195:. Subsequently, the formation of the modern Lebanese nation-state in 1920 and its official independence in 1943 were founded on politicized sectarianism as the only form of governance and presumed egalitarianism between individual citizens and recognized sectarian groups.” Hence, “in many ways sectarian identification converged with personal status, or madhhab, whereby the state recognized one official personal status per sect.” Regarding the Shi’i sect it has to be noted that this group was not officially recognized under the Ottoman Empire, while “the expansion of sectarian rights under the French mandate laid the foundation for Shi’i citizens in the postcolonial state, which entailed the formation of Ja’fari shari’a courts.” However, so far, the main emphasis of the majority of research has been on the top-down sectarianism, whereby policies and institutionalization have formed the main aspect of research. What is often forgotten is the bottom-up approach towards sectarianism. Scholars like Linda Sayed and Nadya Sbaiti have studied sectarianism from this often neglected approach and have come to the conclusion that citizens themselves have had a more flexible understanding of this segregation of groups in their society. For instance, Linda Sayed shows that Shi’i citizens used the court-system, created by the French rulers, in a rather pragmatic way than in a rigid sectarian sense and Nadya Sbaiti shows that people used the school-system in the same pragmatic fashion, creating communities of knowledge. In other words, people’s choices regarding the education of their children was rather based on guaranteeing at least a basic education “in the hope of some incremental if not dramatic betterment. Their decisions often centered around this goal and evinced less concern with the allegedly ‘unique’ confessional-communal characteristics reflected by a given school.”
388:, "the terms of Lebanon's political re-construction, enshrined in the Taif , preserved many of the elements of the confessional system set up in the National Pact but modified the structure to reflect the demographic realities of modern Lebanon." As such, several key provisions of the National Pact were changed: it relocated most presidential powers in favor of Parliament and the Council of Ministers and, as such, the Maronite Christian President lost most of his executive powers and only retained symbolic roles; it redistributed important public offices, including those of Parliament, Council of Ministers, general directors, and grade-one posts, evenly between Muslims and Christians thereby upsetting the traditional ratio of six to five that favored Christians under the National Pact; it “recognized the chronic instability of confessionalism and called for devising a national strategy for its political demise. It required the formation of a national committee to examine ways to achieve deconfessionalization and the formation of a non-confessional Parliament," which has not yet been implemented to date and it required the disarmament of all Lebanese militias; however, Hezbollah was allowed to retain its militant wing as a “resistance force” in recognition of its fight against Israel in the South.
1447:, Lebanon adopted a policy of non-recognition of the refugee status to Syrians, rather referring to them as "displaced" or "guests". Thus, the government refused to build any refugee camp, additionally informal camps by NGOs are considered illegal. According to observers, this attitude was guided by the fear that the emergency displacement would have turned into long-term stay, a fear that within the first few years of conflict came true. Long-term stay was an unwelcomed situation both for sectarian balance and the precarious situation of Lebanese economy in general, even though it also translated to a great flow of international humanitarian aids and funding. Despite the fundings, also granted by
422:, but for a long time the power balance between the Chamber of Deputies and the President actually favoured the latter. Power balance was adjusted with Taif Agreement and the subsequent Constitutional Amendment of 1990. Unlike the aspects just mentioned, confessionalism is not established within the Constitution: in fact, the Constitutional Amendment of 1990 provided for the overcoming of confessionalism in several steps. However, these steps have never been taken and the only provision of the Amendment currently applied is section (3) of Article 95, which guarantees political rights to the confessions. The confessional nature of the Lebanese political system is translated into three main aspects:
214:) based on the 1932 census. The 1932 census is the only official census conducted in Lebanon: with a total population of 1,046,164 persons, Maronites made up 33.57%, Sunnis made up 18.57% and Shiites made up 15.92% (with several other denominations making up the remainder). The National Pact served to reinforce the sectarian system that had begun under the French Mandate, by formalizing the confessional distribution of the highest public offices and top administrative ranks according to the proportional distribution of the dominant sects within the population. Because the census showed a slight Christian dominance over Muslims, seats in the
298:(by PLO and LNM forces). The first months of violence were accompanied by an intense political debate between the Lebanese Front and the LNM, especially in the context of the Committee for National Dialogue that tried to reinforce a first ceasefire during September and October 1975. The CND focused its debate around the possibility to reform the Lebanese political system from a sectarian to a secular one. Despite the Committee approving this reform, an alliance of Maronite leaders sabotaged it, blocking the way to any reform.
126:
as divided between an elite community that controlled religious and secular knowledge and common villagers that constituted the bulk of the society. Elite membership was thus determined by rank rather than religious affiliation, and relied on familial power constructed through a network of family alliances that often cut across religious lines. However, between 1840 and 1860, this social order began to be questioned and transformed, and religion entered the political sphere. The end of
345:, whose purpose was the establishment of an Islamic Republic in Lebanon and who soon remained the sole anti-Israeli resistance in the country after Israel withdraw in 1985. Amal kept an intermediate position between these two factions, but engaged in fighting Palestinian presence in the country during the so-called "War of the Camps", in tacit agreement with Israel. Finally, the Druze community under the leadership of
1360:
parties and sects provide welfare services to the population, recreating sectarian divide at the societal level. The sectarian affiliation may also shape the access to economic opportunities depending on which group controls the area or sector. Finally, family law is determined by confessional community, with difficulties in entering an inter-faith marriage.
1452:
authorities". These policies were also guided by the spillovers from the Syrian war, in which
Hezbollah soon got involved taking the side of the Syrian regime. In Lebanon this translated to scattered clashes and incidents and therefore to an increasing securitization, operated by different actors including the Lebanese Armed Forces and Hezbollah.
341:, its most important militia. The Shi'a community, on the other hand, was more active but more and more fragmented: the main contraposition was between a "legalist" faction that supported a political solution to the conflict, and a "radical" front that supported the continuation of the war. This latter front was mainly represented by the newborn
322:, Maronite leader and commander of the Lebanese Forces, as President of Lebanon. On 14 September 1982, less than a month after his election, Gemayel was killed during an attack on his party headquarters. The death of their commander led to a retaliation against Palestinians by the Lebanese Forces, with a three-days long massacre in the camps of
314:. Given the fact that the Shiite community was based in the South of the country, the Christian presence caused a reaction and reinforcement from Amal - with Syrian support. With Imam Musa al-Sadr's disappearance in August 1978, Amal moved further in supporting Lebanese Shiite cause, distancing itself from all fronts involved in the conflict.
