511:
439:
589:
Frobenius' indiscretion caused the German embassy some difficulties and he was sent back to
Germany on 9 April, crossing the Austrian border shortly before Italy declared its intention to enter the war on the Allied side. Frobenius' lack of secrecy throughout the expedition has been named as a contributing factor to its failure. The failure of the expedition caused friction between the Germans and the Ottomans and the German ambassador to the
353:
130:, DIAFE) to Africa between 1904 and 1935. His work in the field is of considerable documentary value but his conclusions on the development of African civilisation from non-African origins were controversial and are not supported by modern writers. He has also been accused of using the expeditions to loot items of cultural value from Africa. At the outbreak of the
22:
297:. The German government also provided a quantity of weapons and ammunition. The Ottoman Empire was invited to join the expedition and accepted, hoping to counter British presence in Egypt. In advance of the expedition the Ottomans made diplomatic concessions to Ethiopia by returning ownership of a number of monastic properties in Jerusalem.
633:) in Frankfurt in 1920 and became professor of ethnology at University of Frankfurt. He was keen to continue his expeditions into Africa after the war but found travel was more difficult now he was known to the British intelligence services. Frobenius' expedition to Sudan in 1926 was affected by a British refusal to grant him access to
412:
150:
Territories in the Middle East and Africa at the start of the First World War. The
Ottoman Empire is in light green, British Empire in pink, German East Africa is the dark grey territory at the bottom of the image. Ethiopia is in brown towards the centre of the image and Italian Eritrea is the red
94:, the party is thought to have been identified by British agents and was intercepted by four British and French vessels but allowed on its way. The Italian authorities became aware of the expedition and it was abandoned, with the expedition being granted safe passage from Eritrea on 26 March 1915.
486:
on 15 February 1915. British intelligence services had tipped off the
Italians about the expedition as early as February 1915 and the party received a cold reception from the Italian authorities. Suspicions were later raised that Passarge, Frobenius' interpreter, who held dual Italian and German
617:
A follow-up expedition was sent in June 1915 under command of
Salomon Hall but he was captured by the Italian police whilst in disguise as a local. Hall managed to get documents passed to the German legation, which promised the Ethiopians a port on the Red Sea and any territory captured from the
588:
and press agencies to deny espionage and to play down the military background of his party. He later admitted his aim had been "to influence the Arab countries on behalf of the
Ottoman government", admitted to military espionage and campaigned to be awarded a medal from the Italian authorities.
308:
The members of the expedition are disputed, but are thought to have numbered around seventeen: five
Europeans and twelve Turks or Arabs. The European members were Frobenius, ethnographer Albrecht Martius, photographer Robert Türstig, foreign office official Hieronymus Kistenfeger and interpreter
539:
The presence of
Frobenius in Eritrea was a threat to Italian neutrality but expelling him would also jeopardise it. The discovery of pro-jihadi leaflets in Frobenius' possession provided a convenient pretext. News of the leaflets was passed to the Italian parliament and soon after it was made
403:
on the coast of the Red Sea. Frobenius made careful assessments of the political condition of the regions he travelled through and reported to Berlin of the weakness of
Ottoman forces in the area, the unpopularity of their Tripoli-born officials and the poverty and hunger caused by the British
268:
Frobenius had visited Sudan during his 1912 expedition, but had no experience in
Eritrea or Ethiopia and spoke none of the local languages. His plan was to carry mail to the legation, meet with Ethiopian politicians to secure their support for the German cause, proceed to Sudan to persuade the
247:
and
Italian Eritrea. The Germans planned an expedition to Ethiopia which would restore communications and advance their objectives for Ethiopia and Sudan. It was decided that this expedition would publicly be called scientific to disguise its military and political aims. Frobenius offered his
613:
housing captured African and Indian soldiers. Frobenius spent the rest of the war consolidating his research from previous expeditions and cataloguing artefacts from his collection. His scientific output from the seventh expedition was lower than his previous expeditions. Fewer than 100
41:
in October 1914-March 1915. Though referred to as the seventh of Frobenius' scientific expeditions to Africa it was a front for a German military espionage mission to Ethiopia. The objective was to restore communications with the German legation at Addis Ababa; persuade Ethiopian Emperor
108:
and burnt down several Italian radio stations, but was ousted in a British-supported coup in 1916. Frobenius continued his scientific expeditions to Africa after the war, but found it difficult to gain entry to British-controlled territories due to his involvement in this operation.
