1077:. FOUPs in many fabs contain an internal nitrogen atmosphere which helps prevent copper from oxidizing on the wafers. Copper is used in modern semiconductors for wiring. The insides of the processing equipment and FOUPs is kept cleaner than the surrounding air in the cleanroom. This internal atmosphere is known as a mini-environment and helps improve yield which is the amount of working devices on a wafer. This mini environment is within an EFEM (equipment front end module) which allows a machine to receive FOUPs, and introduces wafers from the FOUPs into the machine. Additionally many machines also handle wafers in clean nitrogen or vacuum environments to reduce contamination and improve process control. Fabrication plants need large amounts of liquid nitrogen to maintain the atmosphere inside production machinery and FOUPs, which are constantly purged with nitrogen. There can also be an air curtain or a mesh between the FOUP and the EFEM which helps reduce the amount of humidity that enters the FOUP and improves yield.
1387:, to account for the behavior. The electrons in any one piece of the crystal would migrate about due to nearby charges. Electrons in the emitters, or the "holes" in the collectors, would cluster at the surface of the crystal where they could find their opposite charge "floating around" in the air (or water). Yet they could be pushed away from the surface with the application of a small amount of charge from any other location on the crystal. Instead of needing a large supply of injected electrons, a very small number in the right place on the crystal would accomplish the same thing.
380:
1408:
A piece of gold foil was glued to the edge of a plastic wedge, and then the foil was sliced with a razor at the tip of the triangle. The result was two very closely spaced contacts of gold. When the wedge was pushed down onto the surface of a crystal and voltage was applied to the other side (on the base of the crystal), current started to flow from one contact to the other as the base voltage pushed the electrons away from the base towards the other side near the contacts. The point-contact transistor had been invented.
1400:
465:
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1300:). However, when the voltage was reversed the electrons being pushed into the collector would quickly fill up the "holes" (the electron-needy impurities), and conduction would stop almost instantly. This junction of the two crystals (or parts of one crystal) created a solid-state diode, and the concept soon became known as semiconduction. The mechanism of action when the diode off has to do with the separation of
1284:
purest crystals nevertheless worked well, and it had a clearly visible crack near the middle. However, as he moved about the room trying to test it, the detector would mysteriously work, and then stop again. After some study he found that the behavior was controlled by the light in the room – more light caused more conductance in the crystal. He invited several other people to see this crystal, and
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on the top, with the control lead placed on the base of the crystal. When current flowed through this "base" lead, the electrons or holes would be pushed out, across the block of the semiconductor, and collect on the far surface. As long as the emitter and collector were very close together, this should allow enough electrons or holes between them to allow conduction to start.
970:
743:(Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor devices. Its combination of low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, and a useful temperature range makes it currently the best compromise among the various competing materials. Silicon used in semiconductor device manufacturing is currently fabricated into
402:. A small current injected through the junction between the base and the emitter changes the properties of the base-collector junction so that it can conduct current even though it is reverse biased. This creates a much larger current between the collector and emitter, controlled by the base-emitter current.
1203:(silicon carbide) crystal until it suddenly started working. Then, over a period of a few hours or days, the cat's whisker would slowly stop working and the process would have to be repeated. At the time their operation was completely mysterious. After the introduction of the more reliable and amplified
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it a "conductor". The other had impurities that wanted to bind to these electrons, making it (what he called) an "insulator". Because the two parts of the crystal were in contact with each other, the electrons could be pushed out of the conductive side which had extra electrons (soon to be known as the
1483:
of the required purity was proving to be a serious problem and limited the yield of transistors that actually worked from a given batch of material. Germanium's sensitivity to temperature also limited its usefulness. Scientists theorized that silicon would be easier to fabricate, but few investigated
1407:
The Bell team made many attempts to build such a system with various tools but generally failed. Setups, where the contacts were close enough, were invariably as fragile as the original cat's whisker detectors had been, and would work briefly, if at all. Eventually, they had a practical breakthrough.
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Their understanding solved the problem of needing a very small control area to some degree. Instead of needing two separate semiconductors connected by a common, but tiny, region, a single larger surface would serve. The electron-emitting and collecting leads would both be placed very close together
1374:
because it would require a large injection current to start with. That said, the whole idea of the crystal diode was that the crystal itself could provide the electrons over a very small distance, the depletion region. The key appeared to be to place the input and output contacts very close together
1777:
Annual semiconductor unit shipments (integrated circuits and Opto-sensor-discrete, or O-S-D, devices) are expected to grow 9% For 2018, semiconductor unit shipments are forecast to climb to 1,075.1 billion, which equates to 9% growth for the year. Starting in 1978 with 32.6 billion units and going
1291:
Further research cleared up the remaining mystery. The crystal had cracked because either side contained very slightly different amounts of the impurities Ohl could not remove – about 0.2%. One side of the crystal had impurities that added extra electrons (the carriers of electric current) and made
1464:
Shockley was upset about the device being credited to
Brattain and Bardeen, who he felt had built it "behind his back" to take the glory. Matters became worse when Bell Labs lawyers found that some of Shockley's own writings on the transistor were close enough to those of an earlier 1925 patent by
1283:
Ohl investigated why the cat's whisker functioned so well. He spent most of 1939 trying to grow more pure versions of the crystals. He soon found that with higher-quality crystals their finicky behavior went away, but so did their ability to operate as a radio detector. One day he found one of his
1365:
in a semiconductor. It was realized that if there were some way to control the flow of the electrons from the emitter to the collector of this newly discovered diode, an amplifier could be built. For instance, if contacts are placed on both sides of a single type of crystal, current will not flow
1378:
Brattain started working on building such a device, and tantalizing hints of amplification continued to appear as the team worked on the problem. Sometimes the system would work but then stop working unexpectedly. In one instance a non-working system started working when placed in water. Ohl and
767:(GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but so far, it has been difficult to form large-diameter boules of this material, limiting the wafer diameter to sizes significantly smaller than silicon wafers thus making mass production of GaAs devices significantly more expensive than silicon.