361:, launched a “liberation war” against the Syrian army, which was still controlling part of the country. In doing so, General Aoun internationalized the Lebanese crisis by emphasizing “the destructive role of the Syrian army in the country”. His decision resulted in multilateral negotiations as well as efforts to strengthen the role of the
350:
fragmentation was that between 1985 and 1990 each militia started taking control over parts of territory and population, initiating a sectarian and political cleansing within them. This also meant a growing "pressure on the individual to define him/herself in terms of a unique social and cultural sectarian identity".
365:. By 1989, what had begun as an internal war between Lebanese factions had become a regional conflict that directly drew in Syria, Israel, Iran, Europe and the United States - with Iraq, Libya, Saudi Arabia, and the Soviet Union involved indirectly by providing financial support and weaponry to different militias.
130:'s occupation in 1840 created a power vacuum that various actors tried to exploit. Some of these actors relied on a religious base for their claims: the Maronite Church, for instance, called for the restoration of a Christian emirate in the region, while Maronite peasants asked for equality in the name of the
1451:
with 2016 Lebanese
Compact, Lebanese policy since 2014 has been regulated by the so-called "October Policy". The policy aims at reducing the number of refugees, by closing Syrian borders and encouraging and later planning Syrians return, increasing security and "ease the burdens of local and national
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Sectarianism shapes
Lebanese society on different levels. At the political level, distribution of key state figures and parliamentary seats is done on confessional basis. Also, parties are often organized along confessional lines. Partly due to the state's inability to provide the necessary services,
383:
After twenty-two days of discussions and negotiations, the surviving members of the 1972 parliament reached an agreement to end the Civil War on 22 October 1989. The Taif
Agreement reconfigured the political power-sharing formula that formed that basis of government in Lebanon under the National Pact
368:
After fifteen years of war, at least 71,328 were killed and 97,184 injured. Moreover, sectarian cleansing led to about 157,500 displaced
Muslims and 670,000 Christians. To this it should be added the expulsion and displacement of Palestinians, perceived as "a people too many". Finally, the war led to
304:
entered the conflict in June 1976, in order to avoid a PLO takeover of
Lebanon – Syria's entry into the war resulted in a de facto division of the country into zones controlled by Syria, the PLO, and Maronite militias. Initially Syrian intervention backed the Lebanese Front and was supported by Amal.
125:
Historians have argued that the origins of sectarianism lay at the "intersection of nineteenth-century
European colonialism and Ottoman modernization." The traditional order of Lebanese society during Ottoman domination was not shaped along sectarian lines. Ottoman Lebanese society could be described
1424:
the refugee population within the national one. Refusal of refugees' naturalization means that the refugee population is considered as foreigner, and thus has some restrictions concerning access to jobs, education and health services. For instance, foreign population need a work permit to be able to
111:
Some scholars and journalists define sectarianism as fixed pre-existing communal categories in society, and use it to explain political, cultural, or religious conflicts between groups. Other scholars conceive of sectarianism as a set of social practices where daily life is organised on the basis of
1381:
Inter-sect marriages challenge societal norms and can serve as powerful symbols of unity and resistance against sectarianism. This significance was particularly highlighted during the
October 2019 Revolution, when people began proudly sharing their inter-sect relationships on social media platforms
1372:
The discriminatory dimension of sectarianism extends its influence to
Lebanon's urban landscape, where stereotypes are closely tied to regions and associated with people's sects, social status, morals, and values. This connection fuels social divisions and shapes perceptions and interactions within
142:
reforms, European powers favoured local autonomies on religious bases. This
European practice altered the meaning of religion in the multi-confessional society because it "emphasized sectarian identity as the only viable marker of political reform and the only authentic basis for political claims."
334:
While Christians were in control of the state, Muslim militias landscape was more fragmented than ever. In the post-1983 context, the Sunni community experienced political marginalization due to PLO withdrawal, the disappearance of its major leaders, LNM dissolution, and political disappearance of
317:
The Lebanese Civil War officially became a regional dilemma when Israel invaded in 1982 with two avowed aims: destroy the PLO military infrastructure and secure its northern frontier through the establishment of a Christian Lebanon. Israel's invasion did indeed lead to PLO retreat from the country
250:
politics gripped Lebanon, representing another form of popular mobilization along sectarian lines against the elite-dominated Lebanese state. The beginning of the war dates to 13 April 1975, when a Maronite militia opened fire on a bus full of civilians in response to an assassination attempt of a
245:
During the three decades following independence from the French Mandate, the sectarian system established with the National Pact and developments in the region brought about escalating tensions that culminated with a civil strife that lasted from 1975 until 1990. During this conflict, sectarianism
330:
was elected president at the end of the month to replace his brother Bachir, thus bringing Kataeb party in control of the state. This situation, added to Israeli presence and conflicting approaches on how to resist it, brought to the fragmentation of Lebanon territory, divided in a multitude of
230:
would be a Shiite Muslim; and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament a Greek Orthodox Christian. The referencing of Lebanon's census during every election year was supposed to determine the positions allotted to each religious sect, and yet this has not been done since 1932. Updating the census would
461:
reports, "consolidation of power among political elites also hampers intraparty competition" and government decisions are "the result of negotiation among the country’s dominant political figures, regardless of formal titles and positions; meanwhile, the legislature generally facilitates these
169:
in 1926, facilitated by the French as a "quasi-colonial institution", provided Shi'a Muslims with sectarian rights through the institutionalization of Shi’a Islam, and hence gave rise to political Shi’ism. The "variation in the institutionalization of social welfare across different sectarian
107:
Despite the religious nature of sectarian affiliations, sectarianism in Lebanon is commonly considered to be a political project, as it not only relies on, but also reproduces, complex and unstable relations between religious and sectarian affiliation, on the one hand, and politics, violence,
1368:
Lara Deeb's research demonstrates that despite efforts to eliminate structural and institutional practices, interpersonal discrimination endures in Lebanese society. Individuals tend to exhibit "sectarian" behaviors, aligning with themselves own sect while discriminating against others. This
349:
engaged in a revenge against 19th-century Maronite expansionism in order to restore the lost glory of Druze feudal status. The socio-sectarian model proposed by Jumblatt merged sectarian and class fractures, and found its main opposition in the Shiite Amal anti-feudalism. The result of this
1436:, but indeed it followed sectarian rules. For instance, Christian Palestinians and those who had kinship ties with Christian families did get chances to be naturalized. Non-acceptance of Palestinians resettlement in Lebanon is also stated in Taif Agreement and was reiterated within the
190:
more visible, more empowered, but also more sectarian, in ways that it had never quite been before." This fundamental transformation led by the French created a new political reality that paved the way for the "mobilization" and "radicalization" of the Shi’a community during the
1420:(480.290 UNRWA refugees), and Iraqis (8.983 UNHCR refugees in 2022). Given that the demographic composition of these countries sees a wide majority of Muslims, both Sunni and Shia, and given the impact these numbers have on the Lebanese population, there is a tendency to avoid
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as a form of resistance against the political system. These unions showcase personal narratives that contribute to reshaping communities and fostering a deeper understanding of shared humanity, representing a collective effort to transcend sectarian divisions.
