589:. Their sentences read that "Petty sea robbers sent by the great robber falsely; they come to spy out our country; let them die in pillories as robbers." Ming officials forced Pires to write letters for them, demanding that the Portuguese restore the deposed Malaccan Sultan back to his throne. The Malay ambassador, who refused to leave fearing that the Portuguese would kill him, was forced to take the letters with him on a junk to Patani. It left Guangzhou on 31 May 1523, and brought back an urgent request for help against the Portuguese from the Malay Sultan. Dom Sancho Henriques' forces were attacking Bintang and Patani. When they received his reply, the Chinese officials sentenced the Portuguese embassy to death. On 23 September 1523, 23 Portuguese were executed by slicing their bodies into multiple pieces, and their private parts were stuffed into their mouths. When more Portuguese ships landed and were seized, the Chinese executed them as well, cutting off the genitalia and beheading the bodies and forcing their fellow Portuguese to wear the body parts, while the Chinese celebrated with music. The genitalia and heads were strung up for display in public, after which they were discarded.
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1568 when they aided the Ming in fighting off a hundred pirate ships. The nature of Wang Bo's business transactions were almost discovered by imperial observers in 1571, but the vice-commissioner obfuscated the payments by identifying them as "ground rent" made to the imperial treasury. Macau's merchant oligarchs continued to bribe their
Mandarin overseers and in this way the settlement persisted. The most important incident of bribery occurred in 1582 when the viceroy of Guangdong and Guangxi summoned Macau's chief officials for a meeting. Remembering the fate of Tome Pires decades earlier, Macau's leaders chose an elderly judge and Italian Jesuit to go in their place. The viceroy raged at the Macau representatives, accusing them of conducting governance in contravention of Ming law, and threatened to destroy the colony and evict all Portuguese from Macau. His attitude changed dramatically after the two presented him with 4,000 cruzados worth of presents. In his words: "The foreigners, subjects to the laws of the Empire, may continue to inhabit Macao."
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heavy arrow and gun fire while replying with powerful cannon salvos, matchlock fire, and hurling gunpowder bombs. In the rear, two smaller carracks got separated, and on Diogo de Mello's carrack a gunpowder barrel keg was lit by a cannon shot and exploded. Another account says it was an accident. The ship sank. Portuguese chronicler João de Barros writes, "The first sign that victory would be given to the enemy came in the form of a spark getting into the powder carried by Diogo de Mello, which blew the decks of his vessel into the air. He and the hull went to the bottom together." Diogo's brother was devastated, writing, "I saw one of the vessels burst into flames and go down to the bottom, with nothing left alive or dead that we could see, and it was my brother Diogo de Mello's vessel, and with him went fifteen or twenty members of my father's household, and of mine, who had gone with him." Pedro Homem, the captain of the other small
458:, and blatantly ignored the Ming emperor's authority by building a fort at Tunmen, after his request for Tunmen was denied. Although buying and selling children was common practice in the region, the Portuguese chronicler João de Barros concluded that they had been seized without knowledge from their parents and even came from noble families. Even children from well off families were sold and found years later at Diu in western India. Rumors that Simao and other Portuguese were cannibalizing children for food spread across China. Besides aggressive trading through force of arms and abducting and selling Chinese men, women, and children into slavery, Simao also encouraged "robbers, kidnappers, and all sorts of wickedness." Other foreigners such as
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Portuguese water expedition, and pinned them down with artillery fire for an hour before Mello ordered his men to abandon the water barrels and immediately re-embark. The Ming fleet gave chase as the
Portuguese made their way back to their ships, forcing them to detach extra weight and abandon their anchors to make a break for deep water, all the while firing volleys of shrapnel and matchlock fire to keep the Chinese boarding parties at bay. When they reached their ships, the Ming fleet gave up chase as the carracks out ranged them and proceeded to bombard their fleet. According to Mello, they came back with "blood instead of water."
