176:) dissociated into single-stranded polynucleotides and each of these acted as a template for synthesis of a complementary strand producing two double stranded copies. In a system such as this, individual duplex replicators with different nucleotide sequences could compete with each other for available mononucleotide resources, thus initiating natural selection for the most “fit” sequences. Replication of these early forms of life was likely highly inaccurate producing mutations that influenced the folding state of the polynucleotides, thus affecting the propensities for strand association (promoting stability) and disassociation (allowing genome replication). The evolution of order in living systems has been proposed to be an example of a fundamental order generating principle that also applies to physical systems.
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boundary into the crystalline form. Crystals may have irregularities where the regular atomic structure is broken, and when crystals grow, these irregularities may propagate, creating a form of self-replication of crystal irregularities. Because these irregularities may affect the probability of a crystal breaking apart to form new crystals, crystals with such irregularities could even be considered to undergo evolutionary development.
39:
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437:, a material device that can self-replicate. The usual reason is to achieve a low cost per item while retaining the utility of a manufactured good. Many authorities say that in the limit, the cost of self-replicating items should approach the cost-per-weight of wood or other biological substances, because self-replication avoids the costs of
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linked together (through base pairing) in a certain order following a template of four already-linked sequences, by changing the temperature up and down. The number of template copies is thus increased in each cycle. No external agent such as an enzyme is needed, but the system must be supplied with a reservoir of the sixteen DNA sequences.
400:
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is possible or not. Many authorities who find it impossible are clearly citing sources for complex autotrophic self-replicating systems. Many of the authorities who find it possible are clearly citing sources for much simpler self-assembling systems, which have been demonstrated. In the meantime,
424:
crystals. Clay consists of a large number of small crystals, and clay is an environment that promotes crystal growth. Crystals consist of a regular lattice of atoms and are able to grow if e.g. placed in a water solution containing the crystal components; automatically arranging atoms at the crystal
934:
In 2011, New York
University scientists have developed artificial structures that can self-replicate, a process that has the potential to yield new types of materials. They have demonstrated that it is possible to replicate not just molecules like cellular DNA or RNA, but discrete structures that
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in an "environment" that is a solution of RNA monomers and transcriptase, but such systems are more accurately characterized as "assisted replication" than "self-replication". In 2021 researchers succeeded in constructing a system with sixteen specially designed DNA sequences. Four of these can be
216:
has identified 137 design dimensions grouped into a dozen separate categories, including: (1) Replication
Control, (2) Replication Information, (3) Replication Substrate, (4) Replicator Structure, (5) Passive Parts, (6) Active Subunits, (7) Replicator Energetics, (8) Replicator Kinematics, (9)
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A more trivial approach is to write a program that will make a copy of any stream of data that it is directed to, and then direct it at itself. In this case the program is treated as both executable code, and as data to be manipulated. This approach is common in most self-replicating systems,
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self-replicating machine could cover a moon or planet with solar cells, and beam the power to the Earth using microwaves. Once in place, the same machinery that built itself could also produce raw materials or manufactured objects, including transportation systems to ship the products.
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An activity in the field of robots is the self-replication of machines. Since all robots (at least in modern times) have a fair number of the same features, a self-replicating robot (or possibly a hive of robots) would need to do the following:
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These systems are substantially simpler than autotrophic systems, because they are provided with purified feedstocks and energy. They do not have to reproduce them. This distinction is at the root of some of the controversy about whether
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In general, since these systems are autotrophic, they are the most difficult and complex known replicators. They are also thought to be the most hazardous, because they do not require any inputs from human beings in order to reproduce.
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has published guidelines for researchers in mechanical self-replication. The guidelines recommend that researchers use several specific techniques for preventing mechanical replicators from getting out of control, such as using a
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Given the currently keen interest in biotechnology and the high levels of funding in that field, attempts to exploit the replicative ability of existing cells are timely, and may easily lead to significant insights and advances.
