290:
4286:Biloxi wade-ins
4258:Cooper v. Aaron
4148:
4094:
4088:
4082:
4052:
4047:
4037:
4035:
4022:
3988:Historic places
3981:US state firsts
3867:
3782:
3506:
3439:
3411:2010 majorities
3406:2000 majorities
3377:
3324:Black Seminoles
3273:
3264:Southern (SIAC)
3247:
3246:and conferences
3245:
3238:
3234:Serena Williams
3229:Jackie Robinson
3163:
3087:
3085:
3078:
2998:
2965:Nation of Islam
2936:
2884:
2878:
2819:Sojourner Truth
2809:Clarence Thomas
2774:Gabriel Prosser
2674:Michael Jackson
2549:Crispus Attucks
2539:Ralph Abernathy
2527:
2483:Musical theater
2382:
2248:Great Migration
2220:COVID-19 impact
2178:Sit-in movement
2053:
2048:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1972:
1970:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1947:
1945:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1920:
1918:
1910:
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1902:
1893:
1891:
1883:
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1867:
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1849:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1805:
1803:
1795:
1794:
1787:
1779:E.g., Virginia
1778:
1774:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1717:
1716:
1712:
1703:
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1985:External links
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5992:"Oh, Freedom"
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5916:
5914:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5898:Kale Williams
5896:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5884:
5881:
5879:
5876:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5858:Albert Turner
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5848:A. P. Tureaud
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5753:Bayard Rustin
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5603:William Moyer
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5538:Joseph McNeil
5536:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5523:Charles McDew
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5513:Benjamin Mays
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5498:Vivian Malone
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5473:Joseph Lowery
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5398:Clyde Kennard
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5388:Vernon Jordan
5386:
5384:
5383:Matthew Jones
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5348:T. J. Jemison
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5333:Jesse Jackson
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5223:Robert Graetz
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5213:Golden Frinks
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5173:Charles Evers
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5123:Vernon Dahmer
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5078:Septima Clark
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4998:Bruce Boynton
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4923:James Baldwin
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4893:Mathew Ahmann
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4873:
4869:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4791:
4790:Youth Council
4788:
4787:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4729:
4728:
4724:
4723:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4683:
4681:
4675:
4665:
4664:
4660:
4658:
4657:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4630:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4596:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4582:
4578:
4577:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4565:
4561:
4559:
4558:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4514:
4510:
4504:
4501:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4488:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4451:
4450:
4447:
4443:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4422:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4382:
4381:Freedom Rides
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4361:
4357:
4355:
4354:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4293:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4259:
4255:
4254:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4240:
4236:
4235:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4217:
4216:
4212:
4211:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4190:
4186:
4184:
4183:
4179:
4177:
4176:
4172:
4170:
4169:
4165:
4164:
4163:
4162:
4158:
4157:
4155:
4151:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4138:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4106:Prior to 1954
4104:
4101:
4098:
4091:
4086:
4079:
4074:
4072:
4067:
4065:
4060:
4059:
4056:
4044:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4025:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4013:Neighborhoods
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3976:Sports firsts
3974:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3964:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3881:
3880:
3877:
3876:
3874:
3870:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3823:
3821:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3789:
3785:
3779:
3778:West Virginia
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3715:Pennsylvania
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3695:
3694:New York City
3692:
3691:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3651:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3552:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3539:
3538:San Francisco
3536:
3534:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3511:By state/city
3509:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3470:
3469:
3466:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3456:American Sign
3454:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3442:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3399:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3389:Neighborhoods
