590:(IPCC) (1997) suggested that sea level rise over the next 50 – 100 years will accelerate with a projected increase in global mean sea level of +18 cm by 2050 AD. This data is reinforced by Hannah (1990) who calculated similar statistics including a rise of between +16-19.3 cm throughout 1900–1988. Superstorm Sandy of 2012 is an example of the devastating effects rising sea levels can cause when mixed with a perfect storm. Superstorm Sandy sent a storm surge of 4–5 m onto New Jersey's and New York's barrier island and urban shorelines, estimated at $ 70 billion in damage. This problem could be overcome by further modeling and determining the extension of height and reinforcement of current seawalls which needs to occur for safety to be ensured in both situations. Sea level rise also will cause a higher risk of flooding and taller tsunamis.
736:, UK, when great floods of the Thames estuary occurred, prompting the construction of protection for further events in this flood-prone area. Since then, seawall design has become more complex and intricate in response to an improvement in materials, technology, and an understanding of how coastal processes operate. This section will outline some key case studies of seawalls in chronological order and describe how they have performed in response to tsunamis or ongoing natural processes and how effective they were in these situations. Analyzing the successes and shortcomings of seawalls during severe natural events allows their weaknesses to be exposed, and areas become visible for future improvement.
352:
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823:, both located along the coast close to the earthquake zone, as the tsunami washed over walls that were supposed to protect the plants. Arguably, the additional defense provided by the seawalls presented an extra margin of time for citizens to evacuate and also stopped some of the full force of energy which would have caused the wave to climb higher in the backs of coastal valleys. In contrast, the seawalls also acted in a negative way to trap water and delay its retreat.
752:. The seawall was constructed initially as waves created by ships passing through the First Narrows eroding the area between Prospect Point and Brockton Point. Construction of the seawall began in 1917, and since then this pathway has become one of the most used features of the park by both locals and tourists and now extends 22 km in total. The construction of the seawall also provided employment for relief workers during the Great Depression and seamen from
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68:
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The failure of the world's largest seawall, which cost $ 1.5 billion to construct, shows that building stronger seawalls to protect larger areas would have been even less cost-effective. In the case of the ongoing crisis at the nuclear power plants, higher and stronger seawalls should have been built
440:
or coastal vegetation. A Japanese study of this tsunami in Sri Lanka used satellite imagery modelling to establish the parameters of coastal resistance as a function of different types of trees. Natural barriers, such as coral reefs and mangrove forests, prevent the spread of tsunamis and the flow of
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Some further issues include a lack of long-term trend data of seawall effects due to a relatively short duration of data records; modeling limitations and comparisons of different projects and their effects being invalid or unequal due to different beach types; materials; currents; and environments.
647:
The addition of seawalls near marine ecosystems can lead to increased shadowing effects in the waters surrounding the seawall. Shadowing reduces the light and visibility within the water, which may disrupt the distribution as well as foraging capabilities of certain species. The sediment surrounding
638:
or storm-induced waves compared to normal, expected wave patterns. An extreme event can dissipate hundreds of times more energy than everyday waves, and calculating structures that will stand the force of coastal storms is difficult and, often the outcome can become unaffordable. For example, the
791:
The barrier was initially completed in 1735 and over the years, the French continued to fortify the wall, piling huge boulders along its 1.25 mi (2 km) coastline to stop erosion from the waves pounding the harbor. At its highest, the barrier running along the water's edge reaches about
585:
creates an issue for seawalls worldwide as it raises both the mean normal water level and the height of waves during extreme weather events, which the current seawall heights may be unable to cope with. The most recent analyses of long, good-quality tide gauge records (corrected for GIA and when
766:
Overall, the
Vancouver Seawall is a prime example of how seawalls can simultaneously provide shoreline protection and a source of recreation which enhances human enjoyment of the coastal environment. It also illustrates that although shoreline erosion is a natural process, human activities,
454:
and human property or activities. A seawall is a static feature which can conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea. The table below summarizes some positive and negative effects of seawalls which can be used when comparing their
673:. Residents of the area pay hundreds of dollars each year for a seawall repair program. The problem is that most of the seawalls are over a half-century old and are being destroyed by only heavy downpours. If not kept in check, seawalls lose effectiveness and become expensive to repair.
816:, 4-metre (13 ft) waves surmounted the seawall – the world's largest, erected a few years ago in the city's harbor at a depth of 63 m (207 ft), a length of 2 km (1.2 mi) and a cost of $ 1.5 billion – and eventually submerged the city center.
