684:, but the padding will obscure only the least-significant bits of the object's total length, leaving the approximate length of large objects readily observable and hence still potentially uniquely identifiable by their length. If the maximum padding M is comparable to the size of the payload, in contrast, an eavesdropper's uncertainty about the message's true payload size is much larger, at the cost that padding may add up to 100% overhead (
2614:
212:
722:
classes, then these plus-or-minus one payload lengths will consistently yield different padded lengths as well (plus-or-minus one block for example), leaking exactly the fine-grained information the attacker desires. Against such risks, randomized padding can offer more protection by independently obscuring the least-significant bits of message lengths.
729:, however, padding deterministically to a block size much smaller than the message payload obscures only the least-significant bits of the messages true length, leaving the messages's true approximate length largely unprotected. Padding messages to a power of two (or any other fixed base) reduces the maximum amount of
283:. Padding oracle attacks allow the attacker to gain knowledge of the plain text without attacking the block cipher primitive itself. Padding oracle attacks can be avoided by making sure that an attacker cannot gain knowledge about the removal of the padding bytes. This can be accomplished by verifying a
679:
A random number of additional padding bits or bytes may be appended to the end of a message, together with an indication at the end how much padding was added. If the amount of padding is chosen as a uniform random number between 0 and some maximum M, for example, then an eavesdropper will be unable
605:
The operation is referred to as "padding" because originally, random material was simply appended to the message to make it long enough for the primitive. This form of padding is not secure and is therefore no longer applied. A modern padding scheme aims to ensure that the attacker cannot manipulate
642:
streams that use variable bit rate encoding, the number of bits per unit of time is not obscured, and this can be exploited to guess spoken phrases. Similarly, the burst patterns that common video encoders produce are often sufficient to identify the streaming video a user is watching uniquely. Even
133:
Admiral Halsey interpreted the padding phrase "the world wonders" as a sarcastic reprimand, which caused him to have an emotional outburst and then lock himself in his bridge and sulk for an hour before he moved his forces to assist at the Battle off Samar. Halsey's radio operator should have been
709:
A deterministic padding scheme always pads a message payload of a given length to form an encrypted message of a particular corresponding output length. When many payload lengths map to the same padded output length, an eavesdropper cannot distinguish or learn any information about the payload's
721:
variations in payload size, such as plus or minus just one byte in a password-guessing attack for example. If the message sender is unlucky enough to send many messages whose payload lengths vary by only one byte, and that length is exactly on the border between two of the deterministic padding
695:
successive messages from the same sender, and those messages are similar in ways the attacker knows or can guess, then the eavesdropper can use statistical techniques to decrease and eventually even eliminate the benefit of randomized padding. For example, suppose a user's application regularly
141:
Many classical ciphers arrange the plaintext into particular patterns (e.g., squares, rectangles, etc.) and if the plaintext does not exactly fit, it is often necessary to supply additional letters to fill out the pattern. Using nonsense letters for this purpose has a side benefit of making some
45:
is any of a number of distinct practices which all include adding data to the beginning, middle, or end of a message prior to encryption. In classical cryptography, padding may include adding nonsense phrases to a message to obscure the fact that many messages end in predictable ways, e.g.
452:
is added. This is necessary so the deciphering algorithm can determine with certainty whether the last byte of the last block is a pad byte indicating the number of padding bytes added or part of the plaintext message. Consider a plaintext message that is an integer multiple of
305:
A single '1' bit is added to the message and then as many '0' bits as required (possibly none) are added. The number of '0' bits added will depend on the block boundary to which the message needs to be extended. In bit terms this is "1000 ... 0000".
714:, even after many observations of the identical-length messages being transmitted. In this respect, deterministic padding schemes have the advantage of not leaking any additional information with each successive message of the same payload size.
630:
they talked. In some circumstances this leakage can be highly compromising. Consider for example when a military is organising a secret attack against another nation: it may suffice to alert the other nation for them to know merely that there
473:
plaintext byte, the deciphering algorithm can always treat the last byte as a pad byte and strip the appropriate number of pad bytes off the end of the ciphertext; said number of bytes to be stripped based on the value of the last byte.