525:("trade"), and remained outside their effective range, occasionally firing their bombards on the Portuguese ships to no effect. That night, the Portuguese captured 5 fishermen, who were given a reward and told by de Mello to deliver a message to the captain of the Ming fleet the following morning, stating that he intended to trade and offer compensation for any past misdoings of his countrymen. Mello received no reply. The following night, the Portuguese again sent two envoys to the Chinese fleet, but were met with a brief bombardment.
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478:. Ming officials were notified of the Portuguese conquest of Malacca by the Sultan, who called the Portuguese "sea robbers," and were displeased. As the sultanate was a tributary of the Ming dynasty, the emperor demanded that the Portuguese withdraw from Malacca and restore the Malay sultan to the throne. Chinese authorities were suspicious of the Portuguese explanation that they conquered Malacca due to "the local ruler's tyrannies against the Chinese," even though the Chinese residents of Malacca had fully supported the
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shooting a few shots, with their drums and gongs, placing themselves in front of the port that I intended to reach." Mello gave orders not to return fire as his goal was peace, but he wrote that "it pained me that I could not shoot them." As the Ming fleet closed in on the junk ship of António do Rego however, he opened fire, making the
Chinese fall back with Rego abandoning formation to give chase. Immediately he was signaled from the flagship to return to formation and was later reprehended by Martim Afonso.
451:. Since Mello's mission was primarily commercial and diplomatic, his vessels carried mainly small caliber cannon, and barely any heavy guns; furthermore, two-thirds of his crew had perished during the long voyage to Malacca. He arrived there in July 1522 where he came across skepticism towards his mission from the local Portuguese, who had been trading in China for several years, and informed him of the tensions in China.
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carrack was burnt to prevent the
Chinese from capturing it. Afterwards, Martim Afonso de Mello gathered a council with his captains, in which he expressed his intentions of renewing battle the following day, but the rest of the captains saw it as a pointless exercise and objected. The Portuguese then proceeded to Malacca, and despite being off-season, encountered favourable winds that carried them to the
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tributary, to the Sultan. When Pires arrived he was put in chains and kept in prison. He was never released. Prior to Pires' arrival other
Portuguese had been executed by beating, strangling, and other forms of torture. Ming officials confiscated from the Portuguese embassy "twenty quintals of rhubarb, one thousand five hundred or six hundred rich pieces of silk."
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616:, a pirate base off the coast of Zhejiang. In 1549 the Portuguese abandoned their goods after realizing the new administration had made it impossible for them to conduct business, and moved further south to Guangdong. Zhu Wan's success was short-lived, and he was convicted of wrongful executions by his enemies the same year. He eventually committed suicide.
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troops followed and advanced in good order." According to
Portuguese sources, Pedro Homem put up an admirable fight, being "in stature one of the largest men of Portugal, and his spirit of bravery and physical strength were different from the common man." He was the last to fall for he wore European plate armour and kept the Chinese at bay with a heavy
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Mello detached two armed craft to return to Duarte Coelho and escort him, but could not breach the
Chinese blockade. Irritated, Mello finally decided to confront the Chinese, but was rebuffed by his captains who thought that they should remain passive instead. Several days passed by until Duarte Coelho eventually decided to depart for Malacca.
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The new
Portuguese trading presence in Guangdong got off to a solid start in 1554 when the merchants Leonel de Sousa and Simão d'Almeida offered bribes to Wang Bo, the vice-commissioner for maritime defense. After a pleasant reception from the Portuguese merchants on their ships, the two sides agreed
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were prevented from conducting trade until the
Portuguese had finished their own business. They refused to pay customs duties and abused an official who had complained about their behavior. The Portuguese were also accused of robbing foreign ships. Simao's pirating activities greatly angered both the
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retaliation, and in 1524 constructed a new fleet of war junks in preparation for future
Portuguese incursions. However, the attacks were not forthcoming, and the fleet was left to decay. The new fleet's ships were either scuttled or captured by pirates. By 1528 no new ships were being constructed.