608:
2nd Class. The failure seems to have caused no harm to his political or scientific standing in Germany. Frobenius proposed that he be dispatched immediately to lead a second expedition with the same aims. This request was denied and he was instead appointed to command a
507:), Maji Malehesh, Lamdrara and Dembe Wadi Mudui to view rock engravings, of which 37 sketches were made. Compared to his previous expeditions, scientific output was much less, rather than thousands of photographs, the seventh expedition took fewer than one hundred.
583:
whilst the rest of the members travelled to Rome to meet with Bülow. The German consul in Naples tried to downplay the affair, claiming that Frobenius had acted only as a messenger to the legation in Addis Ababa, and Frobenius took part in several interviews with
194:. Germany was also suspicious of the loyalty of the Italians, nominally members of the Central Powers, but not yet participants in the war. If the Italians had joined the Entente Powers, Ethiopian forces would have been ideally positioned to occupy
641:
in 1927 had to be cancelled after he was blacklisted from travelling to the British colony. The final expedition he led to Africa (Libya 1933) was closely monitored by Italian authorities. Frobenius looked further afield and led expeditions to
467:. The crew of the sambuk distracted the French sailors by trying to sell postcards to them whilst Frobenius' men used a toilet to enter the boat's sanitary tank. The expedition escaped detection and even managed to take a photograph of the
427:, arriving on 7 February. Here many of the expedition disguised themselves in Arab robes and posed as smugglers of animal hides; the Palestinian Arabs in the party were disguised as gardeners. Türstig masqueraded as an official of the
540:
public, Bülow made an appeal to the Italians to grant Frobenius safe passage to Germany. Lengthy negotiations between the British, French and Italian governments eventually resulted in an agreement, with the British foreign secretary
597:
65:
The expedition is thought to have comprised seventeen persons, five of European descent and twelve of Turkish or Arab origin. The European contingent left Berlin in October 1914 and later met with the other members in the
460:; because of which Frobenius suspected that his movements in Arabia had been monitored by British agents. The vessel was allowed to proceed on its way until later that day when she was again brought to inspection by the
544:
happy to provide safe conduct to Frobenius in recognition of the work done to thwart his mission by the Italians. The expedition left Massawa on 26 March, the European members were given passage aboard the postal vessel
614:
photographs were taken in Eritrea and only one paper, a study of local architecture published. His other expeditions had produced thousands of photographs and provided the basis for more than fifty books.
147:
213:, a nationalist and religious leader who had fought the colonial authorities in the Somalilands since 1899. The Germans also had plans to instigate an uprising in Sudan which might threaten the
952:
1137:
Arabian Humanities. Revue internationale d'archéologie et de sciences sociales sur la péninsule Arabique/International Journal of Archaeology and Social Sciences in the Arabian Peninsula
254:(German Inner-Africa Research Expeditions), though some sources incorrectly refer to it as his fourth expedition. In German intelligence circles it was codenamed HIDDEK, an acronym for
97:
Despite not having entered Ethiopia, Frobenius heralded the expedition as a success and campaigned for the right to lead a follow-up expedition. The second expedition was instead led by
622:, which feared he had converted to Islam. The overthrow of Iyasu is thought to have been encouraged by the Allies and brought Ras Tafari Makonnen (later known as Emperor
618:
Allies in return for their cooperation. Emperor Iyasu sent weapons to Hassan and destroyed Italian radio stations but was deposed in 1916 after his excommunication by the
248:
services as leader of the expedition to the Kaiser on 13 November 1914, who directed that the expedition should proceed. The expedition formed the seventh of Frobenius'
320:
Frobenius is known to have valued honorary titles, and before setting out on the expedition insisted that he was granted various honours. He was awarded the title of
593:
reported that "the Turkish government has become extremely sensitive by our various expeditions, especially that of Frobenius has earned the biggest mistrust".
