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with a CNC turning center more quickly than can be done with an engine lathe. To some extent too, the CNC turning center has stepped into the region traditionally occupied by the (mechanical) screw machine. CNC screw machines do this to an even greater degree, but they are expensive. In some cases they are vital, yet in others a mechanical machine can match or beat overall performance and profitability. It is not unusual for cam-op automatic lathes to beat CNCs on cycle time. CNC offers many benefits, not least CAD/CAM integration, but the CNC itself usually does not give any inherent speed advantage within the context of an automatic lathe cycle in terms of
623:
262:
756:, so the term "screw-cutting lathe" ceased to stand in contradistinction to other metalworking lathe types as a "special" kind of lathe. Meanwhile, on the wood-screw side, hardware manufacturers had developed for their own in-house use the first fully automatic special-purpose machine tools for the making of screws. The 1760–1840 development arc was a tremendous technological advance, but later advancements would make screws even cheaper and more prevalent yet again. These began in the 1840s with the adaptation of the engine lathe with a turret-head toolholder to create the
793:
Spencer and Vander Woerd in various ways, albeit approaching the problem of automated screw production from a different commercial angle. All of the above machine tools (i.e., screw-cutting lathes; suitably equipped engine lathes and bench lathes; turret lathes; turret-lathe-derived screw machines; and wood-screw-factory screw machines) were sometimes called "screw machines" during this era (logically enough, given that they were machines tailored to screw making). The nomenclatural evolution whereby the term "screw machine" is often used more narrowly than that is
43:
738:, and other trades, but did not make the hardware themselves (purchasing it instead from capital-intensive specialist makers for lower unit cost than they could achieve on their own). These two classes of machine tools simultaneously took the various classes of screws and moved them, for the first time, from the category of expensive, hand-made, seldom-used objects into the category of affordable, often-
631:
159:). As the part is being machined, the entire length of bar stock is rotated with the spindle. When the part is done, it is 'parted' from the bar, the chuck in released, the bar fed forward, and the chuck closed again, ready for the next cycle. The bar-feeding can happen by various means, including pulling-finger tools that grab the bar and pull or roller bar feed that pushes the bar from behind.
35:
846:
displacement of the older technology by CNC has been a long, gradual arc that even today is not a total eclipse. By the 1980s, true CNC screw machines (as opposed to simpler CNC lathes), Swiss-style and non-Swiss, had begun to make serious inroads into the realm of cam-op screw machines. Similarly, CNC chuckers were developed, eventually evolving even into CNC
458:
above an engine lathe, needing greater set-up time but being able to produce a higher volume of product and usually requiring a lower-skilled operator once the set-up process is complete. Screw machines may require an extensive set-up, but once they are running, a single operator can monitor the operation of several machines.
482:
machines that allow profitable production within certain niches reflects the variety of work that exists: some high-volume work remains the province of cam-op; full CNC with all the bells and whistles outcompetes on some flexible low-volume work; and hybrid machines may yield the lowest unit price on mixes in between.
805:, Edwin C. Henn, Reinhold Hakewessel, and George O. Gridley, who developed multiple-spindle variants and who was involved with a succession of corporations (Acme, National, National-Acme, Windsor Machine Company, Acme-Gridley, New Britain-Gridley); Edward P. Bullard Jr, who led the development of the
792:
may have contemporarily independently invented a machine similar to
Spencer's. However, the wood-screw-making machines of the 1840s and 1850s , such as those developed by Cullen Whipple of the New England Screw Company and Thomas J. Sloan of the American Screw Company, had anticipated the machines of
704:
left us with drawings of screw-cutting machines from the 1500s; not all of these designs are known to have been built, but clearly similar machines were a reality during Besson's lifetime. However, it was not until 1760–1800 that these various elements were brought together successfully to create (in
517:
Each station may have multiple tools that cut the material in sequence. The tools are usually arranged in several axes, such as turret (rotary indexing), horizontal slide (linear indexing), and vertical slide (linear indexing). The linear groups are called "gangs". The operation of all these tools is
481:
also build hybrid machines that are part CNC and part old-school control (some stations are CNC while others are cam-op or actuated with simple hydraulic cycles). This lets shops with certain mixes of work derive competitive advantage from the lower cost compared with all-CNC machines. The variety of
594:
can rapidly cut or roll-form threads on outside diameters. A non-releasing tap holder with a tap can quickly cut inside diameters but it requires single spindle machines to reverse into high speed in order for the tap to be removed from the work. Threading and tapping speed (low speed) is typically
536:
In a single-spindle machine, these four operations would most likely be performed sequentially, with four cross-slides each coming into position in turn to perform their operation. In a multi-spindle machine, each station corresponds to a stage in the production sequence through which each piece is
123:
Since the maturation of CNC, the implicit dichotomy of "manual versus automatic" still exists, but because CNC is so ubiquitous, the term "automatic" has lost some of its distinguishing power. All CNC machine tools are automatic, but the usage in the machining industries does not routinely call them
461:
The advent of the CNC lathe (or more properly, CNC turning center) has blurred these distinct levels of production to some extent. The CNC turning center most appropriately fits in the mid-range of production, replacing the turret lathe. However, it is often possible to produce a single component
845:
The development of numerical control was the next major leap in the history of automatic lathes—and it is also what changed the paradigm of what the "manual versus automatic" distinction meant. Beginning in the 1950s, NC lathes began to replace manual lathes and cam-op screw machines, although the
817:
and his brother Ernest, who further refined the Fay lathe and developed the automatic screw thread grinder. Meanwhile, engineers in
Switzerland were also developing new manually and automatically controlled lathes. The technological developments in America and Switzerland flowed rapidly into other
609:
Rotary broaching is another common operation. The broach holder is mounted stationary while its internal live spindle and end cutting broach tool are driven by the workpiece. As the broach is fed into or around the workpiece, the broach's contact points are constantly changing, easily creating the
578:. A form tool has the form or contour of the final part but in reverse, so it cuts the material leaving the desired component shape. This contrasts to a single-point tool, which cuts on one point at a time and the shape of the component is dictated by the motion of the tool rather than its shape.
425:
Cam-operated chuckers are fading into history faster than most other non-CNC machine tool classes. This is because the few companies that have them tend to be forced to continually adapt to the latest state of the art (today all CNC) to compete and survive. Cam-op chuckers may be more likely to be
644:
The history of automatic lathes in industrial contexts began with screw machines, and that history can only be truly understood within the context of screw making in general. Thus the discussion below begins with a simple overview of screw making in prior centuries, and how it evolved into 19th-,
457:
In the hierarchy of manufacturing machines, the screw machine sits at the top when large product volumes are needed. An engine lathe sits at the bottom, taking the least time to set up but the most skilled labor and time to actually produce a part. A turret lathe has traditionally been one step
800:
Spencer patented his idea in 1873; but his patent failed to protect the cam drum, which
Spencer called the 'brain wheel'. Therefore, many other people quickly took up the idea. Later important developers of fully automatic lathes included S. L. Worsley, who developed a single-spindle machine for
379:
An automatic chucking machine is similar to an automatic screw machine; both use spindles in production. The use of spindles, which are able to drill, bore and cut the workpiece, allows several functions simultaneously on both machines. A key difference between the machines is that the automatic
246:
Screw machines, being the class of automatic lathes for small- to medium-sized parts, are used in the high-volume manufacture of a vast variety of turned components. During the Swiss screw machining process, the workpiece is supported with a guide bushing, near the cutting tool.
414:. They are limited in their economic niches to high-volume production of large parts, which tends to occur only at relatively few companies (compared to smaller work that may be done by small businesses). The market for such machine tools does not generally include local
258:, which means that once they are set up and started, they continue running and producing parts with little human intervention. Mechanical automation came first, beginning in the 1870s; computerized control (via first NC and then CNC) came later, beginning in the 1950s.
729:
practice, whereas the wood-screw-making machines fed into the just-dawning evolution of the modern hardware industry, that is, the concept of one factory supplying the needs of thousands of customers, who consumed screws in growing quantities for
505:
An automatic lathe may have a single spindle or multiple spindles. Each spindle contains a bar or blank of material that is being machined simultaneously. A common configuration is six spindles. The cage that holds these six bars of material
293:
has changed with changing technology. Any use of the term prior to the 1840s, if it occurred, would have referred ad hoc to any machine tool used to produce screws. That is, there would have been no established differentiation from the term
691:
combined some of these elements into screw-making machines that presaged the industrial era to follow. For example, various medieval inventors whose names are lost to history clearly worked on the problem, as shown by
Wolfegg Castle's
454:(turning centers) and CNC screw machines. However, they are still commonly in operation, and for high-volume production of turned components it is still often true that nothing is as cost-efficient as a mechanical screw machine.