568:
options, additionally providing recreation opportunities and protection from extreme events as well as everyday erosion. Extreme natural events expose weaknesses in the performance of seawalls, and analyses of these can lead to future improvements and reassessment.
783:
escaped unscathed. This was primarily due to French engineers who had constructed (and maintained) a massive stone seawall during the time when the city was a French colony. This 300-year-old seawall effectively kept
Pondicherry's historic center dry even though
792:
27 ft (8.2 m) above sea level. The boulders, some weighing up to a ton, are weathered black and brown. The seawall is inspected every year and whenever gaps appear or the stones sink into the sand, the government adds more boulders to keep it strong.
1127:
O’Shaughnessy, Kathryn A.; Hawkins, Stephen J.; Evans, Ally J.; Hanley, Mick E.; Lunt, Paul; Thompson, Richard C.; Francis, Robert A.; Hoggart, Simon P. G.; Moore, Pippa J.; Iglesias, Gregorio; Simmonds, David; Ducker, James; Firth, Louise B. (2020-04-01).
831:
to redesign its seawalls or consider more effective alternative methods of coastal protection for extreme events. Such hardened coastlines can also provide a false sense of security to property owners and local residents as evident in this situation.
713:
concrete which hardens in contact with seawater. Barges were constructed and filled with the concrete. They were floated into position and sunk. The resulting harbor/breakwater/seawall is still in existence today – more than 2000 years later.
449:
A cost-benefit approach is an effective way to determine whether a seawall is appropriate and whether the benefits are worth the expense. Besides controlling erosion, consideration must be given to the effects of hardening a shoreline on natural
261:
wave which moves up and down but does not travel horizontally. These waves promote erosion at the toe of the wall and can cause severe damage to the seawall. In some cases, piles are placed in front of the wall to lessen wave energy slightly.
559:
Generally, seawalls can be a successful way to control coastal erosion, but only if they are constructed well and out of materials that can withstand the force of ongoing wave energy. Some understanding is needed of the coastal processes and
1481:
Allan, J C, Kirk, R M, Hemmingsen, M & Hart, D. (1999) Coastal
Processes in Southern Pegasus Bay: A Review – A Report to Woodward-Clyde New Zealand Ltd. and the Christchurch City Council. Land and Water Studies Ltd.
807:
At least 43 percent of Japan's 29,751 km (18,486 mi) coastline is lined with concrete seawalls or other structures designed to protect the country against high waves, typhoons, or even tsunamis. During the
223:
The appropriate seawall design relies on location-specific aspects, including surrounding erosion processes. There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved, stepped, and mounds (see table below).
187:
A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion. Seawalls have two specific weaknesses. Wave reflection from the wall may result in
509:
Altered sediment transport processes can disrupt sand movement that can lead to increased erosion down drift from the structure. This can cause beaches to dissipate, rendering them useless for beach goers.
639:
Omaha Beach seawall in New
Zealand was designed to prevent erosion from everyday waves only, and when a storm in 1976 carved out ten meters behind the existing seawall, the whole structure was destroyed.
1535:
Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. 2007. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Retrieved Online 15 April 2011 from: www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports
1083:
Hsiung AR, Tan WT, Loke LHL, Firth LB and others (2020) Little evidence that lowering the pH of concrete supports greater biodiversity on tropical and temperate seawalls. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 656:193-205
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1892:
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may arise from the construction of a seawall, including the disruption of sediment movement and transport patterns. Combined with a high construction cost, this has led to increasing use of other
835:
Seawalls along the
Japanese coast have also been criticized for cutting settlements off from the sea, making beaches unusable, presenting an eyesore, disturbing wildlife, and being unnecessary.
795:
The Union
Territory of Pondicherry recorded around 600 deaths from the huge tsunami waves that struck India's coast after the mammoth underwater earthquake (which measured 9.0 on the
1866:
1607:"Understanding the effects of coastal defence structures on marine biota: The role of substrate composition and roughness in structuring sessile, macro- and meiofaunal communities"
376:. These serve to armour the shore and minimise erosion and may be either watertight or porous, which allows water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated.
372:, are used in less demanding settings where lower energy erosional processes operate. The least exposed sites involve the lowest-cost bulkheads and revetments of sand bags or
586:
possible for other vertical land motions by the Global
Positioning System, GPS) indicate a mean rate of sea level rise of 1.6–1.8 mm/yr over the twentieth century. The
1674:
1804:
1681:, "More failing Seawalls in Punta Gorda Isles – NBC-2.com WBBH News for Fort Myers, Cape Coral & Naples, Florida." NBC-2.com. Nbc, 21 Oct. 2013. Web. 21 Feb. 2014.