167:
Many padding schemes are based on appending predictable data to the final block. For example, the pad could be derived from the total length of the message. This kind of padding scheme is commonly applied to hash algorithms that use the
159:
process messages in fixed-length blocks; all but the earliest hash functions include some sort of padding scheme. It is critical for cryptographic hash functions to employ termination schemes that prevent a hash from being vulnerable to
545:
Zero padding may not be reversible if the original file ends with one or more zero bytes, making it impossible to distinguish between plaintext data bytes and padding bytes. It may be used when the length of the message can be derived
499: − 1 bytes set to '00', until the end of the block is reached. ISO/IEC 7816-4 itself is a communication standard for smart cards containing a file system, and in itself does not contain any cryptographic specifications.
700:
an endpoint to send messages regularly, such as if the victim is a public server. In such cases, the eavesdropper can simply compute the average over many observations to determine the length of the regular message's payload.
670:
harder by obscuring the true length of its payload. The choice of length to pad a message to may be made either deterministically or randomly; each approach has strengths and weaknesses that apply in different contexts.
527:
All the bytes that are required to be padded are padded with zero. The zero padding scheme has not been standardized for encryption, although it is specified for hashes and MACs as
Padding Method 1 in ISO/IEC 10118-1 and
309:
This method can be used to pad messages which are any number of bits long, not necessarily a whole number of bytes long. For example, a message of 23 bits that is padded with 9 bits in order to fill a 32-bit block:
363:
In ANSI X9.23, between 1 and 8 bytes are always added as padding. The block is padded with random bytes (although many implementations use 00) and the last byte of the block is set to the number of bytes added.
569:
Zero padding is sometimes also referred to as "null padding" or "zero byte padding". Some implementations may add an additional block of zero bytes if the plaintext is already divisible by the block size.
647:
of an object alone, such as a website, file, software package download, or online video, can uniquely identify an object, if the attacker knows or can guess a known set the object comes from. The
696:
sends messages of the same length, and the eavesdropper knows or can guess fact based on fingerprinting the user's application for example. Alternatively, an active attacker might be able to
477:
PKCS#5 padding is identical to PKCS#7 padding, except that it has only been defined for block ciphers that use a 64-bit (8-byte) block size. In practice, the two can be used interchangeably.
382:
ISO 10126 (withdrawn, 2007) specifies that the padding should be done at the end of that last block with random bytes, and the padding boundary should be specified by the last byte.
2594:
2424:
725:
Common deterministic padding methods include padding to a constant block size and padding to the next-larger power of two. Like randomized padding with a small maximum amount
1051:
Wright, Charles V.; Ballard, Lucas; Coull, Scott E.; Monrose, Fabian; Masson, Gerald M. (1 December 2010). "Uncovering Spoken
Phrases in Encrypted Voice over IP Conversations".
777:
bits of information via its length, like padding to a power of two, but incurs much less overhead of at most 12% for tiny messages and decreasing gradually with message size.
680:
to determine the message's length precisely within that range. If the maximum padding M is small compared to the message's total size, then this padding will not add much
755:. Padding to a power of two increases message size overhead by up to 100%, however, and padding to powers of larger integer bases increase maximum overhead further.
461:. With no additional information, the deciphering algorithm will not be able to determine whether the last byte is a plaintext byte or a pad byte. However, by adding
268:. Streaming modes of operation can encrypt and decrypt messages of any size and therefore do not require padding. More intricate ways of ending a message such as
2277:
1150:
Sun, Qixiang; Simon, D.R.; Wang, Yi-Min; Russell, W.; Padmanabhan, V.N.; Qiu, Lili (May 2002). "Statistical
Identification of Encrypted Web Browsing Traffic".
618:
Even if perfect cryptographic routines are used, the attacker can gain knowledge of the amount of traffic that was generated. The attacker might not know what
2212:
1293:
766:
whose mantissa is no longer (i.e., contains no more significant bits) than its exponent. This length constraint ensures that a message leaks at most
2039:
1395:
264:
There is currently a shift to use streaming mode of operation instead of block mode of operation. An example of streaming mode encryption is the
329:
138:
that "the world wonders" was padding; all other radio operators who received
Admiral Nimitz's message correctly removed both padding phrases.
70:
that aids in breaking the encryption. Random length padding also prevents an attacker from knowing the exact length of the plaintext message.