265:
Brown & Sharpe No. 1 wire feed screw machine. B&S persisted in calling manually operated turret lathes "screw machines" long after most machinists were reserving that term to refer specifically to cam-op
124:
by that term. The term "automatic", when it is used at all, still often refers implicitly to cam-operated machines. Thus a 2-axis CNC lathe is not referred to as an "automatic lathe" even if fully automated.
789:
69:
in the 1950s, the term automatic lathe has generally been used for only mechanically controlled lathes, although some manufacturers (e.g., DMG Mori and
Tsugami) market Swiss-type CNC lathes as 'automatic'.
683:, slide rests geared direct to spindles, and "change gear" gear trains) were developed over the centuries, with some of those elements being quite ancient. Various sparks of inventive power during the
470:
is part of the calculation—not least because most cam-op machines are long since paid for, whereas a late-model CNC machine has hefty monthly payments). Businesses relying on cam-op machines are still
206:). Regarding bar work of large diameter (for example, 150 millimetres (5.9 in) or more), it is merely an academic point whether it is called "screw machine work" or just "automatic work".
388:. While a screw machine is limited to around 80 millimetres (3.1 in) practice, automatic chuckers are available that can handle up to 300 millimetres (12 in) chucks. The chucks are
717:
screws, with easy selection of various pitches) and the first high-volume-production, specialized, single-purpose machine tools for the production of screws, which were created to produce
1419:
340:
no longer was used to refer to manual or semi-automatic turret lathes, having become reserved for one class of machine, the fully mechanically automated type. This narrow meaning of
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cutting for such medium- and high-volume repetitive production. Then, in the 1870s, the turret lathe's part-cutting cycle (sequence of movements) was automated by being put under
501:
screw machine. Notice the six station turret, the front and rear slides, and the two vertical slides. Also notice the black shaft just over the turret for use of swing stop.
932:
1147:
648:
Humans have been making screws since ancient times. For most of those centuries, screw making generally involved custom cutting of the threads of each screw by hand (via
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By way of example: a bar of material is fed forward through the spindle. The face of the bar is machined (facing operation). The outside of the bar is machined to shape (
328:
applied to the earlier machines. Within 15 years, the entire part-cutting cycle had been mechanically automated, and machines of the 1860 type were retronymously called
348:
continued to call some of their hand-operated turret lathe models "screw machines", but most machinists reserved the term for automatics.) Within this class called
1412:
73:
CNC has not yet entirely displaced mechanically automated lathes, as although no longer in production, many mechanically automated lathes remain in service.
359:
With the advent of NC, screw machines diverged into two classes, mechanical and NC. This distinction continues today with mechanical screw machines and
182:. The 'chucker' part of the name comes from the workpieces being discrete blanks, held in a bin called a "magazine", and each one takes a turn at being
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or tool-changing speed. There are many variables involved in answering the question of which is best for a particular part at a particular company. (
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of engineers, setup hands, and operators). There, local innovators also developed further tooling for the machines and built clone machine models.
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1327:
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Between 1800 and 1840, on the machine-screw side, it became common practice to build all of the relevant screw-cutting machine elements into
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controlled cutting process. Automatic lathes were first developed in the 1870s and were mechanically controlled. From the advent of NC and
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is rarely if ever performed; it is too time-consuming for the short cycle times that are typical of screw machines. A self-releasing
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Well-known brands of such machines have included
National-Acme, Hardinge, New Britain, New Britain-Gridley, Acme-Gridley, Davenport,
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910:
622:
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knee mill", virtually no one can afford to keep and use them for sentimental reasons alone. As with most nondigital commercial
760:. This development greatly reduced the time, effort, and skill needed from the machine operator to produce each machine screw.
431:
407:
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81:
The term "automatic lathe" is still often used in manufacturing in its earlier sense, referring to automated lathes of non-
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around a mandrel (such as a stick or metal rod) or carving a tree branch that had been spirally wrapped by a vine.
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chucker handles larger work, which due to its size is more often chucking work and less often bar work. The
1219:
574:. This contrasts with the cutting that is performed on an engine lathe where the cutting tool is usually a
537:
then cycled, all operations occurring simultaneously, but on different pieces of work, in the manner of an
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even in today's CNC-filled environment; they just need to be vigilant and smart about keeping it that way.