1556:, "Sea-Level Rise Implications for Coastal Protection from Southern Mediterranean to the USA Atlantic Coast." EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts. Vol. 15. 2013.
2022:
179:. The type of material used for construction is hypothesized to affect the settlement of coastal organisms, although the precise mechanism has yet to be identified.
192:
and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach. Seawalls may also accelerate the erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas by affecting the
311:
Curved or stepped seawalls are designed to enable waves to break to dissipate wave energy and to repel waves back to the sea. The curve can also prevent the wave
2087:
855:
invested $ 3,000,000,000 in a hurricane restoration fund, with part of the money dedicated to building new seawalls and protection from future hurricanes. A
799:) off Indonesia, but most of those killed were fishermen who lived in villages beyond the artificial barrier which reinforces the effectiveness of seawalls.
827:
if power plants were to be built at that site. Fundamentally, the devastation in coastal areas and a final death toll predicted to exceed 10,000 could push
1412:
1358:... the reflected wave energy interacted with the incoming waves to produce standing waves known as clapotis, which promote erosion at the toe of the wall.
429:
1900:
203:
include building reefs and forests to above-ground and submerged seawalls. Starting just weeks after the disaster, in
January 2005, India began planting
1940:
729:. Tel Hreiz was discovered in 1960 by divers searching for shipwrecks, but the row of boulders was not found until storms cleared a sand cover in 2012.
1298:
1544:
Hannah, J. (1990) "The
Analysis of Mean Sea Level Data from New Zealand for the Period 1899–1988" in The Journal of Geophysical Research, 95, No. 88.
587:
121:. As a seawall is a static feature, it will conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea.
1922:
1780:
1692:
614:, rain percolating into the ground behind the wall and waves overtopping the wall. The water table can also rise during periods of high water (
660:
content, and less macroscale roughness) when compared to natural shorelines, which can present issues for species that reside on the seafloor.
976:
809:
965:
1874:
1710:
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Lack of maintenance is also a major issue with seawalls. In 2013, more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of seawall was found to be crumbling in
856:
2127:
2034:
820:
1827:
1351:
1319:
1281:
351:
2046:
1465:
1130:"Design catalogue for eco-engineering of coastal artificial structures: a multifunctional approach for stakeholders and end-users"
2080:
253:
Vertical seawalls are built in particularly exposed situations. These reflect wave energy. Under storm conditions a non-breaking
155:. Other possible construction materials include vinyl, wood, aluminum, fiberglass composite, and biodegradable sandbags made of
2137:
982:
760:
1672:
2112:
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109:. The purpose of a seawall is to protect areas of human habitation, conservation, and leisure activities from the action of
2055:
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suggests that the tsunami of 26 December 2004 caused less damage in the areas where natural barriers were present, such as
335:
Curved seawalls aim to re-direct most of the incident energy, resulting in low reflected waves and much reduced turbulence.
2019:
779:
tsunami crashed against India's south-eastern coastline killing thousands. However, the former French colonial enclave of
1020:
Shipman, Brian; Stojanovic, Tim (2007), "Facts, Fictions, and Failures of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe",
2409:
1010:
Kamphuis, W J. (2010) Introduction to Coastal Engineering and Management. World Scientific Publishing Co Ltd. Singapore.
776:
217:
2383:
2073:
46:
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interactions with the coast, and poorly planned shoreline development projects can accelerate natural erosion rates.
125:
1247:
2368:
681:
506:
Can disrupt natural shoreline processes and destroy shoreline habitats such as wetlands and intertidal beaches.
1992:
1568:"Seawall as salmon habitat: Eco-engineering improves the distribution and foraging of juvenile Pacific salmon"
564:
specific to the seawall location. Seawalls can be very helpful; they can offer a more long-term solution than
1966:
1114:
NOAA. (2007) Shoreline Management: Alternatives to Hardening the Shore. Retrieved online 15 April 2011 from:
2337:
1325:
991:
2060:
332:
The curve can prevent waves from overtopping the wall and provides extra protection for the toe of the wall
2189:
1754:
Technical Report. Vancouver: Stanley Park Task Force, prepared by Belyea, Sorensen & Associates. P 15.