3387:
3386:
3384:
3380:
3374:
3371:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3319:Black Indians
3317:
3315:
3312:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3241:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3081:
3075:
3072:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2897:Black schools
2895:
2893:
2892:Black studies
2890:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2875:
2874:Whitney Young
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2864:Oprah Winfrey
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2834:Denmark Vesey
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2779:Joseph Rainey
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2734:Toni Morrison
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2719:Joseph Lowery
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2664:Jesse Jackson
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2654:Kamala Harris
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2639:Marcus Garvey
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2589:Blanche Bruce
2587:
2585:
2584:Edward Brooke
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2574:James Bradley
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2554:James Baldwin
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2530:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2498:Neighborhoods
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2351:Silent Parade
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2279:Jim Crow laws
2277:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2102:Black cowboys
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2040:
2038:
2033:
2031:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2007:
2006:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1992:
1984:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1955:
1944:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1928:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1877:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1837:on 2019-10-03
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6411:David Garrow
6391:John Dittmer
6262:
6189:Brown Chapel
6146:
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6132:
6125:
6118:
6111:
6104:
6061:
5913:Andrew Young
5868:A. T. Walden
5863:C. T. Vivian
5823:Maxine Smith
5658:Homer Plessy
5638:James Orange
5593:Irene Morgan
5548:William Ming
5528:Ralph McGill
5463:Viola Liuzzo
5448:Jim Letherer
5433:James Lawson
5363:Vernon Johns
5353:Esau Jenkins
5308:Myles Horton
5258:Fred Hampton
5248:Prathia Hall
5238:Dick Gregory
5208:Marie Foster
5203:James Forman
5193:James Farmer
5178:Medgar Evers
5138:Angela Davis
5073:Ramsey Clark
5053:James Chaney
5048:Johnnie Carr
5028:Ralph Bunche
5023:H. Rap Brown
5013:Ruby Bridges
4973:Joanne Bland
4948:Claude Black
4928:Marion Barry
4898:Muhammad Ali
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4281:Kissing Case
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3929:Sportspeople
3899:Billionaires
3816:Sierra Leone
3719:Philadelphia
3555:Jacksonville
3382:Demographics
3214:Jack Johnson
3204:Muhammad Ali
3037:Conservatism
2972:Black church
2869:Andrew Young
2854:Ida B. Wells
2844:David Walker
2839:C. T. Vivian
2794:Paul Robeson
2789:Hiram Revels
2769:Colin Powell
2749:Barack Obama
2704:James Lawson
2659:Jimi Hendrix
2629:James Farmer
2624:Medgar Evers
2594:Ralph Bunche
2544:Maya Angelou
2518:Middle class
2396:Afrofuturism
2345:
2322:
2310:
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2169:
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2082:Afrocentrism
2072:Abolitionism
2004:
2002:A film clip
1988:
1971:. Retrieved
1957:
1946:. Retrieved
1939:
1930:
1919:. Retrieved
1916:Oyez Project
1915:
1892:. Retrieved
1889:Oyez Project
1888:
1879:
1868:. Retrieved
1864:Oyez Project
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1839:. Retrieved
1832:the original
1827:
1815:
1804:. Retrieved
1800:
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1702:. Retrieved
1698:the original
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1677:the original
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1619:February 25,
1617:. Retrieved
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1493:
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1471:. 2016-08-15
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1419:the original
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1196:347 U.S. 497
1195:
1189:
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1182:Warren Court
1164:
1163:as a custom
1158:
1151:347 U.S. 483
1150:
1144:
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1130:Warren Court
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879:Homer Plessy
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637:civil rights
629:Jim Crow era
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402: /
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349:Saudi Arabia
275:
241:South Africa
224:Nazi Germany
185:
178:
97: /
20:
6515:Segregation
6431:Doug McAdam
6401:Chuck Fager
6028:Nonviolence
5933:James Zwerg
5928:Bob Zellner
5888:Roy Wilkins
5838:Hank Thomas
5773:Pete Seeger
5768:Bobby Seale
5633:Jack O'Dell
5628:Edgar Nixon
5558:Amzie Moore
5553:Jack Minnis
5493:Mae Mallory
5478:Clara Luper
5438:Bernard Lee
5328:Cecil Ivory
5323:Ruby Hurley
5293:Oliver Hill
5288:Aaron Henry
5188:Chuck Fager
5148:Dave Dennis
5038:Guy Carawan
4978:Julian Bond
4943:James Bevel
4933:Daisy Bates
4204:Emmett Till
4087:(1954–1968)
3949:US senators
3919:Republicans
3904:Journalists
3761:San Antonio
3726:Puerto Rico
3667:Mississippi
3560:Tallahassee
3533:Los Angeles
3224:Jesse Owens
3209:Arthur Ashe
3067:Nationalism
3057:Raised fist
3020:Black power
2925:in medicine
2859:Roy Wilkins
2814:Emmett Till
2799:Al Sharpton
2564:Julian Bond
2559:James Bevel
2523:Upper class
2513:Stereotypes
2406:Black mecca
2318:Plantations
2097:Black Codes
1258:Mississippi
1246:Earl Warren
1122:Earl Warren
861:, in 1938.