2029:
1523:
1134:
595:
1930:
2192:
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2034:
955:
925:
169:
2007:
200:
2270:
1167:
908:
874:
251:
125:
Halsey's radio operator mistook some of the padding for the message and so
Admiral Halsey ended up reading the following message:
2176:
1286:
1121:. International Workshop on Privacy Enhancing Technologies. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 2482. pp. 171–178.
2055:
265:
203:
require plain text input that is a multiple of the block size, so messages may have to be padded to bring them to this length.
192:
1097:
606:
the plaintext to exploit the mathematical structure of the primitive and will usually be accompanied by a proof, often in the
2473:
2233:
591:
495:
bytes. This means in practice that the first byte is a mandatory byte valued '80' (Hexadecimal) followed, if needed, by 0 to
196:
1039:
Information technology – Security techniques – Message
Authentication Codes (MACs) – Part 1: Mechanisms using a block cipher
367:
Example: In the following example the block size is 8 bytes, and padding is required for 4 bytes (in hexadecimal format)
233:
222:
2263:
1323:
1258:
994:
980:
730:
117:
GG FROM CINCPAC ACTION COM THIRD FLEET INFO COMINCH CTF SEVENTY-SEVEN X WHERE IS RPT WHERE IS TASK FORCE THIRTY FOUR RR
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2119:
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are added. The number of bytes added will depend on the block boundary to which the message needs to be extended.
273:
582:, padding is the process of preparing a message for encryption or signing using a specification or scheme such as
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2141:
1997:
1950:
1425:
551:
97:, commander of Task Force Thirty Four (the main Allied fleet) at the Battle of Leyte Gulf, on October 25, 1944:
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2419:
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2089:
1964:
1333:
31:
1186:
Nikitin, Kirill; Barman, Ludovic; Lueks, Wouter; Underwood, Matthew; Hubaux, Jean-Pierre; Ford, Bryan (2019).
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2146:
1935:
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555:
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67:
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798:
280:
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2014:
1940:
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1603:
681:
563:
410:
Padding is in whole bytes. The value of each added byte is the number of bytes that are added, i.e.
82:
1065:
610:, that breaking the padding scheme is as hard as solving the hard problem underlying the primitive.
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814:
802:
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269:
94:
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Example: In the following example, the block size is 8 bytes and padding is required for 4 bytes
535:
Example: In the following example the block size is 8 bytes and padding is required for 4 bytes
502:
Example: In the following example the block size is 8 bytes and padding is required for 4 bytes
385:
Example: In the following example the block size is 8 bytes and padding is required for 4 bytes
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667:
547:
78:
63:
594:, PSSR, IEEE P1363 EMSA2 and EMSA5. A modern form of padding for asymmetric primitives is
2018:
2002:
1991:
1925:
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1849:
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A disadvantage of padding is that it makes the plain text of the message susceptible to
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In addition, in common scenarios in which an eavesdropper has the opportunity to see
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351:
Byte padding can be applied to messages that can be encoded as an integral number of
1226:
795:, another approach to deal with messages that are not a multiple of the block length
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2394:
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1905:
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1400:
1352:
1302:
1242:
Summarizing Known
Attacks on Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram TLS (DTLS)
1082:
488:
38:
811:, an alternative to padding for public key systems used to exchange symmetric keys
404:
427:
This padding method (as well as the previous two) is well-defined if and only if
2528:
1694:
1689:
1573:
1159:
821:, an encryption discipline that minimizes leakage from either metadata or length
294:
removal of the padding bytes, or by switching to a streaming mode of operation.
73:
A famous example of classical padding which caused a great misunderstanding is "
17:
1025:
Information technology – Security techniques – Hash-functions – Part 1: General
480:
The maximum block size is 255, as it is the biggest number a byte can contain.
2488:
2458:
2453:
2414:
2126:
1844:
1784:
1668:
1663:
1608:
1478:
1341:
1259:
csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM/documents/workshop2/presentations/xcbc.pdf
1117:
Hintz, Andrew (April 2002). "Fingerprinting
Websites Using Traffic Analysis".
90:
1217:
1188:"Reducing Metadata Leakage from Encrypted Files and Communication with PURBs"
1126:
865:
Willmott, H. P. (19 August 2005). "The Great Day of Wrath: 25 October 1944".