1217:
909:
871:
796:
702:
701:
Seawall construction has existed since ancient times. In the first century BCE, Romans built a seawall or
61:
31:
1461:
MEDUS. (2011) Marine Engineering Division of University of Salerno. Retrieved online 10 April 2011 from:
298:
1993:"'It's been a losing battle' : Seawall collapses in South Ponte Vedra as coast reels from storms"
634:
Extreme events also pose a problem as it is not easy for people to predict or imagine the strength of
2289:
2279:
2244:
1618:
1508:
1379:
1307:
1274:
Coastal environments: an introduction to the physical, ecological, and cultural systems of coastlines
1164:
1141:
1029:
721:
off the coast of Israel. Boulders were positioned in an attempt to protect the coastal settlement of
670:
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is not drained from behind the seawall. Groundwater against a seawall can be from the area's natural
561:
133:
1741:
Council of Europe. (1999) European code of conduct for coastal zones, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
2378:
2254:
2194:
2117:
1553:
941:
915:
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may also develop as the escaping water pressure erodes soil through or around the drainage system.
220:. Studies have found that an offshore tsunami wall could reduce tsunami wave heights by up to 83%.
148:
141:
83:
35:
1074:
Clarke, J R. 1994. Integrated Management of Coastal Zones. Fao Corporate Document Repository, USA.
2388:
2322:
2239:
2122:
2104:
2096:
1642:
1606:
1587:
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1395:
1177:
1045:
970:
956:
886:
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The deflected waves can scour material at the base of the wall causing them to become undermined.
189:
98:
72:
1452:
Short, A. (1999) Handbook of Beach and Shoreface Morphodynamics. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Ch 7.
722:
2414:
2332:
2327:
2317:
1823:
1798:
1718:
1634:
1347:
1315:
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1169:
947:
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706:
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Effectively minimizes loss of life in extreme events and damage to property caused by erosion.
456:
451:
176:
1967:"'An enormous effort:': Daytona Beach Shores residents seek permanent fix to damaged seawall"
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2342:
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892:
749:
565:
312:
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Vertical design can be undercut by high-wave energy environments over a long period of time.
137:
129:
2031:
1659:
Christchurch City Council. (2009) Study of the Effects of Sea Level Rise for Christchurch.
2363:
2358:
2179:
2132:
2050:
2038:
2026:
1890:
Msubi (2011) Seawalls are no Match for Japan Tsunami. Retrieved online 8 April 2011 from:
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1431:
1418:
1220:. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Institutional Repository. 25 November 2010. Archived from
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726:
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200:
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Can exist longer in high energy environments in comparison to ‘soft’ engineering methods.
1622:
1512:
1383:
1311:
1145:
1033:
994: – City walls of Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) (Constantinople seawalls)
321:
2043:
1462:
930:
852:
753:
599:
582:
193:
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The oldest known coastal defense is believed to be a 100-meter row of boulders in the
124:
Seawall designs factor in local climate, coastal position, wave regime (determined by
2403:
1646:
1591:
1492:
1399:
1181:
1049:
848:
733:
649:
254:
1630:
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has been proposed, but not voted on or funded by Congress or the State of New York.
412:
128:
and effectors), and value (morphological characteristics) of landform. Seawalls are
1781:"Historic town in eastern India saved from destruction by sea wall built by French"
1751:
1115:
1583:
748:
is a stone seawall constructed around the perimeter of Stanley Park in Vancouver,
933: – Artificial wall used for supporting soil between two different elevations
780:
653:
611:
607:
603:
437:
373:
78:
2061:
General overview of residential and small commercial steel seawall construction
1421:
Satellite imagery and modelling show how forests cushion the impact of tsunamis
1154:
1129:
268:
2204:
1893:"great-east-japan-earthquake-of-2011/sea-walls-were-no-match-for-this-tsunami"
1391:
1370:
Milligan J, O'riordan T (2007). "Governance for Sustainable Coastal Futures".
1245:
GeoResources. (2001) Coastal management. Retrieved online 18 April 2011 from:
1041:
821:
the crisis at the Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni nuclear power plants
105:, and associated coastal processes, impact directly upon the landforms of the
1722:
1251:
1173:
2264:
2209:
2184:
2169:
2147:
1605:
Sedano, F.; Navarro-Barranco, C.; Guerra-García, J.M.; Espinosa, F. (2020).
903:
710:
635:
623:
615:
433:
365:
276:
The first implemented, most easily designed and constructed type of seawall.
205:
67:
52:
39:
1638:
788:
waves drove water 24 ft (7.3 m) above the normal high-tide mark.