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replicators can reproduce themselves "in the wild". They mine their own materials. It is conjectured that non-biological autotrophic replicators could be designed by humans, and could easily accept specifications for human
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where he proposed a cognitive equivalent of the gene; a unit of behavior which is copied from one host mind to another through observation. Memes can only propagate via animal behavior and are thus analogous to information
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A speculative, more complex "chip factory" was specified to produce the computer and electronic systems, but the designers also said that it might prove practical to ship the chips from Earth as if they were "vitamins".
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Space resources: NASA has sponsored a number of design studies to develop self-replicating mechanisms to mine space resources. Most of these designs include computer-controlled machinery that copies itself.
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In many programming languages an empty program is legal, and executes without producing errors or other output. The output is thus the same as the source code, so the program is trivially self-reproducing.
1192:
Bernstein, Harris; Byerly, Henry C.; Hopf, Frederick A.; et al. (June 1983). "The
Darwinian Dynamic". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 58 (2): 185–207. doi:10.1086/413216. JSTOR 2828805. S2CID 83956410
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503:) source is used to create the next generation of the compiler. This process differs from natural self-replication in that the process is directed by an engineer, not by the subject itself.
156:
The simplest possible case is that only a genome exists. Without some specification of the self-reproducing steps, a genome-only system is probably better characterized as something like a
918:-built autonomous robot able to follow a pre-set track and assemble an exact copy of itself, starting from four externally provided components, was demonstrated experimentally in 2003.
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The reference design specified small computer-controlled electric carts running on rails. Each cart could have a simple hand or a small bull-dozer shovel, forming a basic
863:. Plaster molds are easy to make, and make precise parts with good surface finishes. The robot would then cast most of the parts either from non-conductive molten rock (
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to self-replicate code from node-to-node can save the system administrator a lot of time. Mobile agents have a potential to crash a computer cluster if poorly implemented.
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Self-replication is a fundamental feature of life. It was proposed that self-replication emerged in the evolution of life when a molecule similar to a double-stranded
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could in principle assume many different shapes, have many different functional features, and be associated with many different types of chemical species.
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676:: self-replication studies are typically about how a specific set of molecules can act together to replicate each other within the set (often part of
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4 CPU. That is, the technology is achievable with a relatively small engineering group in a reasonable commercial time-scale at a reasonable cost.
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Self-reproductive systems are conjectured systems which would produce copies of themselves from industrial feedstocks such as metal bar and wire.
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systems assemble copies of themselves from finished, delivered parts. Simple examples of such systems have been demonstrated at the macro scale.
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824:, and the differences between the ratio of elements needed by the replicator, and the ratios available in regolith. The limiting element was
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Wang, Tong; Sha, Ruojie; Dreyfus, Rémi; Leunissen, Mirjam E.; Maass, Corinna; Pine, David J.; Chaikin, Paul M.; Seeman, Nadrian C. (2011).
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832:. Chlorine is very rare in lunar regolith, and a substantially faster rate of reproduction could be assured by importing modest amounts.
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Exceptions to this pattern may be possible, although almost all known examples adhere to it. Scientists have come close to constructing
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Li, Jun; Haas, Wilhelm; Jackson, Kirsten; Kuru, Erkin; Jewett, Michael C.; Fan, Z. Hugh; Gygi, Steven; Church, George M. (2017-07-21).
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tiles may be joined together to form a larger tile that is similar to the original. This is an aspect of the field of study known as
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658:: studies of organismal and cellular natural replication and replicators, and their interaction, including sub-disciplines such as
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different ways so as to form larger replicas of themselves. Setisets in which every shape is distinct are called 'perfect'. A rep-
1570:- concluded that complexity of the development was equal to that of a Pentium 4, and promoted a design based on cellular automata.
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in particular believe that their work will likely fail to reach a state of maturity until human beings design a self-replicating
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For an image that does not show how this replicates, see: Eric W. Weisstein. "Sphinx." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web
Resource.
931:). What is required is the rational design of an entirely novel replicator with a much wider range of synthesis capabilities.
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The goal of self-replication in space systems is to exploit large amounts of matter with a low launch mass. For example, an
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become impossibly large. Many bottom-up approaches to nanotechnology take advantage of biochemical or chemical self-assembly.