112:
communal norms and rules that individuals strategically use and transcend. This definition highlights the understanding of sectarianism as being co-constituted by people’s practices and agency, rather than rooted in fixed and incompatible communal boundaries.
1369:
discrimination permeates kinship, affecting personal interactions, decisions, assumptions, and conflicts, presenting sectarianism as a hindrance to social cohesion and perpetuating discriminatory practices at both institutional and interpersonal levels.
1440:. The non-naturalization policies are mainly supported by Christian and Shiite parties: "non-naturalised Palestinians being overwhelmingly Sunni Muslims, their settlement might add troops and a sizeable electoral base to the Sunni faction in Lebanon".
274:- a coalition of nationalist and progressive Druze and Sunni movements - and the PLO. The PLO constituted the main military force of the LNM, but the alliance counted also smaller militias and, from January 1976, the Muslim splinter faction of the
218:(parliament) were distributed by a six-to-five ratio favoring Christians over Muslims. This ratio was to be applied to all highest-level public and administrative offices, such as ministers and directors. Furthermore, it was agreed that the
436:
As a consequence, "ruling political parties are defined more by religious affiliations than economic or social policy". This, however, does not prevent the forming of alliances, either formal or informal, across religious divides. Both the
209:
Lebanon gained independence on 22 November 1943. Shortly thereafter, the National Pact was agreed upon and established the political foundations of modern Lebanon and laid the foundations of a sectarian power-sharing system (also known as
1005:
Hezbollah is a political party and militant group affiliated both demographically and ideologically with the Shia sect. The organization was established as part of an Iranian effort, through funding and the dispatch of a core group of
100:, the constitution was revised but did not structurally change aspects relating to political sectarianism. The dynamic nature of sectarianism in Lebanon has prompted some historians and authors to refer to it as "the sectarian state
23:
and society along religious lines. It has been formalized and legalized within state and non-state institutions and is inscribed in its constitution. Lebanon recognizes 18 different sects: 67.6% of the population is Muslim (31.9%
108:
conflict, and co-existence, on the other. Through the sectarian discourse, religion becomes the defining characteristic of the public and political subject, following a logic that has been established by (religious) authorities.
309:
opened its frontier with Southern Lebanon, co-opting dissident Christian units within Lebanese Army to put pressure in the southern regions. In March 1978 these units took control of the region, supported by Israel with the
456:
Lebanese political system is dominated by elites, including "traditional leaders, military veterans, former militia leaders, and wealthy businessmen". A consequence of this is the apparently lack of opposition. As
231:
result in an alteration of the power balance, thus changing the relative strength of ethnic communities - possibly in favour of Muslim communities, given the higher growth rate that has been observed within them.
453:(Sunni Muslim) and both the Lebanese Forces and the Kataeb party (Maronite Christian). The opposition between these two alliances lies mainly in their respectively pro-Syrian and anti-Syrian agenda.
542:. It currently holds 19 of the 128 seats in Lebanon's parliament and is therefore the largest party in parliament. It was a major Christian player during the civil war while it controlled its own
182:
of Shi’a Islam, a Shi’i collective identity began to form and the Shi’i community started to "practice" sectarianism. "The French colonial state contributed to rendering the Shi‘i community in
426:
the key government positions are customarily assigned as follows: the president must be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of parliament a Shiite Muslim.
1400:
Given the delicate sectarian balance, the Lebanese state tends to avoid demographic alterations when this is possible. This attitude has consequences for what concerns immigration and
1408:
reports, Lebanon hosts the largest number of refugees compared to its national population (1 in 8 at the end of 2020, 1 in 5 if also the 480.000 Palestinians refugees registered with
943:
The Future Movement is a political party affiliated with the Sunni sect but is officially secular. The party held the largest parliamentary bloc from 1996 until 2009. However, after
1120:. It supports the idea of establishing a legal order in Lebanon that is based on Islamic shari'a. As a local branch it closely follows the doctrines of the Muslim Brotherhood.
1432:, but since then the great majority of them has never been able to acquire Lebanese citizenship. Officially this policy is determined by Lebanon's support for Palestinians'
647:
is a Christian-based political party of Maronite majority and former militia. it currently holds 4 of the 128 seats in parliament, all of which are Maronite Christian.
1676:
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1911:
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to seize Lebanon” due to the presence of the organization in the South of the country. These militias merged in 1976 under the umbrella of the
2707:
2439:
2416:
2390:
1991:
1939:
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In the years leading up to the civil war, Christians had already begun setting up armed militias against what they “saw as an attempt by the
1230:
2456:
1083:
290:, was formed. The rapid militarization of the fronts accompanied an escalation of violence that led in January 1976 to the massacres of
134:
which in 1839 had guaranteed the rights of Ottoman citizens regardless of their religion. Moreover, the establishment of a new order in
104:" because it is a mixture of religious communities and their myriad sub-divisions, with a constitutional and political order to match.