2478:
1859:
1854:
1744:
1658:
1553:
1533:
1074:
444:
If the length of the original data is an integer multiple of the block size
717:
On the other hand, suppose an eavesdropper can benefit from learning about
491:-4:2005 is identical to the bit padding scheme, applied to a plain text of
1036:
1022:
2523:
2483:
2197:
2161:
1955:
1618:
1493:
1473:
1385:
763:
320:
This padding is the first step of a two-step padding scheme used in many
184:
such as SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512, SHA-512/224, and SHA-512/256
106:
333:
1864:
1814:
1774:
1764:
1709:
1704:
1548:
1357:
1241:
1099:
Beauty and the Burst: Remote
Identification of Encrypted Video Streams
66:
is to prevent the cryptanalyst from using that predictability to find
2404:
2202:
1824:
1819:
1754:
1739:
1729:
1674:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1518:
1503:
660:
424:
01 02 02 03 03 03 04 04 04 04 05 05 05 05 05 06 06 06 06 06 06 etc.
129:
Where is, repeat, where is Task Force Thirty Four? The world wonders
30:
This article is about cryptography. For other uses of the term, see
1207:
899:
America's
Fighting Admirals: Winning the War at Sea in World War II
77:" incident, which nearly caused an Allied loss at the World War II
1920:
1879:
1829:
1809:
1794:
1583:
1563:
1483:
1448:
656:
652:
583:
181:
177:
1769:
1678:
1593:
1588:
1578:
1558:
1430:
1415:
762:, deterministically pads messages to lengths representable as a
639:
587:
400:
352:
2259:
1275:
1096:
Schuster, Roei; Shmatikov, Vitaly; Tromer, Eran (August 2017).
651:
of encrypted content length was used to extract passwords from
27:
Adding data to a message prior to encryption to hide its length
1874:
1789:
1410:
1405:
325:
205:
173:
58:
Official messages often start and end in predictable ways:
1154:. IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. pp. 19–30.
199:. Some block cipher modes (CBC and PCBC essentially) for
1240:
Sheffer, Y.; Holz, R.; Saint-Andre, P. (February 2015).
602:, when it is used to encrypt a limited number of bytes.
1152:
Proceedings 2002 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy
2425:
Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator
1195:
Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PoPETS)
515:... | DD DD DD DD DD DD DD DD | DD DD DD DD DD DD DD
232:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
1263:
943:
https://www.cs.columbia.edu/~smb/classes/s09/l05.pdf
789:, mixing in large amounts of nonsense before sending
302:
Bit padding can be applied to messages of any size.
2537:
2293:
2221:
2185:
1974:
1893:
1439:
1366:
1314:
1053:
ACM Transactions on Information and System Security
60:
My dear ambassador, Weather report, Sincerely yours
896:
512:The next example shows a padding of just one byte
101:Where is, repeat, where is Task Force Thirty Four?
867:The Battle of Leyte Gulf: The Last Fleet Action
127:
111:
99:
733:that the message can leak via its length from
2271:
1287:
8:
848:The Hut Six Story: Breaking the Enigma Codes
538:... | DD DD DD DD DD DD DD DD | DD DD DD DD
505:... | DD DD DD DD DD DD DD DD | DD DD DD DD
457:bytes with the last byte of plaintext being
437:... | DD DD DD DD DD DD DD DD | DD DD DD DD
388:... | DD DD DD DD DD DD DD DD | DD DD DD DD
370:... | DD DD DD DD DD DD DD DD | DD DD DD DD
805:, which are sometimes confused with padding
622:were talking about, but can know that they
614:Traffic analysis and protection via padding
2278:
2264:
2256:
1294:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1264:
860:
858:
856:
448:, then an extra block of bytes with value
1216:
1206:
1181:
1179:
1064:
252:Learn how and when to remove this message
550:. It is often applied to binary encoded
228:Relevant discussion may be found on the
926:"FIPS 180-4 Secure Hash Standard (SHS)"
890:
888:
886:
836:
710:true length within one of these length
142:kinds of cryptanalysis more difficult.
93:in WWII, sent the following message to
62:, etc. The primary use of padding with
666:Padding an encrypted message can make
332:. In this context, it is specified by
91:Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet
7:
827:, another technique to prevent cribs
760:padded uniform random blobs or PURBs
638:As another example, when encrypting
635:a lot of secret activity going on.