27:
This article is about mechanically automated lathes. For CNC lathes and their technological offshoots, see
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gets its turn at being chambered.) The blanks are either individual forgings or castings, or they are pre-
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can play a tune automatically. According to Rolt (1965), the first person to develop such a machine was
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312:. In 1860, when some of the movements, such as turret indexing, were mechanically automated, the term
135:. These machines work on parts that (as a rough guide only) are up to 80 millimetres (3.1 in) in
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1643:
1318:
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by itself is still often understood in context to imply a mechanical screw machine, so the retronym
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and machined. (This is analogous to the way that each round of ammunition in the magazine of a
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An early automatic screw machines built by
Charles Vander Woerd for the American Watch Company
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Automatic chuckers are a class of machine tool specialized to narrow industry niches, such as
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101:, the "automatic" in the term "automatic machine tool" always referred implicitly to
850:. These machine tools are little known outside the automotive manufacturing sector.
336:, and eventually, in the usage of most people in the machining industries, the term
286:. However, the archetypal use for which screw machines were named was screw-making.
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198:. However, some members of this family of machine tools turn bar work or work on
120:, the term "automatic lathe" referred to mechanical screw machines and chuckers.
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254:, all screw machines are fully automated, whether mechanically (via cams) or by
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and 300 millimetres (12 in) in length. Screw machines almost invariably do
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types. The first automatic lathes were mechanically automated and controlled by
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332:. From that time on, machines with fully automated cycles were usually called
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after each machining operation is complete. The indexing is reminiscent of a
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scrapped than other types of non-CNC machine tools. Unlike with "Grandpa's
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392:. Many of these machines are multispindle (more than one main spindle).
127:
Small- to medium-sized cam-operated automatic lathes are usually called
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611:
522:
191:
490:
1549:
933:""How it Works" series: Competing Successfully Using Older Equipment"
819:
749:, from intra-company to inter-company to national to international).
725:. Screw-cutting lathes fed into the just-dawning evolution of modern
156:
1203:
544:
356:
versus multispindle, horizontal-turret versus vertical-turret, etc.
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1373:
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1319:
One Good Turn: A Natural
History of the Screwdriver and the Screw
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680:
657:
1401:
1221:
James
Hartness: A Representative of the Machine Age at Its Best
450:
Mechanical screw machines have been replaced to some extent by
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that potentially lent themselves to screw making (such as the
255:
66:
705:
contemporaneous parallel) two new types of machine tool: the
250:
Speaking with reference to the normal definition of the term
1388:
YouTube video showing a 1965 cam-op screw machine in action.
985:"The Automatic Chucker: Its Place In The Machining Industry"
556:
for a Brown & Sharpe screw machine, Sq-base 542 Series.
818:
industrialized countries (via routes such as machine tool
222:
screw machine. Model #2 Square Base, four-slide machine. 1
1350:
Various republications (paperback, e-book, braille, etc).
1206:); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois (
1115:
570:
For the machining of complex shapes, it is common to use
1056:
1054:
926:
924:
922:
533:, and finally, the part is cut off (parting operation).
162:
Larger cam-operated automatic lathes are usually called
1198:. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (
1029:
1027:
634:
Inside the enclosure of a CNC Swiss-style screw machine
344:
remained stable from about the 1890s until the 1950s. (
308:
was applied to them in overlapping usage with the term
610:
desired form. The most common form made this way is a
1172:
A.S.M.E. mechanical catalog and directory, Volume 11
1075:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1393:
YouTube video showing another cam-op screw machine.
1278:
Tools for the Job: a Short
History of Machine Tools
384:was a variant that specialized in turning work on
1189:, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press,
809:; F.C. Fay and Otto A. Schaum, who developed the
49:, a vertical, multispindle automatic lathe, 1914.
960:"Swiss Turning Capabilities | Ardel Engineering"
108:The earliest mechanically automated lathes were
877:
875:
794:
278:, as screw machines can make parts other than
1413:
1125:
1123:
8:
1358:(3rd ed.), New York: Industrial Press,
1265:, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: MIT Press,
903:Page 91, heading "Swiss-type screw machines"
1175:, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
1154:, American Precision Museum, archived from
931:Donohue, Barbara (November–December 2010),
656:). Other ancient methods involved wrapping
1420:
1406:
1398:
1060:
1045:
1033:
363:. However, in shop-floor jargon, the term
1226:American Society of Mechanical Engineers
1010:"Hybrid Multi-Spindle: Look Ma, No Cams"
859:
399:(a vertical multispindle variant), and
901:, New York: Industrial Press, p.