923:
are discrete devices or integrated circuits intended for high current or high voltage applications. Power integrated circuits combine IC technology with power semiconductor technology, these are sometimes referred to as "smart" power devices. Several companies specialize in manufacturing power
289:. As of 2013, billions of MOS transistors are manufactured every day. Semiconductor devices made per year have been growing by 9.1% on average since 1978, and shipments in 2018 are predicted for the first time to exceed 1 trillion, meaning that well over 7 trillion have been made to date.
1454:
Transistor. This is an abbreviated combination of the words "transconductance" or "transfer", and "varistor". The device logically belongs in the varistor family, and has the transconductance or transfer impedance of a device having gain, so that this combination is
1058:
nodes, fabrication can take up to 15 weeks, with 11–13 weeks being the industry average. Production in advanced fabrication facilities is completely automated, with automated material handling systems taking care of the transport of wafers from machine to machine.
269:
for a negative electric charge). A majority of mobile charge carriers have negative charges. The manufacture of semiconductors controls precisely the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. The connection of n-type and p-type semiconductors form
472:
and its Id-Vg curve. At first, when no gate voltage is applied. There is no inversion electron in the channel, the device is OFF. As gate voltage increase, the inversion electron density in the channel increase, the current increases, and the device turns
1778:
through 2018, the compound annual growth rate for semiconductor units is forecast to be 9.1%, a solid growth figure over the 40-year span. In 2018, O-S-D devices are forecast to account for 70% of total semiconductor units compared to 30% for ICs.
1411:
While the device was constructed a week earlier, Brattain's notes describe the first demonstration to higher-ups at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 23 December 1947, often given as the birthdate of the transistor. What is now known as the
1369:
Actually doing this appeared to be very difficult. If the crystal were of any reasonable size, the number of electrons (or holes) required to be injected would have to be very large, making it less than useful as an
1492:, giving it a technological edge. From the late 1950s, most transistors were silicon-based. Within a few years transistor-based products, most notably easily portable radios, were appearing on the market. "
757:(Ge) was a widely used early semiconductor material but its thermal sensitivity makes it less useful than silicon. Today, germanium is often alloyed with silicon for use in very-high-speed SiGe devices;
424:. An electric field can increase the number of free electrons and holes in a semiconductor, thereby changing its conductivity. The field may be applied by a reverse-biased p–n junction, forming a
1536:
so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the conducting silicon below, overcoming the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer. This is known as
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1187:
Semiconductors had been used in the electronics field for some time before the invention of the transistor. Around the turn of the 20th century they were quite common as detectors in
1790:
936:
of semiconductor devices are often manufacturer specific. Nevertheless, there have been attempts at creating standards for type codes, and a subset of devices follow those. For
1296:), and replaced by new ones being provided (from a battery, for instance) where they would flow into the insulating portion and be collected by the whisker filament (named the
1332:
all joined forces to build better crystals. Within a year germanium production had been perfected to the point where military-grade diodes were being used in most radar sets.
2587:
1472:
Shockley was incensed, and decided to demonstrate who was the real brains of the operation. A few months later he invented an entirely new, considerably more robust,
328:
than the n-side), this depletion region is diminished, allowing for significant conduction. Contrariwise, only a very small current can be achieved when the diode is
1450:, won an internal ballot. The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memoranda (May 28, 1948) calling for votes:
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1207:
based radios, the cat's whisker systems quickly disappeared. The "cat's whisker" is a primitive example of a special type of diode still popular today, called a
1195:
and others. These detectors were somewhat troublesome, however, requiring the operator to move a small tungsten filament (the whisker) around the surface of a
206:(IC) chips, which consist of two or more devices—which can number from the hundreds to the billions—manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor
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and has found some application as the raw material for blue LEDs and is being investigated for use in semiconductor devices that could withstand very high
2052:
450mm FOUP/LPU system in advanced semiconductor manufacturing processes: A study on the minimization of oxygen content inside FOUP when the door is opened
1863:
Hendrik
Purwins; Bernd Barak; Ahmed Nagi; Reiner Engel; Uwe Höckele; Andreas Kyek; Srikanth Cherla; Benjamin Lenz; Günter Pfeifer; Kurt Weinzierl (2014).
2509:
485:
device, is by far the most used widely semiconductor device today. It accounts for at least 99.9% of all transistors, and there have been an estimated 13
902:
do not act as on-off switches; rather, they respond to a continuous range of inputs with a continuous range of outputs. Common analog circuits include
3568:
2514:
1909:
249:, greatly increases the number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes, it is called a
2613:
1440:
Bell
Telephone Laboratories needed a generic name for their new invention: "Semiconductor Triode", "Solid Triode", "Surface States Triode" [
3209:
1762:
1276:. By this point, they had not been in use for a number of years, and no one at the labs had one. After hunting one down at a used radio store in
2055:. 2015 Joint e-Manufacturing and Design Collaboration Symposium (eMDC) & 2015 International Symposium on Semiconductor Manufacturing (ISSM).
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between them through the crystal. However, if a third contact could then "inject" electrons or holes into the material, the current would flow.