2907:
2807:
A political demography of the refugee question Palestinians in Jordan and Lebanon: between protection, forced return and resettlement
138:
became the arena for the clash between European and Ottoman interests. While the Ottoman Empire attempted centralization through the
2775:
2677:
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The Lebanese Democratic Party is officially secular and has members from all Lebanese sects, but most of its support comes from the
1193:
The Lebanese Democratic Party is officially secular and has members from all Lebanese sects, but most of its support comes from the
1007:
418:. The Constitution also established its liberal, democratic, and representative nature. In regards to the latter, Lebanon adopted a
255:
1443:
The Syrians also experienced the consequences of this no-naturalization policy, and continue to do so. Since the beginning of the
1209:. During the Lebanese Civil war its militia sympathised with the Palestinians. Despite Jumblatt's initial reluctance to engage in
1413:
1305:
1072:. The movement has been described as one of the "most controversial Muslim associations" among modern Islamic groups and, within
773:
638:
2625:
592:. It currently holds 17 seats of the 128 seats in Lebanon's parliament. The party has large support in Christian districts like
92:
rule. It was subsequently reinforced with the creation of the Republic of Lebanon in 1920 and its 1926 constitution, and in the
331:"mini-states, run by militias who claimed to be defending their region/sect against the expansionism of the Phalangist state".
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the city. Understanding these dynamics is essential to understanding the broader impact of sectarianism on social structures.
1295:
970:
227:
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The party supports pan-Arab ideas and gets most of its support from the Druze community in the Chouf district. It is led by
727:
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (or Tashnag for short) is Christian-based political party which primarily represents
270:(also known as Phalanges). In the first months of the conflict, the Lebanese Front main rival was the alliance between the
2681:
2569:"Religious freedom and the political order: the Ethiopian 'secular state' and the containment of Muslim identity politics"
49:
2917:
2912:
1500:
535:
2862:
Beaujouan, Juline; Rasheed, Amjed (2020). "The Syrian Refugee Crisis in Jordan And Lebanon: Impact And Implications".
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The case of Palestinians is emblematic in this sense. Palestinian refugees started immigrating in the country since
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2019:
1967:
1915:
1863:
1811:
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1395:
411:
323:
271:
211:
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In the decades that followed, a colonial strategy and technique to assert control and perpetuate power used by the
2821:
1735:
1603:
Shakman Hurd, Elizabeth (2015). "Politics of Sectarianism: Rethinking Religion and Politics in the Middle East".
1240:
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1010:(pasdaran) instructors, to aggregate a variety of Lebanese Shia groups into a unified organization to resist the
223:
53:
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152:
57:
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are coalitions that comprehend Christian and Muslim parties. March 8 includes Hezbollah (Shia Muslim) and the
166:
2362:
1391:
588:
The Free Patriotic Movement is Christian-based political party which follows the agenda of former president
583:
553:
529:
446:
415:
1573:
Bahout, Joseph (18 November 2013). "Sectarianism in Lebanon and Syria: The Dynamics of Mutual Spill-Over".
414:. Its republican nature was established in 1926 with the creation of Lebanon, and is guaranteed within the
2105:
Raji, Wissam, Yves Rahme, Marc Zeinoun, and Charbel Zeidan (2018). "The Lebanese Demographic Reality", in
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127:
65:
61:
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The Ahbash have been noted for their ardent criticism of conservative strains of Islam, including the
2809:. European University Institute - Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies. pp. 16, 22–23, 27.
2122:
Makdisi, Ussama (1996). "Reconstructing the Nation-State: The Modernity of Sectarianism in Lebanon".
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219:
69:
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the emigration of 894,717 people from Lebanon, with serious consequences for the country's economy.
2568:
1736:"Review of Max Weiss, In the Shadow of Sectarianism: Law, Shiʿism and the Making of Modern Lebanon"
1703:
The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon
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20:
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2009:
1957:
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1801:
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of 1978–79 also provided momentum for the party. The Amal Movement has 14 members in parliament.
897:
783:
711:
652:
539:
291:
279:
240:
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73:
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grade one posts in public offices are distributed following a confessional representation logic.
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2412:
2386:
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1997:
1987:
1945:
1935:
1893:
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1841:
1831:
1789:
1779:
1106:
1076:, opponents of the Ahbash have frequently referred to the movement as unorthodox and deviant.
932:
732:
632:
524:
442:
179:
2478:
Kabha, Mustafa; Erlich, Haggai (2006). "Al-Ahbash and Wahhabiyya: Interpretations of Islam".
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work, Lebanese must be preferred when hiring and some professions are barred to foreigners.
1338:
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873:
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731:. It currently holds 3 seats of the 128 seats in Lebanon's parliament, all of which are of
2678:"Political Parties and Electoral Systems in Lebanon and Israel: Interactive Reinforcement"
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The Islamic Group is a Sunni Islamist group founded in 1964 as the Lebanese branch of the
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chose to follow boycott as well, after which his resignation created a large vacuum in
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policies rather than serving as an independent institutional check on the government".
378:
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89:
798:. The party holds 2 of the 128 seats in parliament and is popular in the districts of
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2546:
2522:
2363:"Here's The Full List Of How Many Seats Each Party Won In The 2022 Lebanon Elections"
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The Amal Movement is a political party and former militia mostly affiliated with the
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458:
419:
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287:
204:
93:
37:
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2507:
1461:
1437:
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283:
267:
85:
2431:
Hezbollah: The Story of the Party of God: From Revolution to Institutionalization,
1540:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 3, 4, 9–11, 11–128, 127, 129, 229.