201:symmetric-key encryption algorithms
956:"ANSI X9.23 cipher block chaining"
339:This padding scheme is defined by
313:... | 1011 1001 1101 0100 0010 011
25:
655:communications in the well-known
285:message authentication code (MAC)
2613:
2612:
210:
758:The PADMÉ scheme, proposed for
562:can usually be stripped off as
2474:Information-theoretic security
1119:Privacy Enhancing Technologies
197:block cipher mode of operation
188:Block cipher mode of operation
1:
869:. Indiana University Press.
421:The padding will be one of:
276:avoid the need for padding.
195:(CBC) mode is an example of
157:cryptographic hash functions
2590:Message authentication code
2545:Cryptographic hash function
2358:Cryptographic hash function
1160:10.1109/SECPRI.2002.1004359
170:Merkle–Damgård construction
109:added, the message became:
2664:
2469:Harvest now, decrypt later
903:. MBI Publishing Company.
819:padded uniform random blob
274:residual block termination
134:tipped off by the letters
105:With padding (bolded) and
29:
2608:
2585:Post-quantum cryptography
2255:
2177:Time/memory/data tradeoff
1271:
1267:
1104:USENIX Security Symposium
688:blow-up) to the message.
266:counter mode of operation
2575:Quantum key distribution
2565:Authenticated encryption
2420:Random number generation
1965:Whitening transformation
1218:10.2478/popets-2019-0056
1127:10.1007/3-540-36467-6_13
162:length extension attacks
32:Padding (disambiguation)
2570:Public-key cryptography
2560:Symmetric-key algorithm
2363:Key derivation function
2323:Cryptographic primitive
2316:Authentication protocol
2306:Outline of cryptography
2301:History of cryptography
1936:Confusion and diffusion
1075:10.1145/1880022.1880029
895:Tuohy, William (2007).
580:public key cryptography
574:Public key cryptography
2311:Cryptographic protocol
787:Chaffing and winnowing
556:null-terminated string
281:padding oracle attacks
146:Symmetric cryptography
131:
123:
103:
87:Admiral Chester Nimitz
54:Classical cryptography
2464:End-to-end encryption
2410:Cryptojacking malware
2229:Initialization vector
1023:ISO/IEC 10118-1:2016
799:Initialization vector
764:floating point number
705:Deterministic padding
414:bytes, each of value
343:as Padding Method 2.
193:Cipher-block chaining
115:TURKEY TROTS TO WATER
81:, part of the larger
2580:Quantum cryptography
2504:Trusted timestamping
2008:3-subset MITM attack
1624:Intel Cascade Cipher
1604:Hasty Pudding cipher
1037:ISO/IEC 9797-1:2011
960:IBM Knowledge Center
465:bytes each of value
221:factual accuracy is
83:Battle of Leyte Gulf
2343:Cryptographic nonce
2047:Differential-linear
1011:ISO/IEC 7816-4:2005
803:salt (cryptography)
793:Ciphertext stealing
608:random oracle model
270:ciphertext stealing
95:Admiral Bull Halsey
85:. In that example,
2648:Padding algorithms
2449:Subliminal channel
2433:Pseudorandom noise
2380:Key (cryptography)
2120:Differential-fault
1338:internal mechanics
825:Russian copulation
675:Randomized padding
431:is less than 256.