677:Earl Warren
652:1930 census
633:Black Codes
616:Confederacy
493:Citizenship
461:Residential
344:Gulf states
266:Black Codes
154:Pass system
78:Allegations
23:trial, see
6494:Categories
6374:historians
6055:Satyagraha
6021:Influences
5713:James Reeb
5648:James Peck
5643:Rosa Parks
5613:Diane Nash
5483:Danny Lyon
5458:John Lewis
5403:A. D. King
5303:James Hood
4918:Ella Baker
4888:Zev Aelony
3894:Astronauts
3684:New Jersey
3528:California
3032:Capitalism
2829:Nat Turner
2759:Rosa Parks
2744:Diane Nash
2714:John Lewis
2503:Newspapers
2473:Literature
2458:Juneteenth
2411:Businesses
2265:Exodusters
2233:Free Negro
1973:2010-01-21
1948:2019-10-20
1921:2019-10-20
1894:2019-10-20
1870:2019-10-20
1841:2019-10-20
1806:2019-10-20
1704:2021-01-22
1499:2019-09-26
1475:2019-09-26
1450:2019-09-26
1297:References
1132:started a
1128:, and the
1029:March 2014
1013:improve it
891:white and
752:separately
693:Background
416:Mauritania
320:Roma walls
246:Bantustans
90:Xenophobia
6033:Padayatra
5982:"Kumbaya"
5942:By region
5598:Bob Moses
5503:Bob Mants
5488:Malcolm X
5408:C.B. King
5228:Fred Gray
4871:Activists
4512:1964–1968
4295:1960–1963
4153:1954–1959
4008:Monuments
3884:Activists
3736:Tennessee
3656:Michigan
3640:Baltimore
3630:Louisiana
3623:Lexington
3606:Davenport
3545:Cleveland
3444:Languages
3373:Melungeon
3351:Blaxicans
3219:Joe Louis
3074:Socialism
3010:Anarchism
2739:Bob Moses
2724:Malcolm X
2644:Fred Gray
2508:Soul food
2446:New Negro
2431:Folktales
2341:Redlining
1640:about.com
1591:2 October
1270:Apartheid
1211:Although
1120:In 1953,
1017:verifying
877:In 1892,
756:equitably
530:Ethnicity
446:Academies
371:Uthapuram
251:Pass laws
187:Indigénat
180:Code Noir
146:Australia
124:Redlining
5963:Movement
5393:Tom Kahn
4677:Activist
4097:timeline
4031:Category
3822:America
3788:Diaspora
3773:Virginia
3706:Oklahoma
3689:New York
3672:Nebraska
3635:Maryland
3618:Kentucky
3584:Illinois
3523:Arkansas
3428:Illinois
3366:of color
3052:Populism
3025:Movement
2942:Religion
2284:Lynching
2067:Timeline
1723:NBC News
1554:Archived
1425:July 31,
1264:See also
1230:Virginia
970:explicit
764:New York
701:brought
548:Category
468:Xinjiang
411:Malaysia
404:barriers
315:Slovenia
236:Rhodesia
61:Overview
35:a series
33:Part of
6088:Related
5678:Al Raby
4633:funeral
4496:Big Six
3959:Writers
3924:Singers
3909:Jurists
3857:Europe
3811:Liberia
3756:Houston
3660:Detroit
3596:Indiana
3589:Chicago
3572:Atlanta
3567:Georgia
3550:Florida
3518:Alabama
3468:English
3042:Leftism
2912:Museums
2463:Kwanzaa
2388:Culture
2356:Slavery
2059:History
1166:de jure
1134:liberal
1073:of the
1011:Please
896:⁄
886:⁄
553:Commons
486:Related
456:Schools
451:Housing
426:Myanmar
421:Morocco
394:Hafrada
376:Muslims
332:Schools
310:Romania
150:Canada
6274:Legacy
6050:Ahimsa
4679:groups
4140:(1950)
4132:(1950)
4093:Events
3971:Mayors
3889:Actors
3861:France
3853:Israel
3841:Mexico
3826:Canada
3801:Gambia
3796:Africa
3746:Austin
3711:Oregon
3650:Boston
3613:Kansas
3579:Hawaii
3497:Gullah
3307:Yoruba
3297:Gullah
3168:Sports
3086:groups
2916:Women
2453:Hoodoo
2327:(1896)
2253:Second
2229:(1857)
2174:(1956)
2121:(1954)
1940:LII /
1746:
1669:
1186:Plessy
1148:(1954)
873:, 1939
842:Plessy
812:(1908)
383:Israel
339:Cyprus
6372:Noted
5965:songs
4785:NAACP
4638:riots
3872:Lists
3836:Haiti
3806:Ghana
3741:Texas
3677:Omaha
2955:Islam
2488:Names
2478:Music
2416:Dance
1835:(PDF)
1824:(PDF)
1353:(PDF)
1213:Brown
1155:NAACP
1095:NAACP
922:NAACP
473:Yemen
436:Sudan
366:India
305:Italy
85:Caste
3768:Utah
3601:Iowa
3433:Ohio
3394:list
3302:Igbo
3292:Fula
2436:Hair
2426:Film
2143:1968
2133:1964
1744:ISBN
1667:ISBN
1621:2019
1593:2023
1494:Oyez
1427:2024
964:and
787:and
775:Laws
730:and
697:The
639:and
608:race
525:Race
2401:Art
2258:New
1232:'s
1143:In
1085:at
1015:by
976:).
762:In
354:UAE
6496::
2272:/
1965:.
1938:.
1914:.
1903:^
1887:.
1861:.
1850:^
1826:.
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1788:^
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1976:.
1951:.
1924:.
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1809:.
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