510:
146:
528:. The Italian chief of civil affairs in the town had the vessel monitored and was disturbed to find that Frobenius had bought an Italian flag (for use as a
190:, and the Germans hoped that an Ethiopian declaration of war would lead to territorial losses or the withdrawal of Entente units fighting the Germans on the
541:
281:
and Ethiopia. The expedition was fairly inexpensive, owing to the use of equipment from Frobenius' previous expeditions and had funding of 60,000 German
914:
121:
58:
to provoke an uprising there. This could have threatened British and Italian colonies in Eastern Africa and possibly the vital supply route of the
1276:
1239:
1180:
384:, Syria which they reached on 5 January. The party resided at the Hotel Victoria whilst the full complement of European staff was gathered.
367:
408:
pilgrimage. He also noted the success that the British were having in buying the loyalty of the Arab population with food shipments.
301:
1369:
1218:
532:), had purchased maps of the coastline and was making trips to identify potential landing sites. Frobenius also made contact with
604:
In Berlin Frobenius presented the mission as a success, claiming to have made important contacts in the area and was awarded the
1374:
431:
and his eighty packs of photographic equipment were disguised as hospital supplies. On 13 February the expedition boarded a
1364:
191:
373:
225:
619:
230:
503:
At Massawa the expedition members took part in hunting, other social activities and made visits to Zazega (near
317:, a German citizen of Ethiopian origin. Hall's task was to lead the negotiations with the Ethiopian government.
922:
536:
of the Foreign Office in Berlin to obtain diplomatic bags to carry mail to the German Legation in Addis Ababa.
471:
through a crack in the sambuk's hull. The sambuk was stopped and inspected twice more by British vessels near
210:
175:
269:
population to rise up and to strengthen links between the Ottoman Empire and the Muslim inhabitants of Sudan,
1359:
573:, Italy where they arrived in April 1915. Türstig accompanied the expedition's equipment and the remaining
134:
in 1914, Frobenius was regarded as the foremost German expert on Africa. He had close contacts with Kaiser
120:
was a self-taught German ethnologist and archaeologist who specialised in African cultures. He led twelve
364:, capital of the Ottoman Empire, on 21 November. They left the city on 24 December and travelled via the
360:
The expedition left Berlin in early October 1914 and travelled via Austria, Romania and Bulgaria to reach
314:
101:
in June 1915 and led to an agreement with Iyasu. The Ethiopian government lent their support to rebels in
98:
585:
461:
451:
187:
157:
102:
533:
495:. Frobenius also compromised the expedition by introducing himself in Massawa as a military captain.
874:
610:
519:
290:
171:
55:
630:
395:
in Palestine, where many of the Ottoman contingent were recruited. The party continued by rail to
438:
1317:
1119:
270:
199:
179:
399:
in north-western Arabia, arriving on 15 January 1915. They travelled south by Bedouin camel to
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1272:
1235:
1214:
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183:
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1206:
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333:
195:
131:
51:
623:
488:
361:
167:
67:
47:
1353:
1330:
1321:
1172:
Die Suche nach dem Fremden: Geschichte der Ethnologie in der Bundesrepublik 1945–1990
590:
554:
388:
117:
38:
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The sambuk was intercepted on its first day of travel by the armed merchant cruiser
492:
424:
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75:
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59:
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323:
206:
43:
1132:
21:
1199:"Portraits of Distant Worlds. Frobenius' Pictorial Archive and its Legacy"
396:
300:
1198:
953:"The German Lawrence of Arabia had much to live up to – and failed"
638:
634:
629:
Frobenius founded the Institute for the Morphology of Culture (later the
381:
313:, the former governor of Libya and a future Turkish foreign minister and
236:
163:
561:
for Jaffa and onward travel to Jerusalem where they arrived on 6 April.