2630:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2509:Key-based routing
2499:Trapdoor function
2370:Digital signature
2251:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2234:Mode of operation
1911:Lai–Massey scheme
1136:978-3-540-00565-0
809:Key encapsulation
396:PKCS#5 and PKCS#7
289:digital signature
262:
261:
254:
119:THE WORLD WONDERS
75:the world wonders
64:classical ciphers
16:(Redirected from
2655:
2616:
2615:
2444:Insecure channel
2280:
2273:
2266:
2257:
2105:Power-monitoring
1946:Avalanche effect
1654:Khufu and Khafre
1307:security summary
1296:
1289:
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1000:
997:ISO 10126-2:1991
992:
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983:ISO 10126-1:1991
978:
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743:
687:
668:traffic analysis
403:is described in
257:
250:
246:
243:
237:
234:reliably sourced
214:
213:
206:
121:
79:Battle off Samar
21:
18:Security padding
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2633:
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2289:
2284:
2243:
2217:
2186:Standardization
2181:
2110:Electromagnetic
2062:Integral/Square
2019:Piling-up lemma
2003:Biclique attack
1992:EFF DES cracker
1976:
1970:
1901:Feistel network
1889:
1514:CIPHERUNICORN-E
1509:CIPHERUNICORN-A
1441:
1435:
1368:
1362:
1316:
1310:
1300:
1254:
1252:Further reading
1249:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1170:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1066:10.1.1.363.1973
1050:
1049:
1045:
1035:
1031:
1021:
1017:
1007:
1003:
993:
989:
979:
975:
965:
963:
954:
953:
949:
941:
937:
928:
923:
922:
918:
911:
894:
893:
884:
877:
864:
863:
854:
844:Gordon Welchman
842:
838:
834:
783:
767:
745:
734:
707:
685:
677:
616:
598:applied to the
576:
543:
525:
520:
510:
486:
468:
464:
456:
451:
447:
442:
430:
425:
417:
413:
398:
393:
380:
375:
361:
349:
318:
300:
258:
247:
241:
238:
227:
219:This section's
215:
211:
190:
153:
148:
113:
68:known plaintext
56:
48:sincerely yours
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2661:
2659:
2651:
2650:
2645:
2635:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2595:Random numbers
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2541:
2539:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2519:Garlic routing
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2439:Secure channel
2436:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2400:Key stretching
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2350:
2348:Cryptovirology
2345:
2340:
2335:
2333:Cryptocurrency
2330:
2325:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2308:
2303:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2290:
2285:
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2275:
2268:
2260:
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2236:
2231:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2052:Distinguishing
2049:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2022:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2005:
1995:
1984:
1982:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1916:Product cipher
1913:
1908:
1903:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
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1837:
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1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
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1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1544:Cryptomeria/C2
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
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1437:
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1428:
1423:
1418:
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1403:
1398:
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1378:
1372:
1370:
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1331:
1326:
1320:
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1311:
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1299:
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1291:
1284:
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1253:
1250:
1248:
1247:
1232:
1175:
1168:
1142:
1135:
1109:
1088:
1043:
1029:
1015:
1001:
987:
973:
947:
935:
916:
909:
882:
875:
852:
835:
833:
830:
829:
828:
822:
812:
806:
796:
790:
782:
779:
706:
703:
676:
673:
615:
612:
575:
572:
560:null character
537:
530:ISO/IEC 9797-1
524:
521:
514:
504:
485:
484:ISO/IEC 7816-4
482:
466:
462:
454:
449:
445:
436:
428:
423:
415:
411:
397:
394:
387:
379:
376:
369:
360:
357:
348:
345:
341:ISO/IEC 9797-1
322:hash functions
312:
299:
296:
260:
259:
218:
216:
209:
189:
186:
152:
151:Hash functions
149:
147:
144:
55:
52:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2660:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2619:
2611:
2610:
2607:
2601:
2600:Steganography
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2555:Stream cipher
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2514:Onion routing
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2494:Shared secret
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
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2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2390:Key generator
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2353:Hash function
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2328:Cryptanalysis
2326:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2288:
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2276:
2274:
2269:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2132:Interpolation
2130:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
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2068:
2065:
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2057:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1979:cryptanalysis
1973:
1966:
1962:
1961:Key whitening
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1898:
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1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1750:New Data Seal
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
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1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1489:BEAR and LION
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
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1407:
1404:
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1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
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1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1365:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1303:Block ciphers
1297:
1292:
1290:
1285:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1260:
1256:
1255:
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1236:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1169:0-7695-1543-6
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1143:
1138:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1113:
1110:
1105:
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1100:
1092:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1062:
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1047:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1009:ISO catalog,
1005:
1002:
999:
998:
995:ISO catalog,
991:
988:
985:
984:
981:ISO catalog,
977:
974:
961:
957:
951:
948:
944:
939:
936:
927:
920:
917:
912:
910:9780760329856
906:
901:
900:
891:
889:
887:
883:
878:
876:9780253003515
872:
868:
861:
859:
857:
853:
849:
845:
840:
837:
831:
826:
823:
820:
816:
813:
810:
807:
804:
800:
797:
794:
791:
788:
785:
784:
780:
778:
774:
770:
765:
761:
756:
752:
748:
741:
737:
732:
728:
723:
720:
715:
713:
704:
702:
699:
694:
689:
683:
674:
672:
669:
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
641:
640:Voice Over IP
636:
634:
629:
625:
621:
620:Alice and Bob
613:
611:
609:
603:
601:
600:RSA algorithm
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
573:
571:
567:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
541:
536:
533:
531:
522:
518:
513:
508:
503:
500:
498:
494:
490:
483:
481:
478:
475:
472:
460:
440:
435:
432:
422:
419:
408:
406:
402:
395:
391:
386:
383:
377:
373:
368:
365:
358:
356:
354:
346:
344:
342:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
316:
311:
307:
303:
297:
295:
293:
290:
286:
282:
277:
275:
271:
267:
256:
253:
245:
235:
231:
225:
224:
217:
208:
207:
204:
202:
198:
194:
187:
185:
183:
179:
175:
171:
165:
163:
158:
150:
145:
143:
139:
137:
130:
126:
122:
120:
116:
110:
108:
102:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
69:
65:
61:
53:
51:
49:
44:
40:
33:
19:
2643:Cryptography
2550:Block cipher
2395:Key schedule
2385:Key exchange
2375:Kleptography
2338:Cryptosystem
2287:Cryptography
2238:
2137:Partitioning
2095:Side-channel
2073:
2040:Higher-order
2025:Differential
1906:Key schedule
1235:
1198:
1194:
1151:
1145:
1118:
1112:
1098:
1091:
1056:
1052:
1046:
1038:
1032:
1024:
1018:
1010:
1004:
996:
990:
982:
976:
964:. Retrieved
959:
950:
938:
919:
898:
866:
847:
839:
818:
772:
768:
757:
750:
746:
739:
735:
726:
724:
718:
716:
711:
708:
697:
692:
690:
678:
665:
649:side-channel
644:
637:
632:
627:
626:talking and
623:
617:
604:
577:
568:
544:
539:
534:
526:
523:Zero padding
516:
511:
506:
501:
496:
492:
489:ISO/IEC 7816
487:
479:
476:
470:
458:
443:
438:
433:
426:
420:
409:
399:
389:
384:
381:
371:
366:
362:
350:
347:Byte padding
338:
319:
314:
308:
304:
301:
291:
278:
263:
248:
242:January 2016
239:
220:
191:
182:SHA-2 family
166:
155:Most modern
154:
140:
135:
132:
128:
124:
118:
114:
112:
104:
100:
72:
59:
57:
47:
42:
39:cryptography
36:
2538:Mathematics
2529:Mix network
2222:Utilization
2208:NSA Suite B
2193:AES process
2142:Rubber-hose
2080:Related-key
1988:Brute-force
1367:Less common
1201:(4): 6–33.
966:31 December
731:information
548:out-of-band
540:00 00 00 00
507:80 00 00 00
439:04 04 04 04
390:81 A6 23 04
372:00 00 00 04
315:1 0000 0000
298:Bit padding
2637:Categories
2489:Ciphertext
2459:Decryption
2454:Encryption
2415:Ransomware
2172:Chi-square
2090:Rotational
2030:Impossible
1951:Block size
1845:Spectr-H64
1669:Ladder-DES
1664:Kuznyechik
1609:Hierocrypt
1479:BassOmatic
1442:algorithms
1369:algorithms
1342:Triple DES
1317:algorithms
1208:1806.03160
832:References
645:total size
564:whitespace
469:after the
359:ANSI X9.23
336:step 3.1.
324:including
2479:Plaintext
2147:Black-bag
2067:Boomerang
2056:Known-key
2035:Truncated
1860:Threefish
1855:SXAL/MBAL
1745:MultiSwap
1700:MacGuffin
1659:KN-Cipher
1599:Grand Cru
1554:CS-Cipher
1534:COCONUT98
1244:(Report).
1061:CiteSeerX
1059:(4): 35.
771:(log log
749:(log log
663:attacks.
558:) as the
378:ISO 10126
230:talk page
2618:Category
2524:Kademlia
2484:Codetext
2427:(CSPRNG)
2198:CRYPTREC
2162:Weak key
2115:Acoustic
1956:Key size
1800:Red Pike
1619:IDEA NXT
1499:Chiasmus
1494:CAST-256
1474:BaseKing
1459:Akelarre
1454:Adiantum
1421:Skipjack
1386:CAST-128
1381:Camellia
1329:Blowfish
1227:47011059
850:, p. 78.