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including biological life, and is simpler as it does not require the program to contain a complete description of itself.
240:
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HenryQuastler (1964) Emergence of
Biological Organization, Yale University Press, New Haven Connecticut ASIN: B0000CMHJ2
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Merely exploiting the replicative abilities of existing cells is insufficient, because of limitations in the process of
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Natural replicators have all or most of their design from nonhuman sources. Such systems include natural life forms.
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1225:"Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines - Freitas-Merkle Map of the Kinematic Replicator Design Space (2003–2004)"
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is a self-reproducing computer program that, when executed, outputs its own code. For example, a quine in the
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753:: Many computer security problems are caused by self-reproducing computer programs that infect computers —
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of self-replicating machine would copy itself through the galaxy and universe, sending information back.
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Recent research has begun to categorize replicators, often based on the amount of support they require.
83:, but only by commandeering the reproductive machinery of cells through a process of infection. Harmful
1589:, in: Symbolic Dynamics and Applications (P. Walters, ed.) Contemporary Math. vol. 135 (1992), 239-264.
1156:"Solving the Chicken-and-the-Egg Problem – "A Step Closer to the Reconstruction of the Origin of Life""
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might also be designed to self-replicate under their own power. This, in turn, has given rise to the "
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pathways. These can be an important guide to avoid design difficulties in self-replicating machinery.
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Much of the design study was concerned with a simple, flexible chemical system for processing lunar
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Replication
Process, (10) Replicator Performance, (11) Product Structure, and (12) Evolvability.
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reproduce using the hardware and software already present on computers. Self-replication in
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For a detailed article on mechanical reproduction as it relates to the industrial age see
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The design space for machine replicators is very broad. A comprehensive study to date by
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For a discussion of other chemical bases for hypothetical self-replicating systems, see
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A mechanism for effecting construction within the host environment of the replicator
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ribosomal self replication have been attempted, but as of
January 2021, indefinite
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One form of natural self-replication that is not based on DNA or RNA occurs in
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Moulin, Giuseppone (2011). "Dynamic
Combinatorial Self-Replicating Systems".
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499:) producing the compiler itself. During compiler development, a modified (
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1349:. Topics in Current Chemistry. Vol. 322. Springer. pp. 87–105.
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Manufacture new parts including its smallest parts and thinking apparatus
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pentagons can be joined together to make one with twice the dimensions.
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1983:
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1204:"Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines - General Taxonomy of Replicators"
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supported on pillars. The other machinery could run under the canopy.
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623: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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proteins can replicate by converting normal proteins into rogue forms.
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A fully novel artificial replicator is a reasonable near-term goal. A
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and will create variants of itself. These variants will be subject to
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99:. Any self-replicating mechanism which does not make a perfect copy (
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Kühnlein, Alexandra; Lanzmich, Simon A.; Brun, Dieter (2021-03-02).
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that yields construction of an identical or similar copy of itself.
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It is a long-term goal of some engineering sciences to achieve a
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A classic theoretical study of replicators in space is the 1980
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1388:"Cogenerating Synthetic Parts toward a Self-Replicating System"
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a self-replicating tiling is a tiling pattern in which several
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NASA Institute for
Advance Concepts study by General Dynamics
856:" would use a robotic arm with a few sculpting tools to make
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A variation of self replication is of practical relevance in
1454:"Self-replication of information-bearing nanoscale patterns"
1276:"The idea that life began as clay crystals is 50 years old"
717:. Without self-replication, capital and assembly costs of
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problem occurs as in natural self replication. A compiler (
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For an interpretation in terms of the origin of life, see
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has been an area of research and a subject of interest in
395:' hexiamonds can be put together to form another sphinx.
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first comprehensive survey of entire field in 2004 by
1055:"'Lifeless' prion proteins are 'capable of evolution'"
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Molecular nanotechnology § Replicating nanorobots
1542:, A. Burks, ed., Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL.
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study of autotrophic clanking replicators, edited by
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1301:"Modeling Kinematic Cellular Automata Final Report"
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699:self replication has not been achieved in the lab.