382:
2056:"Japan may rethink seawalls after tsunami", New York Times, March 14, 2011
1690:
Does anyone have a reference for this? The closest thing I could find is:
1063:
The Effects of Seawalls on the Beach: Part I: An Updated Literature Review
1521:
1496:
813:
619:
258:
709:
creating an artificial harbor (Sebastos Harbor). The construction used
17:
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785:
657:
213:
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118:
57:
895: – Construction of hydraulic structures to reduce coastal erosion
2269:
2219:
2214:
2065:
690:
369:
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the wall and provides additional protection for the toe of the wall.
289:
These can suffer a lot of expensive damage in a short period of time.
172:
152:
406:
Cannot withstand or protect from high-energy conditions effectively.
216:
on its coast as a natural barrier against future disasters like the
132:
shore-based structures that protect the coast from erosion. Various
544:
533:
522:
463:
Advantages and disadvantages of seawalls according to Short (1999)
393:
Slope and loose material ensure maximum dissipation of wave energy.
2299:
2294:
2249:
2229:
2224:
2199:
2174:
1566:
Sawyer, Alexandra C.; Toft, Jason D.; Cordell, Jeffery R. (2020).
924:
828:
694:
680:
648:
seawalls tends to have less favorable physical properties (Higher
110:
106:
77:
66:
51:
1711:"This village fought sea-level rise 7,000 years ago. The sea won"
862:
In Florida, tiger dams are used to protect homes near the coast.
622:
can cause the seawall to buckle, move, bow, crack, or collapse.
2259:
160:
156:
114:
2069:
1221:
763:
who were facing punishment detail in the 1950s (Steele, 1985).
147:
Seawalls are constructed from various materials, most commonly
102:
455:
effectiveness with other coastal management options, such as
1923:"In Tsunami's Wake, Fierce Debate Over Japan's 'Great Wall'"
411:
390:
Current designs use porous designs of rock, concrete armour.
350:
297:
1941:"Why big hurricanes weaken before they hit America's coast"
1218:"Design of a tsunami barrier to The North of Penang Island"
478:
Long term solution in comparison to soft beach nourishment.
441:
coastal waters and mitigated the flood and surge of water.
164:
279:
Vertical seawalls deflect wave energy away from the coast.
819:
The risks of dependence on seawalls were most evident in
2044:
MEDUS (Maritime Engineering Division University Salerno)
1867:"Japan's Seawalls Didn't Provide Security from tsunami"
987:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
961:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
950: – structure in Galveston, Galveston County, Texas
920:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
985: – Waterfront and roadway along San Francisco Bay
1300:
Dictionary of geophysics, astrophysics, and astronomy
1241:
1239:
889: – Preventing flooding and erosion of shorelines
1463:
http://www.diciv.unisa.it/docenti/dentale/medus_.php
952:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
732:
More recently, seawalls were constructed in 1623 in
2351:
2308:
2155:
2103:
1886:
1884:
1103:
Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology
503:
Reflected energy of waves leading to scour at base.
329:
Concave structure introduces a dissipative element.
812:, the seawalls in most areas were overwhelmed. In
1116:http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/shoreline.html
171:also refers to an earthen bank used to create a
1065:in Journal of Coastal Research. Vol. 12, No. 3.
1820:Breakwaters, coastal structures and coastlines
2081:
500:May be considered aesthetically unattractive.
8:
1803:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1768:. Vancouver: Whitecap Books. pp. 23–24.
775:On December 26, 2004, towering waves of the
553:3D simulation of wave motion near a seawall.
342:More complex engineering and design process.
257:pattern can form, resulting in a stationary
1779:writer, CHRIS TOMLINSON, Associated Press.
1105:. Oxford University Press. New York. Ch 11.
487:Can be used for recreation and sightseeing.
430:United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
2088:
2074:
2066:
2032:Seawalls and defences on the Isle of Wight
1520:
1165:2160/ece4983e-53ee-4e96-8771-f81c8f4fc41a
1163:
1153:
588:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
1899:(Archived copy ed.). Archived from
1693:"Ancient Roman concrete mixture seawall"
1497:"Sea level rise and its coastal impacts"
927: – Ridge or wall to hold back water
918: – Ridge or wall to hold back water
652:levels, less structural organization of
606:. Water pressure buildup is caused when
490:Forms a hard and strong coastal defense.
461:
226:
1003:
2020:Channel Coastal Observatory – Seawalls
1796:
1276:. Boston: Academic Press. p. 50.
944: – Seawall in Seattle, Washington
360:
307:
249:
71:People socializing and walking at the
1991:Barreto, Jessica (23 November 2022).