2584:
1983:
Practicing sectarianism : archival and ethnographic interventions on Lebanon
1931:
Practicing sectarianism : archival and ethnographic interventions on Lebanon
1879:
Practicing sectarianism : archival and ethnographic interventions on Lebanon
1827:
Practicing sectarianism : archival and ethnographic interventions on Lebanon
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Practicing sectarianism : archival and ethnographic interventions on Lebanon
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927:
868:
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25:
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communities forged and exacerbated social disparities". Additionally, with the
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2001:
1949:
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29:
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In the Shadow of Sectarianism: Law, Shi'ism, and the Making of Modern Lebanon
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787:
668:
342:
41:
2338:"Hariri will not run in parliamentary elections due to 'Iranian influence'"
1981:
1929:
1877:
1825:
1773:
1986:. Lara Deeb, Tsolin Nalbantian, Nadya Sbaiti. Stanford, California. 2023.
1934:. Lara Deeb, Tsolin Nalbantian, Nadya Sbaiti. Stanford, California. 2023.
1882:. Lara Deeb, Tsolin Nalbantian, Nadya Sbaiti. Stanford, California. 2023.
1830:. Lara Deeb, Tsolin Nalbantian, Nadya Sbaiti. Stanford, California. 2023.
1778:. Lara Deeb, Tsolin Nalbantian, Nadya Sbaiti. Stanford, California. 2023.
1705:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. xi, 2, 29, 35, 59–62.
948:
888:. The party gained attention from Shia outcry after the disappearance of
139:
33:
2822:"Lebanon: The Refugee Issue and the Threat of a Sectarian Confrontation"
2196:. London: Pluto Press. pp. 193–210, 212, 226–238, 239–240, 244–245.
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the distribution of parliamentary seats is done on a confessional basis.
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2499:
2143:
2083:
1401:
597:
593:
247:
2750:
2593:
2092:
2058:
306:
187:
158:
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1217:(PLA) which proved to be one of the strongest private armies in the
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tried to maintain a neutral position, even though a military group,
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1409:
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81:
77:
2708:"Political Party Mapping in Lebanon. Ahead of the 2018 Elections"
1723:. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. pp. 1–37, 40.
2209:
The Taif Accord and Lebanon's Struggle to Regain its Sovereignty
1590:
Beware of Small States: Lebanon, Battleground of the Middle East
282:. In this first phase of the conflict, the Shiite front led by
2300:"Our full breakdown of newly elected MPs by party affiliation"
2059:"The Lebanese Census of 1932 Revisited. Who Are the Lebanese?"
1721:
Compassionate Communalism: Welfare and Sectarianism in Lebanon
2523:"A Sufi Response to Political Islamism: Al-Ahbash of Lebanon"
534:
The Lebanese Forces is a Christian-based political party and
353:
In March 1989, Prime Minister (and Acting President) General
2211:. American University International Law Review. p. 67.
1014:
and to grow representation of Shias in government offices.
2382:
Religion and Hezbollah: Political Ideology and Legitimacy,
2337:
1661:
L. Deeb, T. Nalbantian, N. Sbaiti (2022). "Introduction".
2486:(4). United States: Cambridge University Press: 519–538.
1501:"2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Lebanon"
1412:
are included). The three largest refugee populations are
402:
The Lebanese political system is republican, democratic,
2626:"Securing Lebanon from the Threat of Salafist Jihadism"
810:
family who also claim descendance from the Maradites.
251:
Maronite leader, allegedly by PLO-affiliated Muslims.
2533:(2). Beirut: American University of Beirut: 217–229.
2457:"Ethiopian Muslims protest government 'interference'"
2166:
Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs
1665:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 1–13.
1647:. Stanford:Stanford University Press. pp. 14–30.
1629:. Stanford:Stanford University Press. pp. 31–51.
667:, a notable Maronite family based in the regions of
88:
in Lebanon date back to the mid-19th century during
2164:"Lebanon: The Persistence of Sectarian Conflict".
1643:Sbaiti, Nadya (2022). ""No Room for This Story"".
1294:and currently has 0 seats in parliament after the
357:, with the backing of the PLO and Iraqi president
266:'s coalition - the Maronite alliance dominated by
19:refers to the formal and informal organization of
1625:Sayed, Linda (2022). "Negotiating Citizenship".
1562:. New York: Basic Books. pp. 242, 411, 460.
1032:Jamʿīyah al-Mashārīʿ al-Khayrīyah al-ʾIslāmīyah
2521:Hamzeh, A. Nizar; Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1996).
2107:Yearbook of International Religious Demography
786:named after the legendary Marada (also called
2402:Dominique Avon, Anaïs-Trissa Khatchadourian,
2273:Kathib, Lina; Wallace, Jon (11 August 2021).
8:
2726:"Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2020"
2527:International Journal of Middle East Studies
2480:International Journal of Middle East Studies
1675:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2405:Hezbollah: A History of the "Party of God",
2671:
2669:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2014:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1962:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1910:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1858:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1806:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1130:
820:
474:
40:), 32.4% is Christian, the majority being
2592:
2450:
2448:
2082:
2063:British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
161:during their mandate rule of Lebanon was
2624:Saab, Bilal Y.; Magnus Ranstorp (2007).
1364:Sectarianism as a Form of Discrimination
794:that fought on the external edge of the
2776:"UNRWA Registered Population Dashboard"
2327:. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2007. Print.
1553:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1492:
1022:Islamic Charitable Projects Association
806:. The party was founded and led by the
256:Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
2044:The Government and Politics of Lebanon
2007:
1955:
1903:
1851:
1799:
1668:
1221:of 1975 to 1990. It conquered much of
1213:, it built its own military wing, the
892:and saw a renewal in popularity after
651:, it played a pivotal role during the
466:Major sectarian parties by demographic
262:, which became the armed group of the
2800:
2798:
2796:
2268:
2266:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2220:
2218:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2175:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1714:
1712:
1656:
1654:
1638:
1636:
1620:
1618:
449:(Christian), while March 14 includes
7:
2275:"Lebanon's politics and politicians"
2246:"Freedom in the World 2022: Lebanon"
1309:
1244:
1157:
1087:
1040:
1025:
974:
911:
862:
847:
746:
611:
557:
503:
224:Premier of the Council of Ministers
222:would be a Maronite Christian; the
2573:Journal of Eastern African Studies
1416:(840.929 UNHCR refugees in 2022),
420:unicameralist parliamentary system
228:President of the National Assembly
14:
2633:Studies in Conflict and Terrorism
2229:. The Hague: HiiL. pp. 9–12.