1441:Wikisource:Advanced Automation for Space Missions
767:: loading a new program on every node of a large
134:established that replicators have several parts:
1257:Teaching TILINGS / TESSELLATIONS with Geo Sphinx
356:identified rep-tiles as a special instance of a
1110:"tRNA sequences can assemble into a replicator"
828:, an essential element to process regolith for
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651:Research has occurred in the following areas:
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8:
554:, as featured in the science fiction novels
141:A mechanism to copy the coded representation
63:, given suitable environments, reproduce by
534:Error correct any mistakes in the offspring
71:and can be transmitted to offspring during
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1093:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
460:study recently placed the complexity of a
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842:Power would be provided by a "canopy" of
639:Learn how and when to remove this message
1245:http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Sphinx.html
138:A coded representation of the replicator
1582:(detailed discussion and many examples)
1540:The Theory of Self-reproducing Automata
1223:Freitas, Robert; Merkle, Ralph (2004).
1202:Freitas, Robert; Merkle, Ralph (2004).
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491:) can be applied on the compiler's own
376:rep-tile is just a setiset composed of
1546:Advanced Automation for Space Missions
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1083:. Pasadena, California. pp. 1–36.
27:Type of behavior of a dynamical system
1325:"Molecular Nanotechnology Guidelines"
1278:. bbc.com. 2016-08-24. Archived from
7:
1030:Von Neumann machine (disambiguation)
621:adding citations to reliable sources
1555:Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines
789:Space exploration and manufacturing
730:: The idea of a meme was coined by
333:is the only known self-replicating
221:A self-replicating computer program
775:system is time consuming. Using a
25:
1154:Maximilian, Ludwig (2021-04-03).
1020:Von Neumann universal constructor
528:Provide a consistent power source
126:Von Neumann universal constructor
1347:Constitutional Dynamic Chemistry
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368:shapes that can be assembled in
1255:For further illustrations, see
608:needs additional citations for
360:or setiset. A setiset of order
2270:Last universal common ancestor
1865:Defective interfering particle
1548:, a 1980 NASA study edited by
483:construction, where a similar
416:Self replicating clay crystals
349:for self-replicating tilings.
1:
2406:Clonally transmissible cancer
1842:Satellite-like nucleic acids
522:Obtain construction materials
999:(self-replicated 3D printer)
1008:Self-replicating spacecraft
743:and are often described as
507:Mechanical self-replication
241:Python programming language
180:Classes of self-replication
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1962:Class II or DNA transposon
1957:Class I or retrotransposon
1079:von Neumann, John (1948).
927:(also see the listing for
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867:) or purified metals. An
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337:. For example, four such
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2275:Earliest known life forms
2149:Repeated sequences in DNA
1404:10.1021/acssynbio.6b00342
709:is concerned with making
464:at approximately that of
2122:Endogenous viral element
1940:Horizontal gene transfer
1587:Self-replicating tilings
1003:Self-replicating machine
940:alternative biochemistry
707:molecular nanotechnology
513:Self-replicating machine
67:. During cell division,
1819:dsDNA satellite virus (
1538:von Neumann, J., 1966,
911:molecular manufacturing
882:Molecular manufacturing
531:Program the new members
303:Self-replicating tiling
32:Biological reproduction
18:Self-replicating system
2377:Helper dependent virus
1693:Biological dark matter
874:melted the materials.
576:broadcast architecture
408:
396:
150:RNA that can be copied
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2137:Endogenous retrovirus
2110:Origin of replication
1826:ssDNA satellite virus
1816:ssRNA satellite virus
1392:ACS Synthetic Biology
773:distributed computing
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390:
55:is any behavior of a
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2081:Secondary chromosome
2076:Extrachromosomal DNA
1952:Transposable element
1355:10.1007/128_2011_198
925:protein biosynthesis
686:: simple systems of
617:improve this article
358:self-tiling tile set
2317:Model lipid bilayer
2159:Interspersed repeat
1575:Gödel, Escher, Bach
1478:10.1038/nature10500
1470:2011Natur.478..225W
1129:10.7554/eLife.63431
1081:The Hixon Symposium
1035:Self reconfigurable
1015:Space manufacturing
705:or more precisely,
660:population dynamics
571:Foresight Institute
462:clanking replicator
435:clanking replicator
43:Molecular structure
1627:organic structures
1580:Douglas Hofstadter
1262:2016-03-08 at the
765:Parallel computing
719:molecular machines
451:manufactured goods
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380:identical pieces.