1346:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 44.
1306:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 81.
1101:Masselink, G and Hughes, M J. (2003)
973: – World's longest man-made dyke
7:
282:Loose rubble can absorb wave energy.
1965:Edlund, Ashley (23 November 2022).
906: – Concrete breakwater element
857:New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier
140:coastal management options such as
2128:Integrated coastal zone management
1248:"GeoResources - Geography website"
810:2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
56:An example of a modern seawall in
25:
1750:Belyea, R (21 January 1992). The
992:Walls of Constantinople#Sea Walls
977:Sea Bright–Monmouth Beach Seawall
912: – Coastal defense structure
725:from sea rise following the last
2146:
1061:Kraus, N & McDougal. (1996)
543:
532:
521:
381:
320:
267:
1631:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111334
983:The Embarcadero (San Francisco)
959: – 280-mile wall in Guyana
1196:"India builds tsunami barrier"
602:, must relieve the buildup of
199:Different designs of man-made
1:
1921:Craft, Lucy (11 March 2014).
1584:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105856
979: – Seawall in New Jersey
1297:Matzner, Richard A. (2001).
777:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
685:A seawall, made of rocks in
380:
319:
266:
218:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
2384:Modern recession of beaches
1764:Steele, Richard M. (1985).
1198:. News 24. January 14, 2005
364:Mound type seawalls, using
244:
235:
47:Sea wall (British politics)
2431:
1785:New Bedford Standard-Times
1344:Environmental oceanography
1155:10.1007/s11252-019-00924-z
594:Hydrostatic water pressure
428:A report published by the
44:
29:
2144:
1766:The Stanley Park Explorer
1611:Marine Pollution Bulletin
1392:10.1080/08920750701525800
1042:10.1080/08920750601169659
363:
310:
252:
2369:Geotechnical engineering
899:Related types of walls:
403:Shorter life expectancy.
45:Not to be confused with
30:Not to be confused with
2338:Sand dune stabilization
1818:Allsop, N.W.H. (2002).
497:Expensive to construct.
27:Form of coastal defence
1572:Ecological Engineering
910:Breakwater (structure)
872:Breakwater (structure)
797:moment magnitude scale
698:
416:
355:
302:
151:, boulders, steel, or
101:constructed where the
86:
75:
64:
62:Isle of Wight, England
32:Breakwater (structure)
1272:Carter, Bill (1989).
684:
415:
354:
301:
81:
70:
55:
2290:Van der Meer formula
1877:on October 24, 2012.
1845:"The World Factbook"
1522:10.1002/2013EF000188
677:History and examples
671:Punta Gorda, Florida
618:). Lack of adequate
134:environmental issues
126:wave characteristics
2410:Coastal engineering
2379:Longshore transport
2195:Cliff stabilization
2118:Coastal engineering
1851:. 13 February 2024.
1623:2020MarPB.15711334S
1513:2014EaFut...2...15C
1384:2007CoasM..35..499M
1312:2001dgaa.book.....M
1224:on 12 November 2017
1146:2020UrbEc..23..431O
1092:Kajendra, R. (2011)
1034:2007CoasM..35..375S
942:Alaskan Way Seawall
916:Dike (construction)
877:Mole (architecture)
598:Seawalls, like all
464:
229:
149:reinforced concrete
142:beach replenishment
84:Urangan, Queensland
36:Mole (architecture)
2389:Stream restoration
2240:Honeycomb sea wall
2123:Coastal management
2097:Coastal management
2049:2011-07-22 at the
2037:2021-10-09 at the
2025:2018-12-14 at the
1865:(March 13, 2011).
1822:. Thomas Telford.
1677:2014-02-26 at the
1468:2011-07-22 at the
1434:. Science NetLinks
1432:"Tsunami Barriers"
1417:2011-07-16 at the
1372:Coastal Management
1342:Beer, Tom (1997).
1022:Coastal Management
971:Saemangeum Seawall
966:Gold Coast Seawall
957:Georgetown Seawall
887:Coastal management
699:
462:
452:coastal ecosystems
417:
396:Lower cost option.