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Back on board but lacking enough water, de Mello decided to retreat and return to Malacca. Fourteen days after arriving on the Pearl River delta, the Portuguese weighed anchor and prepared to run the Chinese blockade. The two heavy carracks in the front cleared a path through the Ming fleet amidst
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as well as levying the imperial duty of 20 percent on only half their products. Following 1557 the Portuguese were no longer asked to leave Macau during winter. The Portuguese ambassador Diogo Pereira arrived in 1563 to normalize relations. Portuguese presence in Macau was further strengthened in
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In the meantime, the two heavy carracks and António do Rego's junk ship successfully repelled all boarding attempts, forcing the Chinese to abandon pursuit with severe losses. Only by night fall did the wind allow the Portuguese to return to the drifting carrack and rescue its last survivor. The
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immediately ordered the sails to be furled and a craft set out to rescue the castaways, but they were faced with artillery fire from the Ming fleet and were then boarded until all the Portuguese were killed or captured. On the Chinese side, "Pan Ding-gou (潘丁苟) … was first to board, and the other
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For the remaining Portuguese, their greatest concern became their dwindling water reserves. Mello armed four boats with cannons and personally led them ashore to fill the barrels with water. Such a move did not go unnoticed by the Ming fleet, which detached several oar ships to give chase to the
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On the third night, a craft from Duarte Coelho's junk ship managed to run the blockade under cover of darkness and reach the fleet, and stated that Duarte Coelho had his ship sheltered behind an island close by, but would not join the fleet because of the Chinese, unless they came to his aid. De
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towards Guangzhou before the end of July. They were promptly confronted by a Ming fleet led by Ke Rong and Wang Ying'en, which proceeded to fire warning shots at the Portuguese. According to Mello, "They just wanted to demonstrate their power ... doing nothing more than going in front of me and
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On 1 January 1524, Jorge de Albuquerque wrote a letter to the King of Portugal requesting him to send the captain-major, because he feared that the Chinese would send a fleet to Malacca and punish the Portuguese for destroying the Sultanate. The Chinese on their part feared possible Portuguese
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awaiting an audience with the emperor. However, when reports of Portuguese piracy and the seizure of Malacca reached Beijing, the embassy was sent back to Guangzhou. They were detained there and offered their freedom on the condition that the Portuguese returned Malacca, which had been a Ming
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but was blockaded by a Ming fleet despite his offers of amends. After two weeks without being able to gain a foothold in China they decided to run the blockade and managed to escape with the loss of two ships and several dozen men. The battle was fought off the northwestern coast of
412:, and preventing other foreigners from trading in China. Portuguese traders were executed in China and a Portuguese embassy was arrested, with their freedom promised on the condition that the Portuguese returned Malacca to its sultan. Martim Afonso de Mello arrived at the
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until he was eventually taken down by a cannon shot. His death is corroborated by Portuguese sources, which say that " fighting was such that if it hadn't been for the shots of artillery, he never would have died, so great was the fear of the Chinese to approach him."
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The Chinese killed almost everyone on board the carrack and made several prisoners before abandoning it, taking with them the cannon and even the ropes, anchors, and pulleys. A sole survivor was left behind - a sailor that had taken refuge on the crow's nest.
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coastline for the next thirty years with the aid of corrupt local merchants with official connections. They formed a group of smugglers and pirates composed of Fujianese, Japanese, and Portuguese mariners. However this came to a stop with the appointment of
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After the battle, Wang Hong presented 20 captured Portuguese cannons and other firearms to the imperial court. He Ru was ordered to begin manufacturing breech-loading cannons in the same style as the captured Portuguese
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1442:"Confrontos militares navais nos mares do Sul e da China: razões dos primeiros insucessos das armadas portuguesa" in Nos Mares da China. A propósito da chegada de Jorge Álvares, em 1513
482:. The problem was further compounded by the illegality of overseas Chinese trade under Ming law, making them even more suspicious. The Chinese responded by blockading the Portuguese.