130:Early research by
103:) will experience
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1835:ssRNA satellite (
1464:(7368): 225–228.
1364:978-3-642-28343-7
893:Nanotechnologists
751:Computer security
734:in his 1976 book
678:Systems chemistry
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343:Solomon W. Golomb
227:Quine (computing)
109:natural selection
105:genetic variation
69:DNA is replicated
16:(Redirected from
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2098:Gene duplication
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1106:
1102:
1085:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1064:
1062:
1053:
1052:
1048:
1043:
977:DNA replication
957:Artificial life
948:
890:
884:
791:
786:
732:Richard Dawkins
645:
634:
628:
625:
614:
602:
591:
583:mass production
515:
509:
431:
418:
311:
309:Self-similarity
305:
287:
284:
281:
278:
275:
272:
269:
266:
263:
260:
257:
254:
251:
248:
229:
223:
202:Self-assembling
182:
172:(possibly like
166:
128:
122:
117:
97:science fiction
34:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2447:
2445:
2437:
2436:
2426:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2342:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2277:
2272:
2266:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2234:
2232:Kappa organism
2229:
2228:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2179:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2103:Non-coding DNA
2100:
2095:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2023:Group I intron
2020:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1989:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1966:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1945:Genomic island
1942:
1931:
1929:
1925:Mobile genetic
1918:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1891:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1840:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1817:
1813:
1811:
1802:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1783:
1775:
1773:
1764:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1750:dsDNA-RT virus
1747:
1745:ssRNA-RT virus
1742:
1740:(−)ssRNA virus
1737:
1735:(+)ssRNA virus
1732:
1727:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1709:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1690:
1680:Incertae sedis
1676:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1649:
1644:
1638:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1613:
1606:
1598:
1591:
1590:
1583:
1571:
1565:
1559:Robert Freitas
1552:
1550:Robert Freitas
1543:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1501:
1444:
1433:
1378:
1363:
1337:
1316:
1292:
1267:
1248:
1236:
1215:
1194:
1185:
1173:
1100:
1071:
1045:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1000:
994:
989:
984:
979:
974:
972:Complex system
969:
964:
959:
954:
947:
944:
886:Main article:
883:
880:
815:Robert Freitas
790:
787:
785:
782:
781:
780:
762:
755:computer worms
748:
725:
722:
703:Nanotechnology
700:
681:
671:
664:quorum sensing
647:
646:
605:
603:
596:
590:
587:
536:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
511:Main article:
508:
505:
430:
427:
417:
414:
411:
410:
304:
301:
292:
291:
225:Main article:
222:
219:
210:Robert Freitas
206:
205:
199:
196:
189:
181:
178:
170:polynucleotide
165:
164:Origin of life
162:
146:
145:
142:
139:
121:
118:
116:
113:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2446:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2414:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2388:
2386:
2385:Nanobacterium
2382:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2350:Cell division
2348:
2347:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2193:Hydrogenosome
2191:
2189:
2186:
2185:
2184:
2183:Mitochondrion
2181:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2175:Endosymbiosis
2172:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2154:Tandem repeat