343:, which increases the number of free carriers and thereby the conductivity. Diodes optimized to take advantage of this phenomenon are known as
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Semiconductor materials are useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by the deliberate addition of impurities, known as
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Journal of Vacuum
Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena
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2208:"A Numerical Study on the Effects of Purge and Air Curtain Flow Rates on Humidity Invasion Into a Front Opening Unified Pod (FOUP)"
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394:, the region between the junctions is typically very narrow. The other regions, and their associated terminals, are known as the
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Armed with the knowledge of how these new diodes worked, a vigorous effort began to learn how to build them on demand. Teams at
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2247:"Performance of Different Front-Opening Unified Pod (FOUP) Moisture Removal Techniques With Local Exhaust Ventilation System"
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grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs due to mobile or "free"
75:
2245:
Lin, Tee; Ali Zargar, Omid; Juina, Oscar; Lee, Tzu-Chieh; Sabusap, Dexter Lyndon; Hu, Shih-Cheng; Leggett, Graham (2020).
949:
1791:"13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History"
3109:
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Benalcazar, David; Lin, Tee; Hu, Ming-Hsuan; Ali Zargar, Omid; Lin, Shao-Yu; Shih, Yang-Cheng; Leggett, Graham (2022).
1476:
type of transistor with a layer or 'sandwich' structure, used for the vast majority of all transistors into the 1960s.
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as they are pieces diced from a single wafer. Individual dies are separated from a finished wafer in a process called
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420:(FET), operates on the principle that semiconductor conductivity can be increased or decreased by the presence of an
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about 4000 MHz and the traditional tube-based radio receivers no longer worked well. The introduction of the
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332:(connected with the n-side at lower electric potential than the p-side, and thus the depletion region expanded).
168:) for its function. Its conductivity lies between conductors and insulators. Semiconductor devices have replaced
64:
3194:
2068:"Moisture Prevention in a Pre-Purged Front-Opening Unified Pod (FOUP) During Door Opening in a Mini-Environment"
1354:-like semiconductor device. He secured funding and lab space, and went to work on the problem with Brattain and
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1496:", a technique using a band of molten material moving through the crystal, further increased crystal purity.
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Companies that manufacture machines used in the industrial semiconductor fabrication process include
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2010:. 25th Annual SEMI Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Conference (ASMC 2014). pp. 120–124.
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calls the MOSFET a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world".
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The key to the development of the transistor was the further understanding of the process of the
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Within fabrication plants, the wafers are transported inside special sealed plastic boxes called
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519:(for holes) MOSFET. Although the MOSFET is named in part for its "metal" gate, in modern devices
390:(BJTs) are formed from two p–n junctions, in either n–p–n or p–n–p configuration. The middle, or
325:
203:
1225:
Another early type of semiconductor device is the metal rectifier in which the semiconductor is
320:
where current conduction is inhibited by the lack of mobile charge carriers. When the device is
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2169:. 2016 27th Annual SEMI Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Conference (ASMC). pp. 6–11.
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Circuits that interface or translate between digital circuits and analog circuits are known as
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1865:"Regression Methods for Virtual Metrology of Layer Thickness in Chemical Vapor Deposition"
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components due to its high strength and thermal conductivity. Compared to silicon, GaN's
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1971:
1446:], "Crystal Triode" and "Iotatron" were all considered, but "transistor", coined by
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can be controlled by the introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to
128:
16:
Electronic component that exploits the electronic properties of semiconductor materials
2510:"Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference"
1572:, the MOSFET became the most common type of transistor in computers, electronics, and
1070:, also called wafer dicing. The dies can then undergo further assembly and packaging.
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432:) or by an electrode insulated from the bulk material by an oxide layer, forming a
1552:(MOS) process, which he proposed could be used to build the first working silicon
747:
that are large enough in diameter to allow the production of 300 mm (12 in.)
2563:
D. Kahng and S. M. Sze, "A floating gate and its application to memory devices",
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241:. Doping a semiconductor with a small proportion of an atomic impurity, such as
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With the fragility problems solved, the remaining problem was purity. Making
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2287:
Revolution in
Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics
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that they thought it best that his name be left off the patent application.
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1999:
1997:
1956:"Die singulation technologies for advanced packaging: A critical review"
1934:
1932:
1930:
1819:"Gallium nitride semiconductors: The Next Generation of Power | Navitas"
1416:" operated as a speech amplifier with a power gain of 18 in that trial.
511:. Depending on the type of carrier in the channel, the device may be an
3549:
3486:
3308:
3293:
3147:
3104:
2752:
2483:
2105:
Kure, Tokuo; Hanaoka, Hideo; Sugiura, Takumi; Nakagawa, Shinya (2007).
1763:"Semiconductor Shipments Forecast to Exceed 1 Trillion Devices in 2018"
1623:
1261:
resulted in a pressing need for a practical high-frequency amplifier.
1028:
969:
888:
740:
153:
1979:
1622:
MOSFET, was developed by Digh
Hisamoto and his team of researchers at
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was the first to develop a working silicon transistor at the nascent
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469:
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1955:
1548:(ICs). Building on his surface passivation method, he developed the
1042:, also called foundries or "fabs", with the central part being the "
796:
Other less common materials are also in use or under investigation.
499:
electrode is charged to produce an electric field that controls the
1288:
immediately realized there was some sort of junction at the crack.
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research quickly pushed radar receivers to operate at ever higher
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2007:
Advanced FOUP purge using diffusers for FOUP door-off application
1520:
investigated the surface properties of silicon semiconductors at
773:(GaN) is gaining popularity in high-power applications including
3642:
3025:
2971:
2872:
2825:
2763:
2363:"1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated"
1587:
1074:
1015:, thin-film deposition, ion-implantation, etching) during which
1004:
578:
429:
2676:
2614:"The Breakthrough Advantage for FPGAs with Tri-Gate Technology"
1280:, he found that it worked much better than tube-based systems.
1062:
A wafer often has several integrated circuits which are called
308:
A semiconductor diode is a device typically made from a single
1442:
1109:
758:
536:
25:
1954:
Lei, Wei-Sheng; Kumar, Ajay; Yalamanchili, Rao (2012-04-06).