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coast guard and a Portuguese fleet led by Martim Afonso de Mello that occurred in 1522. The Ming court threatened to expel Portuguese traders from China after receiving news that the
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Forty two men were captured and taken into custody by the Chinese. On 6 December 1522, Portuguese prisoners were exposed to the public in pillories in
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In 1524 the Chinese sent the Malay ambassadors Tuan Mohammed and Cojacao back to Bintang with messages for the Portuguese. They got lost at sea.
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of Portugal wished to establish diplomatic and commercial relations with China, in April 1521, the new governor of Portuguese India
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Nevertheless, Mello departed at once with two more trade junks belonging to Duarte Coelho and Ambrósio do Rego joining the fleet.
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to a payment of 500 taels per year made personally to Wang Bo in return for allowing the Portuguese to settle in
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Chinese Character Database: With Word-formations Phonologically Disambiguated According to the Cantonese Dialect
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Chinese people and the court, which led Ming officials to order the eviction of the Tunmen Portuguese.
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Initially Mello's expedition experienced a storm but survived and successfully sailed up the
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Matteo Ricci and the Catholic Mission to China, 1583–1610: A Short History with Documents
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Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for the year ..., Volumes 27-28
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The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History
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Sino Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644: A Synthesis of Portuguese and Chinese Sources
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The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, Part 2; Parts 1368-1644
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edited by Manuel Lopes de Almeida, Porto, Lello & Irmão, 1979, book 2 ch. 106
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China and Maritime Europe, 1500–1800: Trade, Settlement, Diplomacy, and Missions
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Portuguese Sea Battles - Volume II - Christianity, Commerce and Corso 1522-1538
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Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volumes 26-27
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Proceedings of the International Colloquium on the Portuguese and the Pacific
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We are Not Pirates: Portugal, China, and the Pirates of Coloane(Macao), 1910
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Embassies to China: Diplomacy and Cultural Encounters Before the Opium Wars
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Despite hostilities, the Portuguese continued to trade and raid along the
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Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I: The Century of Discovery Book 2
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578:" in Chinese. He Ru was promoted in 1523 and completed the first
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in 1547 as special grand coordinator to stamp out piracy in
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do Descobrimento e Conquista da Índia pelos Portugueses
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441:Martim Afonso de Mello, tasked with constructing a
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612:and Fujian. In 1548 Zhu Wan carried out a raid on
1336:Foundations of the Portuguese Empire: 1415 - 1580
632:also improved relations with the Portuguese and
574:, which were called "Folangji" (佛郎機), meaning "
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32:
2109:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
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1180:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 620–.
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1240:. Stanford University Press. pp. 36–.
1237:A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200
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1377:, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated
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1201:J. M. Barwise; Nicholas J. White (2002).
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1479:, a publication from 1894, now in the
1460:, a publication from 1895, now in the
1205:A Traveller's History of Southeast Asia
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509:A heavy 16th century Portuguese carrack
2060:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty
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907:Fernão Lopes de Castanheda, 1552–1561
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470:The Portuguese had also conquered the
1177:Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: F-O
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1475:This article incorporates text from
1456:This article incorporates text from
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269:Battle of Sincouwaan (Eastern China)
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2259:Battles involving the Ming dynasty
1317:Firearms: A Global History to 1700
400:), was a naval battle between the
25:
2269:Naval battles involving Portugal
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260:
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1695:Japanese missions to Ming China
1412:The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires
1338:, University of Minnesota Press
144:Martim Afonso de Mello Coutinho
1569:Campaign against the Uriankhai
1319:, Cambridge University Press,
1272:, Princeton University Press,
1234:Merle Calvin Ricklefs (2001).
1174:Tony Jaques (1 January 2007).
382:
373:
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1:
2299:Military history of Guangdong
2264:Naval battles involving China
1629:Campaigns against the Mongols
1395:, University of Chicago Press
1291:, University of Hawai'i Press
437:was dispatched together with
18:Second Battle of Tamao (1522)
2167:Covered jar with carp design
1783:Transition from Ming to Qing
1440:Rodrigues, Vítor G. (2016),
1434:, Cambridge University Press
1424:, Cambridge University Press
1420:Twitchett, Denis C. (1998),
1414:, Asian Educational Services
1400:Monteiro, Saturnino (1995),
1209:. Interlink Books. pp.