356:
303:
227:
190:hydrodynamic scour
87:
76:
65:
2397:
2396:
2333:Living shorelines
2328:Dynamic revetment
2318:Beach nourishment
2245:Hudson's equation
1697:Popular Mechanics
948:Galveston Seawall
746:Vancouver Seawall
719:Mediterranean Sea
707:Caesarea Maritima
643:Ecosystem impacts
515:
514:
457:beach nourishment
421:
420:
177:dike construction
16:(Redirected from
2422:
2374:Land reclamation
2343:Soft engineering
2310:Soft engineering
2235:Hard engineering
2157:Hard engineering
2150:
2090:
2083:
2076:
2067:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2003:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1947:. 7 January 2017
1937:
1931:
1930:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1908:
1897:nippon-sekai.com
1888:
1879:
1878:
1873:. Archived from
1863:Norimitsu Onishi
1859:
1853:
1852:
1841:
1835:
1833:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1802:
1794:
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1428:
1422:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1324:. Archived from
1305:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1250:. Archived from
1243:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1167:
1157:
1134:Urban Ecosystems
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1099:
1093:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1075:
1072:
1066:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1028:(2–3): 375–398,
1017:
1011:
1008:
988:
962:
953:
937:Specific walls:
921:
893:Hard engineering
761:Deadman's Island
750:British Columbia
566:soft engineering
547:
536:
525:
465:
424:Natural barriers
385:
324:
271:
230:
201:tsunami barriers
138:soft engineering
130:hard engineering
21:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2400:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2364:Coastal erosion
2359:Beach evolution
2347:
2304:
2180:Artificial reef
2151:
2142:
2133:Managed retreat
2099:
2094:
2051:Wayback Machine
2039:Wayback Machine
2027:Wayback Machine
2016:
2011:
2001:
1999:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1964:
1963:
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1856:
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1817:
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1789:
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1778:
1777:
1773:
1763:
1762:
1758:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1727:
1725:
1715:Washington Post
1709:
1708:
1704:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1679:Wayback Machine
1671:
1667:
1663:, Christchurch.
1661:Tonkin + Taylor
1658:
1654:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1565:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1491:
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1476:
1470:Wayback Machine
1460:
1456:
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1447:
1437:
1435:
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1425:
1419:Wayback Machine
1411:
1407:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1322:
1303:
1296:
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1291:
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1271:
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1255:
1246:
1244:
1237:
1227:
1225:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1199:
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1189:
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1125:
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1113:
1109:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1069:
1060:
1056:
1019:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1001:
986:
960:
951:
919:
868:
845:Hurricane Sandy
841:
805:
773:
742:
727:glacial maximum
679:
666:
656:structure, low
645:
632:
600:retaining walls
596:
580:
575:
557:
556:
555:
554:
550:
549:
548:
539:
538:
537:
528:
527:
526:
447:
426:
185:
99:coastal defense
97:) is a form of
73:Malecón, Havana
50:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2428:
2426:
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2395:
2394:
2392:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2355:
2353:
2352:Related topics
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2323:Beach drainage
2320:
2314:
2312:
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2015:
2014:External links
2012:
2010:
2009:
1983:
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1932:
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1828:
1810:
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1501:Earth's Future
1493:Cazenave, Anny
1484:
1474:
1454:
1445:
1423:
1405:
1378:(4): 499–509.
1362:
1352:
1334:
1331:on 2007-07-22.
1320:
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1140:(2): 431–443.
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194:littoral drift
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2013:
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1961:
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1946:
1945:The Economist
1942:
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1933:
1928:
1924:
1917:
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1903:on 2012-03-08
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1876:
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1498:
1494:
1488:
1485:
1482:Christchurch.
1478:
1475:
1471:
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1458:
1455:
1449:
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1424:
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1359:
1355:
1353:0-8493-8425-7
1349:
1345:
1338:
1335:
1327:
1323:
1321:0-8493-2891-8
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1301:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1283:0-12-161856-0
1279:
1275:
1268:
1265:
1254:on 2012-08-01
1253:
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1236:
1223:
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1191:
1188:
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984:
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905:
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869:
865:
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858:
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850:
849:New York City
846:
843:After 2012's
839:United States
838:
836:
833:
830:
824:
822:
817:
815:
811:
802:
800:
798:
793:
789:
787:
782:
778:
770:
768:
764:
762:
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757:
751:
747:
739:
737:
735:
734:Canvey Island
730:
728:
724:
720:
715:
712:
708:
704:
696:
692:
688:
683:
676:
674:
672:
663:
661:
659:
655:
651:
650:calcification
642:
640:
637:
629:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
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601:
593:
591:
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584:
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300:
296:
291:
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260:
256:
255:standing wave
248:
241:
238:
236:Illustration
232:
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215:
212:
208:
207:
202:
197:
195:
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100:
96:
92:
85:
80:
74:
69:
63:
59:
54:
48:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2274:
2000:. Retrieved
1996:
1986:
1974:. Retrieved
1970:
1960:
1949:. Retrieved
1944:
1935:
1926:
1916:
1905:. Retrieved
1901:the original
1896:
1875:the original
1870:
1857:
1848:
1839:
1819:
1813:
1788:. Retrieved
1784:
1774:
1765:
1759:
1752:Stanley Park
1746:
1737:
1726:. Retrieved
1714:
1705:
1696:
1686:
1668:
1655:
1614:
1610:
1600:
1575:
1571:
1561:
1549:
1540:
1531:
1507:(2): 15–34.