1839:"What is GaN? Gallium Nitride (GaN) Semiconductors Explained"
1375:
on the surface of the crystal on either side of this region.
2166:
FOUP purge performance improvement using EFEM flow converter
2066:
Lin, Tee; Fu, Ben-Ran; Hu, Shih-Cheng; Tang, Yi-Han (2018).
810:
and environments with the presence of significant levels of
2538:"1963: Complementary MOS Circuit Configuration is Invented"
1910:"8 Things You Should Know About Water & Semiconductors"
1568:, and much lower power consumption and higher density than
1038:
The fabrication process is performed in highly specialized
871:
All transistor types can be used as the building blocks of
261:); when it contains excess free electrons, it is called an
1046:". In more advanced semiconductor devices, such as modern
1191:, used in a device called a "cat's whisker" developed by
277:
The most common semiconductor device in the world is the
793:
and it conducts electrons 1,000 times more efficiently.
553:
2107:"Clean-room Technologies for the Mini-environment Age"
198:
Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single
1257:
from
Britain to the United States in 1940 during the
225:
or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a doped
2649:
Muller, Richard S. & Theodore I. Kamins (1986).
1560:(MOS field-effect transistor) by Mohamed Atalla and
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3525:
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2839:
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1544:as it made possible the mass production of silicon
56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2650:
1941:Handbook of Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology
2588:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
1011:and physico-chemical process (with steps such as
503:of a "channel" between two terminals, called the
434:metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor
2251:IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing
2212:IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing
2072:IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing
1706:RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies
2312:"Martin Atalla in Inventors Hall of Fame, 2009"
132:Outlines of some packaged semiconductor devices
2290:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11–13.
1379:Brattain eventually developed a new branch of
1237:was a major manufacturer of these rectifiers.
837:) are also being used in LEDs and solid-state
383:An n–p–n bipolar junction transistor structure
19:For information on semiconductor physics, see
2688:
1484:this possibility. Former Bell Labs scientist
883:, transistors act as on-off switches; in the
8:
2284:Ernest Braun & Stuart MacDonald (1982).
1618:(fin field-effect transistor), a type of 3D
492:MOSFETs manufactured between 1960 and 2018.
324:(connected with the p-side, having a higher
1144:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
891:applied to the gate determines whether the
2718:
2695:
2681:
2673:
2653:Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits
1403:A stylized replica of the first transistor
940:, for example, there are three standards:
533:Electronic component § Semiconductors
2515:United States Patent and Trademark Office
2125:
2004:Wang, H. P.; Kim, S. C.; Liu, B. (2014).
1164:Learn how and when to remove this message
875:, which are fundamental in the design of
183:, rather than as free electrons across a
116:Learn how and when to remove this message
2504:
2502:
2330:
2328:
2163:Kim, Seong Chan; Schelske, Greg (2016).
1414:p–n–p point-contact germanium transistor
1023:, typically made of pure single-crystal
191:) or as free electrons and ions through
2578:"IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award Recipients"
1695:
1556:(FET). The led to the invention of the
1540:, a method that became critical to the
1304:around the junction. This is called a "
1035:are used for specialized applications.
845:is being studied in the manufacture of
1869:IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics
2567:, vol. 46, no. 4, 1967, pp. 1288–1295
2394:Springer Science & Business Media
1350:decided to attempt the building of a
761:is a major producer of such devices.
353:diodes can also produce light, as in
312:. At the junction of a p-type and an
7:
3127:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
2479:"Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive"
2388:History of Semiconductor Engineering
1524:, where he proposed a new method of
1142:adding citations to reliable sources
818:have also been fabricated from SiC.
802:(SiC) is also gaining popularity in
456:List of semiconductor scale examples
54:adding citations to reliable sources
2908:Programmable unijunction transistor
1624:Hitachi Central Research Laboratory
1031:is almost always used, but various
983:is the process used to manufacture
636:Transient-voltage-suppression diode
2809:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
1703:Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018).
789:is more than 3 times wider at 3.4
14:
2787:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
2565:The Bell System Technical Journal
1652:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
1460:Improvements in transistor design
1106:History of electrical engineering
683:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
3031:Heterostructure barrier varactor
2758:Chemical field-effect transistor
1673:Semiconductor device fabrication
1636:
1526:semiconductor device fabrication
1512:Semiconductor device fabrication
1176:
1114:
1040:semiconductor fabrication plants
981:Semiconductor device fabrication
963:Semiconductor device fabrication
961:This section is an excerpt from
540:
426:junction field-effect transistor
416:Another type of transistor, the
30:
3079:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
2630:from the original on 2022-10-09
2341:National Inventors Hall of Fame
2145:from the original on 2021-11-01
1606:in 1963. The first report of a
944:JESD370B in the United States,
481:(MOSFET, or MOS transistor), a
41:needs additional citations for
1735:"Who Invented the Transistor?"
1582:US Patent and Trademark Office
1:
1336:Development of the transistor
973:NASA's Glenn Research Center
950:Japanese Industrial Standards
861:organic light-emitting diodes
479:metal-oxide-semiconductor FET
3110:Silicon controlled rectifier
2972:Organic light-emitting diode
2862:Diffused junction transistor
1678:Electronic design automation
1610:was made by Dawon Kahng and
1570:bipolar junction transistors
1532:with an insulating layer of
1235:Westinghouse Electric (1886)
999:, and memory chips (such as
689:Silicon-controlled rectifier
388:Bipolar junction transistors
335:Exposing a semiconductor to
2914:Static induction transistor
2851:Bipolar junction transistor
2803:MOS field-effect transistor
2775:Fin field-effect transistor
2423:"Through-Silicon Via (TSV)"
1663:Reliability (semiconductor)
1474:bipolar junction transistor
1432:in physics for their work.