27:Naval battle in Asia in 1522
2314:2nd millennium in Hong Kong
2162:Ming presentation porcelain
1761:Japanese invasions of Korea
670:Western imperialism in Asia
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2024:Compilations and Documents
1655:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
1344:Dutra, Francis A. (1995),
1334:Diffie, Bailey W. (1977),
1287:Antony, Robert J. (2017),
572:breech-loading swivel guns
397:Batalha da Ilha da Veniaga
2304:Military history of Macau
2157:Chinese lacquerware table
1919:Embroidered Uniform Guard
1680:Prince of Anhua rebellion
1373:Hsia, R. Po-chia (2016),
1356:Macau History and Society
320:
272:Show map of Eastern China
241:Location within Hong Kong
214:
197:
158:
121:
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37:
2284:China–Portugal relations
2220:Great Ming Treasure Note
2099:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum
1882:Administrative divisions
1685:Prince of Ning rebellion
1382:Keevak, Michael (2017),
1296:Chang, Tien Tse (1978),
388:Battle of Veniaga Island
133:Wang Ying'en (王應恩)
2039:The Hundred-word Eulogy
1705:Great Rites Controversy
1559:Ming conquest of Yunnan
1430:Wills, John E. (2011),
1391:Lach, David F. (1994),
1315:Chase, Kenneth (2003),
665:Fernão Pires de Andrade
487:Fernão Pires de Andrade
314:Ming–European Conflicts
2077:Palaces and Mausoleums
2067:Ming Veritable Records
1715:Luso-Chinese agreement
510:
447:(trade post) close to
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122:Commanders and leaders
2172:Yongning Temple Stele
1909:Imperial Commissioner
1634:Reign of Ren and Xuan
1594:Ming treasure voyages
1584:Dao Ganmeng rebellion
1483:in the United States.
1464:in the United States.
1444:, Academia de Marinha
1354:Hao, Zhidong (2010),
634:fought alongside them
508:
435:Dom Duarte de Menezes
244:Show map of Hong Kong
198:Casualties and losses
2289:History of Hong Kong
1771:Sino-Dutch conflicts
1670:Rebellion of Cao Qin
1599:Ming–Turpan conflict
1549:Red Turban Rebellion
1410:Pires, Tomé (1990),
1404:, Saturnino Monteiro
1386:, Palgrave Macmillan
383:Qiàncǎo Wān zhī Zhàn
358:Battle of Sincouwaan
238:class=notpageimage|
77:22.3699°N 113.9759°E
33:Battle of Sincouwaan
2118:Society and Culture
2053:Yongle Encyclopedia
1892:Imperial Clan Court
1835:Kingdom of Tungning
1788:Jurchen unification
1720:Jiajing wokou raids
1609:Battle of Palembang
1574:Battle of Buir Lake
480:Portuguese takeover
362:traditional Chinese
116:Kingdom of Portugal
73: /
1967:Military conquests
1813:Peasant rebellions
1690:Capture of Malacca
1665:Defense of Beijing
1579:Lin Kuan rebellion
630:Sultanate of Johor
511:
456:Portuguese Malacca
410:Portuguese Malacca
370:simplified Chinese
2294:Conflicts in 1522
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1955:Gunpowder weapons
1914:Grand coordinator
1877:Grand Secretariat
1843:
1842:
1737:(1572–1683)
1646:(1435–1572)
1614:Battle of Kherlen
1564:Ming–Mong Mao War
1554:Wu Mian rebellion
1540:(1368–1435)
1279:978-0-691-13597-7
1247:978-0-8047-4480-5
1220:978-1-56656-439-7
1187:978-0-313-33538-9
582:cannons in 1524.