1504:
1500:
1487:
1477:
1457:
1448:
1436:. Retrieved
1426:
1408:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1357:
1343:
1337:
1326:the original
1299:
1292:
1273:
1267:
1256:. Retrieved
1252:the original
1226:. Retrieved
1222:the original
1212:
1200:. Retrieved
1190:
1137:
1133:
1122:
1110:
1102:
1097:
1088:
1079:
1070:
1062:
1057:
1025:
1021:
1015:
1006:
936:
898:
881:
861:
842:
834:
825:
818:
806:
794:
790:
774:
765:
755:
743:
731:
716:
700:
667:
664:Other issues
646:
633:
597:
581:
558:
448:
427:
222:
204:
198:
186:
168:
146:
123:
94:
90:
88:
2002:25 November
1976:25 November
781:Pondicherry
654:crystalline
612:water-table
608:groundwater
438:coral reefs
374:geotextiles
313:overtopping
239:Advantages
82:Seawall at
2404:Categories
2205:Flood wall
2190:Breakwater
2138:Submersion
2105:Management
1951:2017-01-20
1907:2011-04-30
1790:2023-10-04
1728:2023-05-03
1617:: 111334.
1578:: 105856.
1258:2011-04-30
999:References
754:HMCS
703:breakwater
468:Advantages
445:Trade-offs
366:revetments
2265:Revetment
2210:Floodgate
2185:Breachway
2170:Accropode
2113:Accretion
1723:0190-8286
1647:220518548
1592:218959238
1554:Link test
1438:March 30,
1400:154733601
1228:March 29,
1202:March 29,
1182:209492205
1174:1573-1642
1050:153826622
904:Accropode
882:General:
756:Discovery
723:Tel Hreiz
711:Pozzolana
636:hurricane
624:Sinkholes
616:high tide
434:mangroves
250:Vertical
206:Casuarina
196:process.
163:. In the
40:Revetment
2415:Seawalls
2280:Tetrapod
2047:Archived
2035:Archived
2023:Archived
1871:The Star
1799:cite web
1675:Archived
1639:32658698
1495:(2014).
1466:Archived
1415:Archived
866:See also
814:Kamaishi
693:city in
620:drainage
259:clapotic
245:Example
214:saplings
119:tsunamis
95:sea wall
18:Seawalls
2275:Seawall
2165:A-Jacks
1849:CIA.gov
1619:Bibcode
1509:Bibcode
1472:(MEDUS)
1380:Bibcode
1308:Bibcode
1142:Bibcode
1030:Bibcode
786:tsunami
687:Paravur
658:silicon
308:Curved
211:coconut
175:, or a
169:seawall
153:gabions
91:seawall
60:on the
58:Ventnor
2270:Riprap
2220:Groyne
2215:Gabion
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1048:
851:Mayor
740:Canada
691:Kollam
573:Issues
370:riprap
361:Mound
173:polder
2300:Xbloc
2295:Wharf
2250:KOLOS
2230:Levee
2225:Jetty
2200:Dolos
2175:Akmon
1997:Yahoo
1971:Yahoo
1643:S2CID
1588:S2CID
1396:S2CID
1329:(PDF)
1304:(PDF)
1178:S2CID
1046:S2CID
925:Levee
829:Japan
803:Japan
771:India
695:India
689:near
233:Type
183:Types
117:, or
115:waves
111:tides
107:coast
38:, or
2260:Pier
2255:Mole
2004:2022
1978:2022
1824:ISBN
1805:link
1719:ISSN
1635:PMID
1440:2011
1348:ISBN
1316:ISBN
1278:ISBN
1230:2011
1204:2011
1170:ISSN
744:The
209:and
161:coir
159:and
157:jute
93:(or
1927:NPR
1627:doi
1615:157
1580:doi
1576:151
1517:doi
1388:doi
1160:hdl
1150:doi
1038:doi
759:on
705:at
368:or
103:sea
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