1019:are gradually created on a
921:Power semiconductor devices
879:. In digital circuits like
523:is typically used instead.
375:Bipolar junction transistor
281:(metal–oxide–semiconductor
210:(also called a substrate).
172:in most applications. They
3749:
3121:Static induction thyristor
2583:IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award
2442:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462
1881:10.1109/TMECH.2013.2273435
1843:Efficient Power Conversion
1509:
1503:
1339:
1218:
1180:
1103:
960:
732:
530:
453:
447:
409:
367:
301:
18:
3290:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
3042:Hybrid integrated circuit
2885:Light-emitting transistor
2175:10.1109/ASMC.2016.7491075
2016:10.1109/ASMC.2014.6846999
1574:communications technology
1550:metal oxide semiconductor
1500:Metal-oxide semiconductor
1436:Etymology of "transistor"
1426:William Bradford Shockley
1342:History of the transistor
1007:). It is a multiple-step
444:Metal-oxide-semiconductor
3337:Backward-wave oscillator
3047:Light emitting capacitor
2903:Point-contact transistor
2873:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
2263:10.1109/TSM.2020.2977122
2224:10.1109/TSM.2022.3209221
2084:10.1109/TSM.2018.2791985
1383:, which became known as
1312:Development of the diode
855:The most common use for
237:, collectively known as
187:(typically liberated by
3348:Crossed-field amplifier
2867:Field-effect transistor
2657:. John Wiley and Sons.
2543:Computer History Museum
2430:Proceedings of the IEEE
2371:Computer History Museum
1796:Computer History Museum
1740:Computer History Museum
1604:Fairchild Semiconductor
1554:field-effect transistor
1467:Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
1100:History of development
1033:compound semiconductors
735:Semiconductor materials
718:(magnetic field sensor)
678:Field-effect transistor
662:Three-terminal devices:
418:field-effect transistor
412:Field-effect transistor
406:Field-effect transistor
285:), also called the MOS
283:field-effect transistor
227:monocrystalline silicon
3517:Voltage-regulator tube
3084:MOS integrated circuit
2949:Constant-current diode
2925:Unijunction transistor
2421:Motoyoshi, M. (2009).
1939:Yoshio, Nishi (2017).
1542:semiconductor industry
1457:
1428:were awarded the 1956
1422:Walter Houser Brattain
1404:
1183:Cat's-whisker detector
1177:Cat's-whisker detector
977:
857:organic semiconductors
808:operating temperatures
710:Four-terminal devices:
704:Unijunction transistor
474:
384:
351:Compound semiconductor
166:organic semiconductors
133:
65:"Semiconductor device"
3733:Semiconductor devices
3586:Electrolytic detector
3359:Inductive output tube
3175:Low-dropout regulator
3090:Organic semiconductor
3021:Printed circuit board
2857:Darlington transistor
2704:Electronic components
1452:
1402:
1330:University of Chicago
1245:During World War II,
1193:Jagadish Chandra Bose
1104:Further information:
985:semiconductor devices
972:
928:Component identifiers
915:mixed-signal circuits
898:Transistors used for
779:light-emitting diodes
673:Darlington transistor
573:Two-terminal devices:
515:(for electrons) or a
467:
382:
355:light-emitting diodes
131:
3404:Beam deflection tube
3073:Metal oxide varistor
2966:Light-emitting diode
2820:Thin-film transistor
2781:Floating-gate MOSFET
2594:on September 9, 2018
1608:floating-gate MOSFET
1138:improve this section
887:, for instance, the
605:Light-emitting diode
554:adding missing items
314:n-type semiconductor
263:n-type semiconductor
251:p-type semiconductor
152:material (primarily
142:electronic component
138:semiconductor device
50:improve this article
3380:Traveling-wave tube
3180:Switching regulator
3016:Printed electronics
2993:Step recovery diode
2770:Depletion-load NMOS
1972:2012JVSTB..30d0801L
1546:integrated circuits
1538:surface passivation
1017:electronic circuits
993:computer processors
989:integrated circuits
341:electron–hole pairs
189:thermionic emission
144:that relies on the
3685:Crystal oscillator
3545:Variable capacitor
3220:Switched capacitor
3162:Voltage regulators
3036:Integrated circuit
2920:Tetrode transistor
2898:Pentode transistor
2891:Organic LET (OLET)
2878:Organic FET (OFET)
2487:. 12 December 2018
2384:Lojek, Bo (2007).
2367:The Silicon Engine
1767:www.icinsights.com
1658:Integrated circuit
1644:Electronics portal
1594:) was invented by
1564:in 1959. With its
1405:
1199:(lead sulfide) or
978:
812:ionizing radiation
716:Hall effect sensor
668:Bipolar transistor
552:; you can help by
475:
385:
326:electric potential
204:integrated circuit
134:
3720:
3719:
3680:Ceramic resonator
3492:Mercury-arc valve
3444:Video camera tube
3396:Cathode-ray tubes
3156:
3155:
2764:Complementary MOS
2664:978-0-471-88758-4
2297:978-0-521-28903-0
2184:978-1-5090-0270-2
2025:978-1-4799-3944-2
1980:10.1116/1.3700230
1743:. 4 December 2013
1490:Texas Instruments
1381:quantum mechanics
1363:electron mobility
1318:Purdue University
1272:decided to try a
1270:Bell Laboratories
1174:
1173:
1166:
1085:Applied Materials
1013:thermal oxidation
1009:photolithographic
831:indium antimonide
586:(rectifier diode)
570:
569:
126:
125:
118:
100:
3740:
3574:electrical power
3459:Gas-filled tubes
3343:Cavity magnetron
3170:Linear regulator
2719:
2697:
2690:
2683:
2674:
2668:
2656:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2629:
2618:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2590:. Archived from
2574:
2568:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2506:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2460:. Archived from
2427:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2391:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2332:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2150:
2144:
2129:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2047:
2038:
2037:
2001:
1992:
1991:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1936:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1914:China Water Risk
1906:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1731:
1725:
1724:
1713:. p. 18-2.