2152:
2151:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2123:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2044:
2042:Other aspects
2040:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1787:Avsunviroidae
1784:
1782:
1781:
1780:Pospiviroidae
1777:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1634:Cellular life
1631:
1626:
1619:
1614:
1612:
1607:
1605:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1530:
1515:
1514:Science Daily
1511:
1505:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1437:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1338:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1302:
1296:
1293:
1282:on 2016-08-24
1281:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1240:
1237:
1226:
1219:
1216:
1205:
1198:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1116:
1111:
1104:
1101:
1096:
1090:
1082:
1075:
1072:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1047:
1040:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
949:
945:
943:
941:
936:
932:
930:
926:
921:
920:
917:
912:
906:
905:
902:
898:
894:
889:
881:
879:
875:
873:
870:
866:
862:
859:
855:
852:
847:
845:
840:
838:
833:
831:
827:
823:
818:
816:
812:
807:
803:
801:
800:Another model
796:
788:
783:
778:
777:mobile agents
774:
770:
766:
763:
760:
756:
752:
749:
746:
742:
737:
733:
729:
726:
723:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
701:
698:
695:
691:
690:
685:
682:
679:
675:
672:
669:
665:
661:
657:
654:
653:
652:
643:
640:
632:
622:
618:
612:
611:
606:This section
604:
600:
595:
594:
588:
586:
584:
579:
577:
572:
567:
565:
564:
559:
558:
553:
550:" version of
549:
545:
541:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
520:
519:
514:
506:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
485:bootstrapping
482:
477:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
454:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
428:
426:
423:
415:
406:
401:
394:
389:
385:
384:
381:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
310:
302:
300:
296:
246:
245:
244:
242:
238:
234:
228:
220:
218:
215:
211:
203:
200:
197:
193:
190:
187:
186:
185:
179:
177:
175:
171:
163:
161:
159:
154:
151:
143:
140:
137:
136:
135:
133:
127:
119:
114:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
65:cell division
62:
58:
54:
48:
44:
40:
36:
33:
19:
2372:Viral vector
2215:Gerontoplast
2142:Transpoviron
1914:Nucleic acid
1900:Fungal prion
1798:Helper-virus
1785:
1778:
1685:
1678:
1624:
1586:
1585:Kenyon, R.,
1573:
1563:Ralph Merkle
1539:
1518:. Retrieved
1516:. 2011-10-17
1513:
1504:
1461:
1457:
1447:
1436:
1395:
1391:
1381:
1346:
1340:
1329:. Retrieved
1319:
1308:. Retrieved
1306:. 2004-04-30
1295:
1284:. Retrieved
1280:the original
1270:
1251:
1239:
1228:. Retrieved
1218:
1207:. Retrieved
1197:
1188:
1165:. Retrieved
1161:SciTechDaily
1159:
1119:
1113:
1103:
1080:
1074:
1063:. Retrieved
1061:. 2010-01-01
1058:
1049:
962:Astrochicken
937:
933:
922:
907:
891:
876:
848:
841:
834:
819:
808:
804:
792:
693:
687:
684:Biochemistry
650:
635:
626:
615:Please help
610:verification
607:
580:
568:
561:
555:
537:
516:
478:
474:
455:
447:distribution
432:
429:Applications
419:
377:
373:
369:
365:
364:is a set of
361:
351:
323:tessellation
312:
297:
293:
230:
214:Ralph Merkle
207:
183:
167:
155:
147:
129:
73:reproduction
52:
51:
35:
2396:Cancer cell
2262:Abiogenesis
2210:Chromoplast
2205:Chloroplast
1988:Degradative
1730:dsRNA virus
1725:ssDNA virus
1718:Giant virus
1713:dsDNA virus
967:Autopoiesis
952:Abiogenesis
903:dimensions.
844:solar cells
795:autotrophic
784:In industry
629:August 2017
493:source code
354:Lee Sallows
192:Autotrophic
2304:Proteinoid
2299:Coacervate
2252:Nitroplast
2245:Trophosome
2240:Bacteriome
2225:Apicoplast
2220:Leucoplast
2061:Chromosome
1979:Resistance
1687:Parakaryon
1520:2011-10-17
1331:2013-10-22
1310:2013-10-22
1286:2019-11-10
1230:2013-06-29
1209:2013-06-29
1167:2021-04-03
1122:: e63431.