1377:Symbolism in Inter-Sect Marriages
1008:Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps
691:Armenian Revolutionary Federation
2923:Political terminology in Lebanon
2046:. London: Routledge. p. 57.
1575:United States Institute of Peace
1026:جمعية المشاريع الخيرية الإسلامية
778:The Marada Movement is a former
699:Hay Heghapokhagan Tashnagtsutiun
272:Lebanese National Movement (LNM)
1251:al-Ḥizb ad-Dimoqrati al-Lubnāni
1150:
1080:
1018:
967:
904:
840:
739:
687:
663:. The party is also led by the
604:
550:
496:
80:, Protestants), while 4.52% is
48:(with smaller groups including
2805:De Bel-Air, Françoise (2012).
2227:Rule of Law Quick Scan Lebanon
1605:Middle East Law and Governance
1355:Social Impacts of Sectarianism
1201:, and its regional base is in
1164:Ḥizb at-Taqadummi al-Ishtiraki
694:Հայ Յեղափոխական Դաշնակցութիւն
235:Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990)
1:
2682:American University of Beirut
2455:Maasho, Aaron (11 May 2012).
729:Lebanon's Armenian population
657:Maronite canton (Marounistan)
544:Maronite canton (Marounistan)
226:would be a Sunni Muslim; the
2585:10.1080/17531055.2014.917855
2369:. 961. 961News. 17 May 2022.
894:Israel's invasion of Lebanon
675:which carries the legacy of
618:Ḥizb al-Katā'ib al-Lubnānīya
2567:Abbink, Jon (3 July 2014).
2194:A History of Modern Lebanon
1316:Tayyār at-Tawhid al-Lubnany
1154:Progressive Socialist Party
564:at-Tayyār al-Waṭanī al-Horr
165:. The establishment of the
96:of 1943. In 1990, with the
2939:
2712:Konrad Adenauer Foundation
2192:Traboulsi, Fawwaz (2012).
1743:New Middle Eastern Studies
1734:Henley, Alexander (2011).
1663:In Practicing sectarianism
1645:In Practising Sectarianism
1627:In Practising Sectarianism
1592:. Nation Books. p. 2.
1396:Syrian refugees in Lebanon
1389:
395:
376:
238:
202:
150:
2908:Social history of Lebanon
2841:10.1163/22138617-12340063
2645:10.1080/10576100701561236
2539:10.1017/S0020743800063145
2492:10.1017/s0020743806412459
2112:Leiden: BRILL. p. 123–131
2075:10.1080/13530199908705684
1245:الحزب الديمقراطي اللبناني
1241:Lebanese Democratic Party
1203:Mount Lebanon Governorate
1133:
823:
655:as it controlled its own
479:
294:(by Lebanese Forces) and
220:President of the Republic
2409:Harvard University Press
2325:Hezbollah: A Short Story
1719:Cammett, Melani (2014).
1701:Makdisi, Ussama (2000).
1505:U.S. Department of State
1215:People's Liberation Army
947:boycott, many Sunnis in
790:) warriors of the early
608:Kataeb Party (Phalanges)
153:French Mandate (Lebanon)
2207:Saseen, Sandra (1990).
2057:Maktabi, Rania (1999).
1755:10.29311/nmes.v1i0.2607
1392:Palestinians in Lebanon
1158:الحزب التقدمي الإشتراكي
1094:Al-Jama'ah Al-Islamiyah
1051:Shaykh Hussam Qaraqira
554:Free Patriotic Movement
510:al-Quwwāt al-Lubnānīyah
447:Free Patriotic Movement
17:Sectarianism in Lebanon
2820:Meier, Daniel (2014).
2042:Salamey, Imad (2014).
1558:Rogan, Eugene (2009).
1306:Arab Unification Party
1296:2022 general elections
546:north of the country.
32:, small percentage of
2018:) CS1 maint: others (
1966:) CS1 maint: others (
1914:) CS1 maint: others (
1862:) CS1 maint: others (
1810:) CS1 maint: others (
1588:Hirst, David (2011).
1310:تيار النوحيد اللبناني
612:حزب الكتائب اللبنانية
384:of 1943. As noted by
373:Taif Agreement (1989)
84:. The foundations of
2323:Norton, Augustus R.
2225:Houri, Omar (2012).
1560:The Arabs: A History
1290:. It is part of the
1229:controlling its own
1143:Primary demographic
833:Primary demographic
318:and the election of
199:National Pact (1943)
2918:Politics of Lebanon
2913:Religion in Lebanon
2688:on 29 December 2014
1536:Weiss, Max (2010).