772:control, in a way very similar to how
747:interchangeability developed gradually
352:there were variations, such as single-
304:were developed in the 1840s, the term
7:
1103:
1079:
866:
116:. In industrial contexts during the
53:In metalworking and woodworking, an
1129:
1091:
899:Handbook of Manufacturing Processes
881:
518:similar to that on a turret lathe.
446:Choice of machines and control type
1186:English and American Tool Builders
1146:American Precision Museum (1982),
645:20th-, and 21st-century practice.
477:In the multispindle segment, some
25:
1262:A Short History of Machine Tools
1299:, Kent State University Press,
1296:Cleveland: the making of a city
1148:"Edward P. Bullard (1872–1953)"
983:MachineSales.com (2013-08-20).
721:screws at high volume and low
696:(written circa 1475–1490), and
18:Screw machine (automatic lathe)
1116:American Precision Museum 1982
1:
1008:Koepfer, Chris (2014-08-18),
826:articles and advertisements;
1218:Roe, Joseph Wickham (1937),
834:to regional events; and the
614:in the end of a cap screw.
289:The definition of the term
1687:
1280:, London: B. T. Batsford,
1274:. Co-edition published as
637:
602:
371:is not consistently used.
316:was applied, and the term
93:. Thus, before electronic
38:Fay automatic lathe, 1921.
26:
1583:
1440:
1152:Machine Tool Hall of Fame
782:Christopher Miner Spencer
164:automatic chucking lathes
1624:Machine and metalworking
1356:CNC Programming Handbook
964:www.ardelengineering.com
848:rotary transfer machines
764:was forgone in favor of
525:operation). The bar is
369:mechanical screw machine
334:automatic screw machines
133:automatic screw machines
1634:Measuring and alignment
1545:Rotary transfer machine
1276:Rolt, L. T. C. (1965),
937:Today's Machining World
314:automatic screw machine
1530:Oxy-fuel cutting torch
1293:Rose, William (1990),
897:Bralla, James (2007),
635:
627:
588:single-point threading
557:
502:
410:part suppliers to the
267:
243:
151:and is gripped by the
143:, meaning a length of
50:
39:
807:Bullard Mult-Au-Matic
713:-style production of
633:
625:
547:
493:
479:machine tool builders
430:lathe" or "Dad's old
397:Bullard Mult-Au-Matic
264:
217:
188:semi-automatic pistol
47:Bullard Mult-Au-Matic
45:
37:
1599:Cutting and abrasive
1354:Smid, Peter (2008),
1014:Production Machining
958:Engineering, Ardel.
790:Charles Vander Woerd
595:1/5 the high speed.
401:Thomas Ryder and Son
322:manual screw machine
77:General nomenclature
1181:Roe, Joseph Wickham
1106:, pp. 564–565.
1094:, pp. 103–108.
1082:, pp. 169–170.
943:(9), archived from
811:Fay automatic lathe
707:screw-cutting lathe
586:Unlike on a lathe,
494:Close up view of a
438:machinery (such as
412:automotive industry
382:Fay automatic lathe
297:screw-cutting lathe
218:Brown & Sharpe
204:Fay automatic lathe
147:passes through the
1314:Rybczynski, Witold
803:Brown & Sharpe
694:Medieval Housebook
636:
628:
558:
503:
496:Brown & Sharpe
420:tool and die shops
361:CNC screw machines
346:Brown & Sharpe
318:hand screw machine
268:
244:
172:automatic chuckers
114:rose engine lathes
51:
40:
1658:
1657:
1329:978-0-684-86729-8
1306:978-0-87338-428-5
1212:978-0-917914-73-7
1063:, pp. 75–78.
1048:, pp. 75–99.
1036:, pp. 87–97.
709:(for low-volume,
698:Leonardo da Vinci
576:single-point tool
440:Linotype machines
375:Automatic chucker
274:is somewhat of a
99:numerical control
16:(Redirected from
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1671:Automatic lathes
1485:Grinding machine
1455:Ball-peen hammer
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599:Rotary broaching
554:Seconds Gear Box
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282:or that are not
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110:geometric lathes
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1061:Rybczynski 2000
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1046:Rybczynski 2000
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1034:Rybczynski 2000
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795:discussed above
762:Single-pointing
740:interchangeable
642:
640:geometric lathe
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89:or tracers and
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1589:Types of tools
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1382:External links
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1257:Rolt, L. T. C.
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947:on 2011-02-17.