1700:
1646:
1641:
1640:
1395:First transistor
1348:William Shockley
1306:depletion region
1255:cavity magnetron
1169:
1162:
1158:
1155:
1149:
1118:
1110:
997:microcontrollers
938:discrete devices
924:semiconductors.
877:digital circuits
843:Selenium sulfide
835:indium phosphide
765:Gallium arsenide
565:
562:
544:
543:
537:
488:
460:Transistor count
318:depletion region
316:, there forms a
217:. Semiconductor
200:discrete devices
177:electric current
162:gallium arsenide
148:properties of a
121:
114:
110:
107:
101:
99:
58:
34:
26:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3723:
3722:
3721:
3716:
3654:
3569:audio and video
3554:
3521:
3453:
3390:
3318:
3299:Photomultiplier
3224:
3152:
3100:Quantum circuit
3008:
3002:
2944:Avalanche diode
2930:
2842:
2835:
2724:
2713:
2706:
2701:
2671:
2665:
2648:
2644:
2643:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2597:
2595:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2562:
2558:
2548:
2546:
2536:
2535:
2531:
2521:
2519:
2518:. June 10, 2019
2508:
2507:
2500:
2490:
2488:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2464:
2425:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2344:
2334:
2333:
2326:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2298:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2185:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2127:10.1.1.493.1460
2109:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2049:
2048:
2041:
2026:
2003:
2002:
1995:
1953:
1952:
1948:
1938:
1937:
1928:
1919:
1917:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1893:
1891:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1845:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1802:
1800:
1799:. April 2, 2018
1789:
1788:
1784:
1771:
1769:
1761:
1760:
1756:
1746:
1744:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1642:
1635:
1632:
1590:(complementary
1514:
1508:
1502:
1462:
1438:
1397:
1385:surface physics
1346:After the war,
1344:
1338:
1314:
1302:charge carriers
1286:Walter Brattain
1243:
1223:
1221:Metal rectifier
1217:
1215:Metal rectifier
1185:
1179:
1170:
1159:
1153:
1150:
1135:
1119:
1108:
1102:
1097:
1096:
1068:die singulation
966:
958:
948:in Europe, and
930:
900:analog circuits
881:microprocessors
869:
827:indium arsenide
800:Silicon carbide
771:Gallium Nitride
737:
731:
616:Phototransistor
566:
560:
557:
541:
535:
529:
486:
468:Operation of a
462:
452:
446:
414:
408:
377:
372:
366:
306:
300:
295:
259:electric charge
239:charge carriers
122:
111:
105:
102:
59:
57:
47:
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3746:
3744:
3736:
3735:
3725:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3715:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3664:
3662:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3648:Wollaston wire
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3582:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3562:
3560:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3522:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3463:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3429:Selectron tube
3426:
3421:
3419:Magic eye tube
3416:
3411:
3406:
3400:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3356:
3351:
3345:
3340:
3333:
3331:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3234:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3166:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3124:
3118:
3113:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3081:
3076:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3044:
3039:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3012:
3010:
3004:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2988:Schottky diode
2985:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2963:
2957:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2928:
2922:
2917:
2911:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2847:
2845:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2817:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2784:
2778:
2772:
2767:
2761:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2729:
2727:
2716:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2692:
2685:
2677:
2670:
2669:
2663:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2605:
2569:
2556:
2529:
2498:
2470:
2467:on 2019-07-19.
2413:
2406:
2376:
2354:
2324:
2303:
2296:
2276:
2257:(2): 310–315.
2237:
2218:(4): 670–679.
2198:
2183:
2155:
2114:Hitachi Review
2097:
2078:(1): 108–115.
2058:
2039:
2024:
1993:
1946:
1926:
1916:. 11 July 2013
1901:
1855:
1830:
1810:
1782:
1754:
1726:
1719:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1687:
1686:
1681:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1648:
1647:
1631:
1628:
1518:Mohamed Atalla
1516:In the 1950s,
1504:Main article:
1501:
1498:
1486:Gordon K. Teal
1461:
1458:
1448:John R. Pierce
1437:
1434:
1396:
1393:
1340:Main article:
1337:
1334:
1313:
1310:
1259:Tizard Mission
1242:
1239:
1219:Main article:
1216:
1213:
1209:Schottky diode
1181:Main article:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1122:
1120:
1113:
1101:
1098:
1089:Tokyo Electron
1025:semiconducting
991:(ICs) such as
967:
959:
957:
954:
929:
926:
895:is on or off.
868:
865:
733:Main article:
730:
727:
726:
725:
719:
707:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
680:
675:
670:
659:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
626:Schottky diode
623:
618:
613:
608:
602:
597:
592:
587:
581:
568:
567:
547:
545:
528:
525:
448:Main article:
445:
442:
422:electric field
410:Main article:
407:
404:
376:
373:
368:Main article:
365:
362:
330:reverse biased
322:forward biased
302:Main article:
299:
296:
294:
291:
235:electron holes
193:an ionized gas
124:
123:
38:
36:
29:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3745:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3711:
3710:mercury relay
3708:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3657:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3533:Potentiometer
3531:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
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3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3456:
3450:
3449:Williams tube
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
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3405:
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3401:
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3368:
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3329:
3325:
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3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3268:Fleming valve
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
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3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
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3196:
3193:
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3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3159:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3095:Photodetector
3093:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3063:Memtransistor
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3005:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
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2970:
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2947:
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2941:
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2937:
2933:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2888:
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2879:
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2874:
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2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:Semiconductor
2709:
2705:
2698:
2693:
2691:
2686:
2684:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2666:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2647:
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2622:
2615:
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2606:
2593:
2589:
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2579:
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2557:
2545:
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2539:
2533:
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2517:
2516:
2511:
2505:
2503:
2499:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2424:
2417:
2414:
2409:
2407:9783540342588
2403:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2389:
2380:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2355:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2336:"Dawon Kahng"
2331:
2329:
2325:
2313:
2307:
2304:
2299:
2293:
2289:
2288:
2280:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2167:
2159:
2156:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2062:
2059:
2054:
2053:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2008:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1966:(4): 040801.