515:Pearl River delta
472:Malacca Sultanate
406:Malacca Sultanate
386:), also known as
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147:Pedro Homem
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82:22.3699; 113.9759
16:(Redirected from
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2309:Portuguese Macau
2279:1522 in Portugal
2046:Huang-Ming Zuxun
1818:Jiashen Incident
1808:She-An Rebellion
1793:Seven Grievances
1766:Donglin movement
1751:Bozhou rebellion
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1624:Lam Sơn uprising
1604:Ming–Đại Ngu War
1589:Jingnan campaign
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399:
384:
375:
367:
315:
307:
300:
293:
284:
273:
264:
263:
257:
245:
231:
230:
224:
206:1 ship destroyed
185:2 small carracks
182:2 heavy carracks
153:
139:
129:Zhang Ding (張嵿),
88:
87:
85:
84:
83:
78:
74:
71:
70:
69:
66:
39:
38:
30:
21:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2237:History of Ming
2224:
2191:
2113:
2089:Chaotian Palace
2072:
2032:History of Yuan
2019:
1976:
1933:
1839:
1739:
1736:
1729:
1725:Single whip law
1700:Ningbo incident
1675:Miao rebellions
1648:
1645:
1638:
1542:
1539:
1523:
1517:
1487:
1469:
1450:
1439:
1429:
1419:
1409:
1399:
1390:
1381:
1372:
1366:
1353:
1343:
1333:
1327:
1314:
1308:
1295:
1286:
1280:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1248:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1173:
1172:
1168:
1160:
1156:
1148:
1144:
1136:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1073:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1053:, p. xliv.
1049:
1042:
1034:
1027:
1019:
1015:
1007:
994:
986:
979:
971:
967:
963:, p. xlii.
959:
955:
947:
943:
935:
931:
923:
919:
906:
902:
894:
890:
882:
878:
870:
866:
858:
854:
846:
842:
834:
827:
819:
812:
804:
800:
792:
788:
780:
763:
755:
751:
743:
736:
728:
724:
716:
712:
704:
687:
683:
678:
646:
567:
503:
427:
354:
349:
316:
313:
311:
277:
276:
275:
274:
271:
270:
267:
266:
265:
248:
247:
246:
243:
242:
240:
234:
233:
232:
210:42 men captured
209:
208:1 ship captured
207:
149:
146:
135:
132:
130:
128:
127:Wang Hong (汪鈜),
81:
79:
75:
72:
67:
64:
62:
60:
59:
58:
54:Sai Tso Wan on
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2327:
2325:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2251:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2232:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2213:Yongle Tongbao
2210:
2208:Hongwu Tongbao
2199:
2197:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2132:
2127:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2084:Forbidden City
2080:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2035:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1995:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1972:Nine Garrisons
1969:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1952:
1947:
1941:
1939:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1756:Ordos campaign
1753:
1748:
1742:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1651:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1619:Ming–Kotte War
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1545:
1543:
1538:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1518:
1516:
1515:
1508:
1501:
1493:
1486:
1485:
1466:
1447:
1437:
1427:
1417:
1407:
1397:
1388:
1379:
1370:
1364:
1351:
1341:
1331:
1325:
1312:
1306:
1300:, Ams Pr Inc,
1293:
1284:
1278:
1266:Andrade, Tonio
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1253:
1246:
1226:
1219:
1193:
1186:
1166:
1164:, p. 390.
1154:
1142:
1130:
1118:
1106:
1091:
1089:, p. xlv.
1079:
1067:
1055:
1040:
1025:
1023:, p. 130.
1013:
1011:, p. 129.
992:
990:, p. 143.
977:
965:
953:
951:, p. xli.
941:
929:
927:, p. 1-2.
917:
900:
888:
886:, p. 734.
876:
874:, p. 426.
864:
862:, p. 270.
852:
850:, p. 338.
848:Twitchett 1998
840:
825:
810:
798:
794:Rodrigues 2016
786:
784:, p. 5-7.
761:
749:
747:, p. 385.
734:
722:
710:
708:, p. 128.