781:See also
682:overhead
628:how much
405:RFC 5652
223:disputed
172:such as
107:metadata
2294:General
2239:Padding
2157:Rebound
1865:Treyfer
1815:SAVILLE
1775:PRESENT
1765:NOEKEON
1710:MAGENTA
1705:Madryga
1685:Lucifer
1549:CRYPTON
1358:Twofish
1348:Serpent
1083:9622722
945:, pg 17
931:. NIST.
712:buckets
552:strings
334:RFC1321
43:padding
2405:Keygen
2203:NESSIE
2152:Davies
2100:Timing
2015:Linear
1975:Attack
1894:Design
1885:Zodiac
1850:Square
1825:SHACAL
1820:SC2000
1780:Prince
1760:Nimbus
1755:NewDES
1740:MULTI2
1730:MISTY1
1673:LOKI (
1649:KHAZAD
1644:KeeLoq
1639:KASUMI
1634:Kalyna
1519:CLEFIA
1504:CIKS-1
1464:Anubis
1315:Common
1257:XCBC:
1225:
1166:
1133:
1081:
1063:
924:NIST.
907:
873:
698:induce
661:BREACH
586:v2.2,
584:PKCS#1
401:PKCS#7
292:before
180:, and
89:, the
2435:(PRN)
2085:Slide
1941:Round
1926:P-box
1921:S-box
1880:XXTEA
1840:Speck
1835:Simon
1830:SHARK
1810:SAFER
1795:REDOC
1720:Mercy
1679:89/91
1629:Iraqi
1594:G-DES
1584:FEA-M
1564:DES-X
1529:Cobra
1484:BATON
1469:Ascon
1449:3-Way
1440:Other
1223:S2CID
1203:arXiv
1191:(PDF)
1079:S2CID
962:. IBM
929:(PDF)
738:(log
719:small
657:CRIME
653:HTTPS
353:bytes
178:SHA-1
2213:CNSA
2072:Mod
1998:MITM
1770:NUSH
1725:MESH
1715:MARS
1589:FROG
1579:FEAL
1559:DEAL
1539:Crab
1524:CMEA
1431:XTEA
1416:SEED
1396:IDEA
1391:GOST
1376:ARIA
1199:2019
1164:ISBN
1131:ISBN
968:2018
905:ISBN
871:ISBN
815:PURB
693:many
659:and
643:the
624:were
596:OAEP
588:OAEP
328:and
174:MD-5
2167:Tau
2127:XSL
1931:SPN
1875:xmx
1870:UES
1805:S-1
1790:RC2
1735:MMB
1614:ICE
1569:DFC
1426:TEA
1411:RC6
1406:RC5
1401:LEA
1353:SM4
1334:DES
1324:AES
1213:doi
1156:doi
1123:doi
1071:doi
817:or
744:to
592:PSS
578:In
330:SHA
326:MD5
287:or
272:or
37:In
2639::
1695:M8
1690:M6
1677:,
1675:97
1574:E2
1340:,
1221:.
1211:.
1197:.
1193:.
1178:^
1162:.
1129:.
1102:.
1077:.
1069:.
1057:13
1055:.
958:.
885:^
855:^
846:,
801:,
686:2×
633:is
590:,
566:.
542:|
532:.
519:|
517:80
509:|
471:01
459:01
441:|
407:.
392:|
374:|
355:.
317:|
176:,
164:.
136:RR
50:.
41:,
2279:e
2272:t
2265:v
2074:n
2058:)
2054:(
2021:)
2017:(
1994:)
1990:(
1981:)
1977:(
1967:)
1963:(
1785:Q
1681:)
1344:)
1336:(
1309:)
1305:(
1295:e
1288:t
1281:v
1229:.
1215::
1205::
1172:.
1158::
1139:.
1125::
1106:.
1085:.
1073::
970:.
933:.
913:.
879:.
775:)
773:M
769:O
753:)
751:M
747:O
742:)
740:M
736:O
727:M
554:(
497:N
493:N
467:B
463:B
455:B
450:B
446:B
429:N
416:N
412:N
255:)
249:(
244:)
240:(
236:.
226:.
34:.
20:)
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