1472:Religion in Lebanon
1335:Officially secular
1261:Prince Talal Arslan
918:Tayyār al-Mustaqbal
558:التيار الوطني الحرّ
476:
398:Politics of Lebanon
216:Chamber of Deputies
42:Maronites Catholics
2876:10.1111/mepo.12514
2864:Middle East Policy
2124:Middle East Report
1467:Sectarian violence
1286:, who support the
1219:Lebanese Civil War
1197:, who support the
1118:Muslim Brotherhood
1012:Israeli occupation
898:Iranian Revolution
784:Lebanese Civil War
782:active during the
712:Hagop Pakradounian
653:Lebanese Civil War
540:Lebanese Civil War
475:
305:At the same time,
280:Lebanese Arab Army
246:reached its peak:
241:Lebanese Civil War
193:Lebanese civil war
74:Chaldean Catholics
58:Armenian Catholics
2440:978-0-230-11629-0
2434:Springer, 2011
2417:978-0-674-07031-8
2391:978-1-000-45857-2
2385:Routledge, 2019
1993:978-1-5036-3387-2
1941:978-1-5036-3387-2
1889:978-1-5036-3387-2
1837:978-1-5036-3387-2
1785:978-1-5036-3387-2
1352:
1351:
1318:
1253:
1205:, especially the
1166:
1124:
1123:
1103:Azzam Al-Ayyoubi
1096:
1088:الجماعة الإسلامية
1047:
1034:
983:
920:
856:
814:
813:
763:Suleiman Frangieh
755:
733:Armenian Orthodox
701:
620:
566:
512:
443:March 14 Alliance
324:Sabra and Chatila
284:Imam Musa al-Sadr
180:bureaucratization
54:Armenian Orthodox
21:Lebanese politics
2930:
2888:
2887:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2826:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2802:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2761:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2704:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2684:. Archived from
2673:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2630:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2596:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2463:. Archived from
2452:
2443:
2426:
2420:
2400:
2394:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2334:
2328:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2311:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2270:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2242:
2231:
2230:
2222:
2213:
2212:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2189:
2170:
2169:
2161:
2148:
2147:
2119:
2113:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2086:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2039:
2024:
2023:
2013:
2005:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1961:
1953:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1909:
1901:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1857:
1849:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1805:
1797:
1770:
1759:
1758:
1740:
1731:
1725:
1724:
1716:
1707:
1706:
1698:
1681:
1680:
1674:
1666:
1658:
1649:
1648:
1640:
1631:
1630:
1622:
1613:
1612:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1555:
1542:
1541:
1533:
1516:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1497:
1386:Refugee question
1314:
1311:
1292:March 8 Alliance
1249:
1246:
1162:
1159:
1131:
1092:
1089:
1043:
1042:
1030:
1027:
991:Hassan Nasrallah
979:
976:
916:
913:
864:
852:
849:
821:
796:Byzantine Empire
753:Tayyār al-Marada
751:
748:
697:
616:
613:
562:
559:
508:
505:
504:القوات اللبنانية
477:
439:March 8 Alliance
392:Political system
326:in West Beirut.
312:Operation Litani
132:Edict of Gulhane
66:Syriac Catholics
2938:
2937:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2829:Oriente Moderno
2824:
2819:
2818:
2814:
2804:
2803:
2794:
2784:
2782:
2774:
2773:
2769:
2759:
2757:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2734:
2732:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2691:
2689:
2676:Hassan Krayem.
2675:
2674:
2667:
2657:
2655:
2639:(10): 825–855.
2628:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2551:
2549:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2467:on 13 May 2012.
2454:
2453:
2446:
2427:
2423:
2401:
2397:
2379:Mariam Farida,
2378:
2374:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2347:
2345:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2322:
2318:
2309:
2307:
2298:
2297:
2293:
2283:
2281:
2272:
2271:
2264:
2254:
2252:
2244:
2243:
2234:
2224:
2223:
2216:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2191:
2190:
2173:
2163:
2162:
2151:
2136:10.2307/3013264
2121:
2120:
2116:
2104:
2100:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2041:
2040:
2027:
2006:
1994:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1954:
1942:
1928:
1927:
1923:
1902:
1890:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1850:
1838:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1798:
1786:
1772:
1771:
1762:
1738:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1717:
1710:
1700:
1699:
1684:
1667:
1660:
1659:
1652:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1624:
1623:
1616:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1557:
1556:
1545:
1535:
1534:
1519:
1509:
1507:
1499:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1477:Confessionalism
1458:
1434:right of return
1404:. According to
1398:
1388:
1379:
1366:
1357:
1199:Jumblatt family
1129:
1066:Salafi movement
908:Future Movement
819:
743:Marada Movement
659:as part of the
500:Lebanese Forces
473:
468:
451:Future Movement
400:
394:
381:
375:
260:Lebanese Forces
243:
237:
212:confessionalism
207:
201:
172:standardization
163:divide and rule
155:
149:
123:
118:
62:Syriac Orthodox
50:Greek Catholics
12:
11:
5:
2936:
2934:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2889:
2854:
2835:(2): 388–389.
2812:
2792:
2767:
2742:
2717:
2699:
2665:
2616:
2579:(3): 346–365.
2559:
2513:
2470:
2461:Reuters Africa
2444:
2421:
2395:
2372:
2354:
2329:
2316:
2304:L'Orient Today
2291:
2262:
2232:
2214:
2199:
2171:
2149:
2130:(200): 23–30.
2114:
2098:
2049:
2025:
1992:
1973:
1940:
1921:
1888:
1869:
1836:
1817:
1784:
1760:
1726:
1708:
1682:
1650:
1632:
1614:
1595:
1580:
1565:
1543:
1517:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1457:
1454:
1387:
1384:
1378:
1375:
1365:
1362:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1342:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1320:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1280:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1255:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1227:Chouf District
1211:paramilitarism
1207:Chouf District
1191:
1179:
1176:
1174:Walid Jumblatt
1171:
1168:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1036:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
985:
968:
965:
964:
941:
935:
930:
925:
922:
905:
902:
901:
886:Shia community
882:
876:
871:
866:
858:
841:
838:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
818:
815:
812:
811:
776:
770:
765:
760:
757:
740:
737:
736:
725:
719:
714:
709:
703:
688:
685:
684:
681:Bashir Gemayel
665:Gemayel family
661:Lebanese Front
645:Phalange Party
641:
635:
630:
625:
622:
605:
602:
601:
586:
581:
576:
571:
568:
551:
548:
547:
536:former militia
532:
527:
522:
517:
514:
497:
494:
493:
490:
487:
484:
481:
472:
469:
467:
464:
434:
433:
430:
427:
396:Main article:
393:
390:
379:Taif Agreement
377:Main article:
374:
371:
359:Saddam Hussein
347:Walid Jumblatt
320:Bachir Gemayel
264:Lebanese Front
239:Main article:
236:
233:
203:Main article:
200:
197:
151:Main article:
148:
147:French mandate
145:
122:
119:
117:
114:
102:par excellence
98:Taif Agreement
46:Greek Orthodox
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2935:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2855:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2816:
2813:
2808:
2801:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2781:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2731:
2727:
2721:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2627:
2620:
2617:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2563:
2560:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2517:
2514:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2432:
2425:
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912:تيار المستقبل
909:
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896:in 1978. The
895:
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167:Ja'fari court
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128:Ibrahim Pasha
120:
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2903:Sectarianism
2870:(3): 78–81.