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
673:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
645:
642:
638:Aceh Sultanate
566:
563:
502:
499:
426:
423:
351:
350:
348:
347:
345:Fort Zeelandia
342:
337:
332:
327:
321:
318:
317:
312:
310:
309:
302:
295:
287:
279:
278:
268:
259:
258:
252:
251:
250:
249:
236:
235:
226:
225:
219:
218:
217:
216:
215:
212:
211:
204:
200:
199:
195:
194:
193:
192:
189:
186:
183:
175:
174:
173:
161:
160:
156:
155:
141:
124:
123:
119:
118:
113:
107:
106:
102:
101:
98:
97:
94:
90:
89:
53:
51:
47:
46:
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2326:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2274:1522 in China
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2239:
2238:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2094:Ming Xiaoling
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2055:
2054:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1903:
1902:Vassal prince
1900:
1899:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1887:Eastern Depot
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1830:Southern Ming
1828:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1732:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1650:
1641:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1514:
1509:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1484:
1482:
1481:public domain
1476:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1462:public domain
1457:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1365:9789888028542
1361:
1358:, HKU Press,
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1326:0-521-82274-2
1322:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1281:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1230:
1227:
1222:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1206:
1197:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1179:
1178:
1170:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1155:
1152:, p. 45.
1151:
1146:
1143:
1140:, p. 38.
1139:
1134:
1131:
1128:, p. 34.
1127:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1107:
1104:, p. 61.
1103:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1080:
1077:, p. 59.
1076:
1071:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1038:, p. 60.
1037:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
993:
989:
984:
982:
978:
974:
973:Monteiro 1995
969:
966:
962:
957:
954:
950:
945:
942:
938:
933:
930:
926:
921:
918:
915:
912:
911:
904:
901:
898:, p. 11.
897:
892:
889:
885:
880:
877:
873:
868:
865:
861:
856:
853:
849:
844:
841:
838:, p. 28.
837:
832:
830:
826:
823:, p. 43.
822:
817:
815:
811:
808:, p. 57.
807:
802:
799:
796:, p. 87.
795:
790:
787:
783:
782:Monteiro 1995
778:
776:
774:
772:
770:
768:
766:
762:
758:
753:
750:
746:
741:
739:
735:
732:, p. 12.
731:
726:
723:
719:
718:Monteiro 1995
714:
711:
707:
702:
700:
698:
696:
694:
692:
690:
686:
680:
675:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
660:Kau Keng Shan
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
647:
643:
641:
639:
635:
631:
626:
623:
617:
615:
611:
607:
602:
597:
593:
590:
588:
583:
581:
577:
573:
564:
562:
560:
554:
550:
547:
546:
540:
534:
530:
526:
524:
519:
516:
507:
500:
498:
495:
492:
488:
483:
481:
477:
473:
468:
465:
461:
457:
452:
450:
446:
445:
440:
439:captain-major
436:
432:
429:Because King
424:
422:
420:
419:Lantau Island
415:
411:
407:
403:
398:
393:
389:
385:
379:
371:
363:
359:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
322:
319:
308:
303:
301:
296:
294:
289:
288:
285:
256:
239:
223:
213:
205:
202:
201:
196:
190:
187:
184:
181:
180:
179:
176:
172:
168:
167:
166:
163:
162:
157:
154:
152:
145:
142:
140:
138:
131:Ke Rong (柯榮),
126:
125:
120:
117:
114:
112:
109:
108:
103:
95:
92:
91:
86:
57:
56:Lantau Island
52:
49:
48:
44:
41:
40:
36:
31:
19:
2235:
2229:Other topics
2140:Four Masters
2065:
2058:
2051:
2044:
2037:
2030:
1870:House of Zhu
1823:Shanhai Pass
1803:Great Plague
1746:Jianzhou war
1520:Ming dynasty
1478:
1474:
1459:
1455:
1441:
1431:
1421:
1411:
1401:
1392:
1383:
1374:
1355:
1345:
1335:
1316:
1297:
1288:
1269:
1236:
1229:
1204:
1196:
1176:
1169:
1157:
1145:
1133:
1121:
1116:, p. 2.