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1915:
1911:
1905:
1902:
1890:
1886:
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1878:
1874:
1870:
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1811:
1798:
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1779:
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1764:
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1742:
1741:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1722:
1720:9781420006728
1716:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1699:
1696:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1668:Schön scandal
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1600:Frank Wanlass
1597:
1596:Chih-Tang Sah
1593:
1589:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1534:silicon oxide
1531:
1530:silicon wafer
1527:
1523:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1475:
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1468:
1459:
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1423:
1419:
1415:
1409:
1401:
1394:
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1386:
1382:
1376:
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1357:
1353:
1349:
1343:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1287:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1274:cat's whisker
1271:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1168:
1165:
1157:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1123:This section
1121:
1117:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1099:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
976:
971:
964:
955:
953:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
927:
925:
922:
918:
916:
911:
909:
905:
901:
896:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
866:
864:
862:
858:
853:
851:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
819:
817:
816:IMPATT diodes
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
794:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
766:
762:
760:
756:
752:
750:
746:
742:
736:
728:
724:(Optocoupler)
723:
720:
717:
714:
713:
712:
711:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
665:
664:
663:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
606:
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
585:
582:
580:
577:
576:
575:
574:
564:
555:
551:
548:This list is
546:
539:
538:
534:
526:
524:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
493:
491:
484:
480:
471:
466:
461:
457:
451:
443:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
413:
405:
403:
401:
397:
393:
389:
381:
374:
371:
363:
361:
360:
356:
352:
348:
347:
342:
339:can generate
338:
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
305:
297:
292:
290:
288:
284:
280:
275:
273:
272:p–n junctions
268:
264:
260:
257:for positive
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
211:
209:
205:
201:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
175:
171:
167:
164:, as well as
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:semiconductor
147:
143:
139:
130:
120:
117:
109:
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67: –
66:
62:
61:Find sources:
55:
51:
45:
44:
39:This article
37:
33:
28:
27:
22:
21:Semiconductor
3467:Cold cathode
3434:Storage tube
3324:Vacuum tubes
3273:Neutron tube
3248:Beam tetrode
3230:Vacuum tubes
2815:Power MOSFET
2711:
2652:
2632:. Retrieved
2608:
2596:. Retrieved
2592:the original
2581:
2572:
2564:
2559:
2547:. Retrieved
2541:
2532:
2520:. Retrieved
2513:
2489:. Retrieved
2482:
2473:
2462:the original
2436:(1): 43–48.
2433:
2429:
2416:
2387:
2379:
2366:
2357:
2345:. Retrieved
2339:
2315:. Retrieved
2306:
2286:
2279:
2254:
2250:
2240:
2215:
2211:
2201:
2165:
2158:
2147:. Retrieved
2120:(3): 70–74.
2117:
2113:
2100:
2075:
2071:
2061:
2051:
2006:
1963:
1959:
1949:
1943:. CRC Press.
1940:
1918:. Retrieved
1913:
1904:
1892:. Retrieved
1872:
1868:
1858:
1846:. Retrieved
1842:
1833:
1822:. Retrieved
1813:
1801:. Retrieved
1794:
1785:
1776:
1770:. Retrieved
1766:
1757:
1745:. Retrieved
1738:
1729:
1705:
1698:
1586:
1528:, coating a
1515:
1494:Zone melting
1478:
1471:
1463:
1455:descriptive.
1453:
1441:
1439:
1418:John Bardeen
1410:
1406:
1389:
1377:
1368:
1360:
1356:John Bardeen
1345:
1315:
1297:
1293:
1290:
1282:
1263:
1244:
1241:World War II
1227:copper oxide
1224:
1186:
1160:
1154:October 2007
1151:
1136:Please help
1124:
1093:Lam Research
1072:
1061:
1037:
987:, typically
979:
946:Pro Electron
934:part numbers
931:
919:
912:
897:
870:
867:Applications
854:
847:photovoltaic
839:laser diodes
820:
798:
795:
781:(LEDs), and
769:
763:
753:
738:
722:Photocoupler
709:
708:
661:
660:
641:Tunnel diode
595:IMPATT diode
572:
571:
558:
516:
512:
508:
504:
501:conductivity
496:
494:
476:
433:
425:
415:
399:
395:
391:
386:
344:
334:
329:
321:
310:p–n junction
307:
276:
266:
254:
219:conductivity
212:
197:
170:vacuum tubes
137:
135:
112:
103:
93:
86:
79:
72:
60:
48:Please help
43:verification
40:
3633:Transformer
3375:Sutton tube
3215:Charge pump
3068:Memory cell
2998:Zener diode
2960:Laser diode
2843:transistors
2725:transistors
2396:. pp.