2867:
2863:
2857:
2832:
2828:
2815:
2806:
2783:. Retrieved
2779:
2770:
2758:. Retrieved
2754:
2745:
2733:. Retrieved
2729:
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2702:
2690:. Retrieved
2686:the original
2656:. Retrieved
2636:
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2619:
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2572:
2562:
2550:. Retrieved
2530:
2526:
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2483:
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2473:
2465:the original
2460:
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2398:
2381:
2375:
2366:
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2344:. 2022-01-24
2341:
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2306:. 2022-05-17
2303:
2294:
2282:. Retrieved
2278:
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1982:
1976:
1930:
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1537:
1508:. Retrieved
1504:
1495:
1482:Za'im system
1462:Sectarianism
1442:
1438:Oslo process
1427:
1422:naturalizing
1418:Palestinians
1399:
1380:
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890:Musa al-Sadr
861:
854:Ḥarakat Amal
853:
851:
846:
752:
750:
745:
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698:
696:
693:
649:As a militia
628:Samy Gemayel
617:
615:
610:
563:
561:
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520:Samir Geagea
509:
507:
502:
455:
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416:Constitution
412:confessional
401:
386:Eugene Rogan
382:
367:
352:
336:
333:
328:Amin Gemayel
316:
300:
268:Kataeb Party
253:
244:
208:
176:codification
156:
124:
121:19th century
110:
106:
101:
86:sectarianism
16:
15:
2084:10852/34924
1326:Wiam Wahhab
1270:Officially
1181:Officially
1074:Sunni Islam
981:Ḥizbu 'llāh
928:Saad Hariri
869:Nabih Berri
792:Middle Ages
747:تيار المردة
590:Michel Aoun
538:during the
355:Michel Aoun
184:Jabal ‘Amil
2897:Categories
2594:1887/27585
2428:E. Azani,
2411:, 2012
2348:2022-01-31
2310:2022-07-08
2168:: 5. 2013.
2069:(2): 239.
2002:1334107801
1950:1334107801
1898:1334107801
1846:1334107801
1794:1334107801
1488:References
1445:Syrian war
1390:See also:
1346:Wiam Wahab
963:politics.
2884:234607624
2849:155035759
2751:"Lebanon"
2653:110251115
2603:1753-1055
2547:154765577
2442:pp. 59–63
2419:pp. 21ff.
2342:Arab News
2010:cite book
1958:cite book
1906:cite book
1854:cite book
1802:cite book
1671:cite book
1140:Alliance
1070:Wahhabism
1045:al-Aḥbāsh
971:Hezbollah
953:Beirut II
830:Alliance
788:Mardaites
669:Achrafieh
584:Christian
530:Christian
486:Alliance
471:Christian
343:Hezbollah
338:Murabitun
292:Karantina
70:Assyrians
2611:33389563
2552:10 April
2508:55520804
2393:pp. 1–3.
1456:See also
1402:refugees
1225:and the
1107:March 14
975:حزب الله
949:North II
933:March 14
848:حركة أمل
808:Frangieh
774:Maronite
723:Armenian
639:Maronite
633:March 14
525:March 14
441:and the
140:Tanzimat
38:Ismailis
34:Alawites
2500:4129146
2144:3013264
1414:Syrians
1337:Mainly
1331:March 8
1275:Mainly
1272:Secular
1266:March 8
1186:Mainly
1183:Secular
1137:Leader
1055:March 8
1041:الأحباش
996:March 8
937:Mainly
878:Mainly
874:March 8
827:Leader
800:Zgharta
780:militia
772:Mainly
768:March 8
735:faith.
721:Mainly
717:March 8
637:Mainly
624:Kataeb
598:Jezzine
594:Batroun
579:March 8
483:Leader
408:liberal
248:militia
116:History
90:Ottoman
2882:
2847:
2785:12 May
2760:12 May
2735:12 May
2692:27 May
2658:1 July
2651:
2609:
2601:
2545:
2506:
2498:
2438:
2415:
2389:
2284:12 May
2255:14 May
2142:
2093:195924
2091:
2000:
1990:
1948:
1938:
1896:
1886:
1844:
1834:
1792:
1782:
1510:14 May
1231:canton
1146:Notes
1134:Party
1001:Shiite
880:Shiite
836:Notes
824:Party
817:Muslim
677:Pierre
492:Notes
480:Party
307:Israel
296:Damour
278:, the
188:Beirut
159:French
28:, 31%
2880:S2CID
2845:S2CID
2825:(PDF)
2780:UNRWA
2755:UNHCR
2730:UNHCR
2649:S2CID
2629:(PDF)
2607:S2CID
2543:S2CID
2504:S2CID
2496:JSTOR
2140:JSTOR
2110:2018.
2089:JSTOR
1749:: 2.
1739:(PDF)
1611:: 63.
1410:UNRWA
1406:UNHCR
1339:Druze
1284:Druze
1277:Druze
1195:Druze
1188:Druze
1178:None
1127:Druze
1112:Sunni
1060:Sunni
1038:ICPA
961:Sunni
957:Akkar
939:Sunni
860:Amal
804:Koura
489:Sect
302:Syria
82:Druze
78:Copts
26:Sunni
2787:2022
2762:2022
2737:2022
2694:2005
2660:2012
2599:ISSN
2554:2009
2436:ISBN
2413:ISBN
2387:ISBN
2286:2022
2257:2022
2020:link
2016:link
1998:OCLC
1988:ISBN
1968:link
1964:link
1946:OCLC
1936:ISBN
1916:link
1912:link
1894:OCLC
1884:ISBN
1864:link
1860:link
1842:OCLC
1832:ISBN
1812:link
1808:link
1790:OCLC
1780:ISBN
1677:link
1512:2022
1430:1948
1394:and
1322:LUM
1257:LDP
1170:PSP
1068:and
955:and
802:and
707:ՀՅԴ
705:ARF
679:and
673:Metn
671:and
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596:and
570:FPM
410:and
288:Amal
186:and
178:and
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36:and
30:Shia
2872:doi
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2132:doi
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2079:hdl
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1100:IG
987:HA
924:FM
863:أمل
759:MM
516:LF
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