1109:
1082:
1070:
1058:
1021:Andrade 2016
1016:
1009:Andrade 2016
975:, p. 9.
968:
956:
944:
932:
920:
913:
910:
903:
891:
879:
867:
855:
843:
801:
789:
752:
725:
720:, p. 5.
713:
706:Andrade 2016
636:against the
627:
618:
598:
594:
591:
584:
579:
568:
555:
551:
543:
538:
535:
531:
527:
522:
520:
512:
496:
484:
469:
453:
442:
428:
402:Ming dynasty
387:
381:
357:
355:
329:
177:
164:
150:
136:
111:Ming dynasty
105:Belligerents
96:Ming victory
2182:Tai history
1865:Family tree
1776:Liaoluo Bay
1710:Renyin plot
1660:Tumu Crisis
1162:Diffie 1977
860:Antony 2017
821:Keevak 2017
745:Diffie 1977
655:Wugongchuan
489:arrived in
414:Pearl River
340:Liaoluo Bay
171:large junks
80: /
68:113°58′33″E
2253:Categories
2150:Zhe School
2104:Ming tombs
1988:Inner Asia
1960:Shenjiying
1950:Great Wall
1848:Government
1307:0404569064
1150:Wills 2011
1138:Wills 2011
1126:Wills 2011
1102:Chang 1978
1087:Pires 1990
1075:Chang 1978
1063:Pires 1990
1051:Pires 1990
1036:Chang 1978
988:Chase 2003
961:Pires 1990
949:Pires 1990
937:Pires 1990
872:Dutra 1995
836:Wills 2011
806:Chang 1978
676:References
628:The Malay
425:Background
392:Portuguese
330:Sincouwaan
165:30 ships
65:22°22′12″N
2145:Wu School
2130:Musicians
1993:Manchuria
1981:Frontiers
1114:Hsia 2016
925:Hsia 2016
884:Lach 1994
681:Citations
587:Guangzhou
565:Aftermath
485:In 1520,
449:Guangzhou
2196:Currency
2135:Painting
1945:Military
1938:Military
1268:(2016),
896:Hao 2010
730:Hao 2010
644:See also
614:Shuangyu
610:Zhejiang
580:folangji
576:Frankish
545:montante
444:feitoria
431:Manuel I
178:6 ships
159:Strength
50:Location
2203:Coinage
2177:Economy
2005:Vietnam
1897:Princes
1855:Emperor
1643:Middle
1529:History
1258:Sources
606:Zhu Wan
523:Veniaga
491:Beijing
464:Siamese
203:Unknown
191:300 men
188:2 junks
151:†
137:†
2125:Poetry
2015:Yunnan
1537:Early
1522:topics
1473:
1454:
1362:
1323:
1304:
1276:
1244:
1217:
1184:
601:Fujian
501:Battle
460:Malays
380::
378:pinyin
372::
364::
335:Penghu
325:Tunmen
93:Result
2187:Islam
2010:Wokou
1998:Tibet
1929:Fotou
1798:Sarhū
1734:Late
622:Macau
374:茜草湾之战
366:茜草灣之戰
1924:Tusi
1860:List
1360:ISBN
1321:ISBN
1302:ISBN
1274:ISBN
1242:ISBN
1215:ISBN
1182:ISBN
476:1511
462:and
356:The
45:1522
42:Date
1213:–.
1211:110
539:nau
474:in
2255::
1094:^
1043:^
1028:^
995:^
980:^
828:^
813:^
764:^
737:^
688:^
640:.
394::
376:;
368:;
169:8
1512:e
1505:t
1498:v
1446:.
1436:.
1426:.
1416:.
1406:.
1369:.
1350:.
1340:.
1330:.
1311:.
1283:.
1250:.
1223:.
1190:.
939:.
390:(
360:(
306:e
299:t
292:v
20:)
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