1065:2013-10-22
1041:References
715:assemblers
552:Armageddon
544:assemblers
407:of order 4
403:A perfect
307:See also:
124:See also:
30:See also:
2313:Research
2294:Protocell
2033:Retrozyme
1992:Virulence
1974:Fertility
1821:Virophage
1809:Satellite
1800:dependent
1652:Eukaryota
1412:2161-5063
1089:cite book
901:nanometer
897:assembler
830:Aluminium
697:ribosomal
674:Chemistry
668:autophagy
489:phenotype
352:In 2012,
347:rep-tiles
331:hexiamond
319:congruent
195:products.
81:replicate
2428:Category
2340:Organism
2333:See also
2309:Sulphobe
2286:Ribozyme
2281:RNA life
2188:Mitosome
2132:Prophage
2127:Provirus
2115:Replicon
2071:Circular
2018:Phagemid
1935:Mobilome
1927:elements
1837:Virusoid
1760:Subviral
1672:Protista
1657:Animalia
1642:Bacteria
1496:21993758
1428:28330337
1373:21728135
1260:Archived
1148:33648631
1059:BBC News
982:Memetics
946:See also
869:electric
826:Chlorine
822:regolith
728:Memetics
694:in vitro
689:in vitro
548:grey goo
497:genotype
481:compiler
335:pentagon
325:. The "
315:geometry
261:;print(a
115:Overview
101:mutation
93:robotics
2322:Jeewanu
2236:Organs
2200:Plastid
2000:Cryptic
1969:Plasmid
1667:Plantae
1647:Archaea
1487:3192504
1466:Bibcode
1420:1348832
1139:7924937
858:plaster
851:casting
741:viruses
680:field).
656:Biology
542:scale,
501:mutated
470:Pentium
443:capital
405:setiset
339:concave
267:a)'
255:'a=
158:crystal
2413:Virome
2391:Nanobe
2088:Genome
2066:Linear
2011:Fosmid
2006:Cosmid
1771:Viroid
1762:agents
1494:
1484:
1458:Nature
1426:
1418:
1410:
1371:
1361:
1146:
1136:
997:RepRap
865:basalt
713:scale
589:Fields
393:sphinx
391:Four '
327:sphinx
120:Theory
1887:Prion
1858:Other
1705:Virus
1662:Fungi
1532:Notes
1304:(PDF)
1115:eLife
1025:Virus
992:Robot
861:molds
854:robot
837:robot
745:viral
557:Bloom
538:On a
466:Intel
439:labor
273:print
237:quine
85:prion
2401:HeLa
2345:Cell
2093:Gene
1561:and
1492:PMID
1424:PMID
1416:OSTI
1408:ISSN
1369:PMID
1359:ISBN
1144:PMID
1095:link
987:Life
916:Lego
872:oven
811:NASA
757:and
711:nano
569:The
563:Prey
560:and
540:nano
458:NASA
445:and
422:clay
243:is:
212:and
79:can
1984:Col
1872:DNA
1869:RNA
1848:DNA
1845:RNA
1578:by
1482:PMC
1474:doi
1462:478
1400:doi
1351:doi
1134:PMC
1124:doi
929:RNA
899:of
849:A "
771:or
619:by
468:'s
313:In
231:In
174:RNA
47:DNA
45:of
2430::
1996:Ti
1512:.
1490:.
1480:.
1472:.
1460:.
1456:.
1422:.
1414:.
1406:.
1394:.
1390:.
1367:.
1357:.
1176:^
1158:.
1142:.
1132:.
1120:10
1118:.
1112:.
1091:}}
1087:{{
1057:.
942:.
914:a
839:.
817:.
666:,
662:,
585:.
578:.
566:.
453:.
441:,
329:"
264:%%
258:%r
235:a
160:.
75:.
2389:?
2383:?
2292:†
2279:?
1994:/
1839:)
1823:)
1617:e
1610:t
1603:v
1523:.
1498:.
1476::
1468::
1430:.
1402::
1396:6
1375:.
1353::
1334:.
1313:.
1289:.
1233:.
1212:.
1170:.
1150:.
1126::
1097:)
1068:.
761:.
747:.
642:)
636:(
631:)
627:(
613:.
495:(
378:n
374:n
370:n
366:n
362:n
288:)
285:a
282:%
279:a
276:(
270:;
252:=
249:a
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