918:
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815:Ralph Flanders
736:cabinet making
702:Jacques Besson
619:
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603:Main article:
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499:Single Spindle
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350:screw machines
330:semi-automatic
220:Single Spindle
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1169:ASME (1921),
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1158:on 2010-08-07
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323:
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302:turret lathes
299:
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1570:Turret lathe
1510:Machine tool
1449:
1433:metalworking
1355:
1322:, Scribner,
1317:
1295:
1277:
1261:
1224:, New York:
1220:
1185:
1171:
1160:, retrieved
1156:the original
1151:
1140:Bibliography
1111:
1099:
1087:
1041:
1017:
1013:
1003:
992:. Retrieved
988:
978:
967:. Retrieved
963:
953:
945:the original
940:
936:
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844:
799:
758:turret lathe
751:
727:machine shop
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714:
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368:
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251:
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179:
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157:collet chuck
140:
132:
128:
126:
122:
112:, including
107:
105:automation.
102:
80:
72:
54:
52:
1649:Woodworking
1555:Tap and die
1515:Metal lathe
1480:Gear shaper
1465:Drill press
1445:Arbor press
828:trade shows
786:New England
774:music boxes
689:Renaissance
685:Middle Ages
512:Gatling gun
436:typesetting
266:automatics.
202:(e.g., the
155:(usually a
118:Machine Age
91:pantographs
1374:2007045901
1248:HathiTrust
1246:link from
1162:2010-11-29
994:2018-03-12
969:2018-03-12
886:p. 276 ff.
854:References
840:emigration
788:inventor.
723:unit price
677:slide rest
638:See also:
572:form tools
566:Form tools
561:Operations
452:CNC lathes
432:Bridgeport
428:South Bend
194:pieces of
176:automatics
103:mechanical
95:automation
1500:Jig borer
1346:462234518
1104:Rose 1990
1080:Rolt 1965
867:ASME 1921
743:commodity
732:carpentry
673:leadscrew
650:whittling
582:Threading
472:competing
416:job shops
270:The name
242:Air Feed.
145:bar stock
1665:Category
1604:Forestry
1594:Cleaning
1565:Tool bit
1470:End mill
1338:00036988
1316:(2000),
1286:65080822
1259:(1965),
1234:37016470
1204:27-24075
1195:16011753
1183:(1916),
1130:Roe 1937
1092:Roe 1937
882:Roe 1916
836:turnover
766:die head
711:toolroom
663:Various
592:die head
550:Lead Cam
548:View of
468:Overhead
284:threaded
232:cap or 1
180:chuckers
141:bar work
137:diameter
61:with an
1629:Masonry
1619:Kitchen
1490:Hacksaw
1429:Machine
1242:3456642
830:, from
820:exports
745:. (The
715:machine
618:History
527:drilled
523:turning
508:indexes
386:centers
354:spindle
300:. When
276:metonym
237:⁄
227:⁄
200:centers
184:chucked
149:spindle
1639:Mining
1609:Garden
1575:Welder
1550:Shaper
1535:Planer
1460:Broach
1372:
1362:
1344:
1336:
1326:
1303:
1284:
1271:250074
1269:
1240:
1232:
1210:
1202:
1193:
909:
675:, the
671:, the
654:filing
486:Design
280:screws
196:billet
1644:Power
1505:Lathe
1435:tools
681:gears
669:lathe
531:bored
178:, or
153:chuck
59:lathe
57:is a
1614:Hand
1525:Mill
1431:and
1370:LCCN
1360:ISBN
1342:OCLC
1334:LCCN
1324:ISBN
1301:ISBN
1282:LCCN
1267:OCLC
1238:OCLC
1230:LCCN
1208:ISBN
1200:LCCN
1191:LCCN
1020:(9).
907:ISBN
838:and
784:, a
776:and
719:wood
700:and
687:and
658:wire
552:and
324:was
192:sawn
97:via
87:cams
1495:Hob
770:cam
652:or
529:or
442:).
418:or
408:OEM
320:or
256:CNC
131:or
83:CNC
67:CNC
1667::
1368:,
1340:,
1332:,
1236:,
1228:,
1214:).
1150:,
1122:^
1068:^
1053:^
1026:^
1018:14
1016:,
1012:,
987:.
962:.
939:,
935:,
921:^
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884:,
874:^
822:;
813:;
797:.
734:,
679:,
541:.
514:.
422:.
403:.
174:,
170:,
166:,
1421:e
1414:t
1407:v
1376:.
1348:.
1289:.
1250:.
1244:.
997:.
972:.
941:6
915:.
869:.
239:4
235:3
229:2
225:1
31:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