1894:November 9,
1578:smartphones
1566:scalability
1562:Dawon Kahng
1430:Nobel Prize
1266:Russell Ohl
1264:On a whim,
1251:frequencies
1205:vacuum tube
1201:carborundum
956:Fabrication
908:oscillators
873:logic gates
850:solar cells
825:compounds (
651:Zener diode
600:Laser diode
561:August 2008
527:Other types
521:polysilicon
483:solid-state
359:laser diode
346:photodiodes
181:solid state
3705:reed relay
3695:Parametron
3628:Thermistor
3606:resettable
3565:Connector
3526:Adjustable
3502:Nixie tube
3472:Crossatron
3439:Trochotron
3414:Iconoscope
3409:Charactron
3386:X-ray tube
3258:Compactron
3238:Acorn tube
3195:Buck–boost
3116:Solaristor
2978:Photodiode
2955:Gunn diode
2951:(CLD, CRD)
2733:Transistor
2149:2021-11-01
1920:2023-01-21
1875:(1): 1–8.
1824:2023-05-02
1772:2018-04-16
1690:References
1620:multi-gate
1510:See also:
1328:, and the
1044:clean room
1027:material.
1001:NAND flash
975:clean room
904:amplifiers
631:Solar cell
590:Gunn diode
550:incomplete
531:See also:
490:sextillion
454:See also:
370:Transistor
364:Transistor
293:Main types
287:transistor
243:phosphorus
146:electronic
76:newspapers
3668:Capacitor
3512:Trigatron
3507:Thyratron
3497:Neon lamp
3424:Monoscope
3304:Phototube
3288:Pentagrid
3253:Barretter
3138:Trancitor
3133:Thyristor
3058:Memristor
2983:PIN diode
2760:(ChemFET)
2450:0018-9219
2271:213026336
2232:252555815
2122:CiteSeerX
1988:2166-2746
1711:CRC Press
1626:in 1989.
1614:in 1967.
1612:Simon Sze
1522:Bell Labs
1481:germanium
1372:amplifier
1322:Bell Labs
1298:collector
1278:Manhattan
1125:does not
1056:7 nm
804:power ICs
775:power ICs
755:Germanium
729:Materials
694:Thyristor
656:Zen diode
621:PIN diode
611:Photocell
517:p-channel
513:n-channel
400:collector
231:electrons
158:germanium
106:July 2017
3727:Category
3690:Inductor
3660:Reactive
3638:Varistor
3618:Resistor
3596:Antifuse
3482:Ignitron
3477:Dekatron
3365:Klystron
3354:Gyrotron
3283:Nuvistor
3200:Split-pi
3086:(MOS IC)
3053:Memistor
2811:(MuGFET)
2805:(MOSFET)
2777:(FinFET)
2625:Archived
2623:. 2014.
2458:29105721
2140:Archived
2136:30883737
2092:25469704
1889:12369827
1630:See also
1576:such as
1231:selenium
821:Various
787:band gap
739:By far,
398:and the
3591:Ferrite
3559:Passive
3550:Varicap
3538:digital
3487:Krytron
3309:Tetrode
3294:Pentode
3148:Varicap
3129:(3D IC)
3105:RF CMOS
3009:devices
2783:(FGMOS)
2714:devices
2522:20 July
2491:18 July
2484:EETimes
2347:27 June
2317:21 June
2193:3240442
2034:2482339
1968:Bibcode
1803:28 July
1747:20 July
1294:emitter
1146:removed
1131:sources
1029:Silicon
952:(JIS).
889:voltage
741:silicon
396:emitter
202:and as
179:in the
174:conduct
154:silicon
90:scholar
3623:Switch
3314:Triode
3278:Nonode
3243:Audion
3123:(SITh)
3007:Other
2974:(OLED)
2936:Diodes
2887:(LET)
2869:(FET)
2841:Other
2789:(IGBT)
2766:(CMOS)
2753:BioFET
2748:BiCMOS
2661:
2634:4 July
2598:4 July
2549:6 July
2456:
2448:
2404:
2294:
2269:
2230:
2191:
2181:
2134:
2124:
2090:
2032:
2022:
1986:
1887:
1848:May 2,
1717:
1654:(DLTS)
1616:FinFET
1580:. The
1558:MOSFET
1506:MOSFET
1424:, and
1352:triode
1197:galena
1189:radios
893:switch
885:MOSFET
833:, and
823:indium
749:wafers
745:boules
685:(IGBT)
505:source
487:
470:MOSFET
450:MOSFET
438:MOSFET
279:MOSFET
215:doping
185:vacuum
160:, and
140:is an
92:
85:
78:
71:
63:
3700:Relay
3673:types
3611:eFUSE
3382:(TWT)
3370:Maser
3361:(IOT)
3350:(CFA)
3339:(BWO)
3263:Diode
3210:SEPIC
3190:Boost
3143:TRIAC
3112:(SCR)
3075:(MOV)
3049:(LEC)
2968:(LED)
2927:(UJT)
2916:(SIT)
2910:(PUT)
2853:(BJT)
2822:(TFT)
2798:LDMOS
2793:ISFET
2628:(PDF)
2621:Intel
2617:(PDF)
2465:(PDF)
2454:S2CID
2426:(PDF)
2267:S2CID
2228:S2CID
2189:S2CID
2143:(PDF)
2132:S2CID
2110:(PDF)
2088:S2CID
2030:S2CID
1885:S2CID
1680:(EDA)
1247:radar
1075:FOUPs
1021:wafer
942:JEDEC
699:TRIAC
646:VCSEL
607:(LED)
584:Diode
509:drain
337:light
304:Diode
298:Diode
247:boron
223:light
208:wafer
97:JSTOR
83:books
3643:Wire
3601:Fuse
3185:Buck
3038:(IC)
3026:DIAC
2962:(LD)
2831:UMOS
2826:VMOS
2743:PMOS
2738:NMOS
2723:MOS
2659:ISBN
2636:2019
2600:2019
2551:2019
2524:2019
2493:2019
2446:ISSN
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