1123:
596:
479:
400:
286:
274:
244:
87:
83:
570:
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240:
79:
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1258:
Cultural Research in Northeast Africa: German Histories and Stories
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278:
243:
via disguised couriers on a route through the Ottoman Empire, the
218:
145:
20:
1133:"Leo Frobenius' Secret Mission in Arabia and Eritrea (1914–1915)"
569:
From Port Said the European members of the party travelled on to
420:
405:
71:
411:
224:
The German government was unable to communicate directly with
491:(a prominent Italian intelligence official), may have been a
557:) and the Arab and Turkish members boarded the Italian ship
419:
The expedition left Al Wajh on 24 January and proceeded via
162:, the German high command, were keen to secure the entry of
70:(a German ally). After travelling by rail, cart, camel and
1331:"The Frobenius expedition to Natal and the Cinyati archive"
1288:"The Present Situation of Ethnological Research in Germany"
285:
in a mixture of hard currencies including marks, Ottoman
1090:"Leo Frobenius, Das Unbekannte Afrika (Unknown Africa)"
518:
Some of the expedition members took rooms on board the
1231:
The 20th Century A-GI: Dictionary of World Biography
915:"Expeditions - Frobenius-Institut Frankfurt am Main"
746:"Ethiopian prince who scuppered Germany's WW1 plans"
1234:. Vol. VII. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge.
1260:. Frankfurt: Frobenius-Institut. pp. 173–183.
1035:
1008:
983:
861:
689:
677:
37:) was led by German ethnologist and archaeologist
1203:Global Photographies: Memory - History - Archives
475:and was again allowed to proceed on her journey.
251:Deutsche Innerafrikanische Forschungs-Expeditions
127:Deutsche Innerafrikanische Forschungs-Expeditions
340:of the Ottoman Empire, which he appended to his
205:The Germans were hopeful that Ethiopian Emperor
1131:Da Riva, Rocío; Biocca, Dario (5 August 2016).
435:to make the crossing of the Red Sea to Africa.
387:The expedition travelled from Damascus via the
336:in Arabia. He was also appointed the title of
309:Mario Passarge. Amongst the other members was
260:(The main thing is that England is destroyed).
31:Seventh German Inner Africa Research Expedition
1256:Schmidt, Wolbert; Thubauville, Sophia (2015).
239:in Ethiopia, and messages had to be passed in
1265:Shinn, David H.; Ofcansky, Thomas P. (2013).
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
992:
979:
977:
975:
973:
901:
837:
650:in 1937–38, before his death in August 1938.
8:
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523:
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321:
255:
249:
155:
125:
1286:Westphal-Hellbusch, Sigrid (October 1959).
1201:. In Sissy Helff; Stefanie Michels (eds.).
16:German espionage mission to Ethiopia, 1915
1303:
1144:
1105:
1019:
1017:
257:Die Hauptsache ist, daß England untergeht
897:
895:
122:German Inner Africa Research Expeditions
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487:citizenship and was a close friend of
1228:Magill, Frank M., ed. (13 May 2011).
921:. Frobenius Institute. Archived from
740:
738:
736:
734:
78:in Saudi Arabia, the party boarded a
7:
1059:
1329:Wintjes, Justine (November 2013).
368:Chemins de fer Ottomans d'Anatolie
14:
1268:Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia
1088:Bickel, Beatrice (October 1923).
376:, horse-drawn cart and camel via
138:and often corresponded with him.
1271:. Scarecrow Press. p. 424.
1205:. transcript. pp. 109–131.
951:Fisk, Robert (7 November 2009).
209:could be persuaded to ally with
166:into the war on the side of the
875:"Sayyid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan"
404:blockade and disruption of the
1036:Schmidt & Thubauville 2015
1009:Schmidt & Thubauville 2015
984:Schmidt & Thubauville 2015
862:Schmidt & Thubauville 2015
678:Schmidt & Thubauville 2015
1:
1305:10.1525/aa.1959.61.5.02a00110
748:. BBC News. 25 September 2016
637:and a proposed expedition to
579:2,250.50 back to Germany via
1175:(in German). Campus Verlag.
1094:The Journal of Negro History
356:Berlin-Baghdad Railway train
235:, their envoy at the German
226:Friedrich Wilhelm von Syburg
186:were all possessions of the
151:territory immediately north.
1335:Southern African Humanities
328:(privy councillor), German
1391:
919:www.frobenius-institut.de
902:Shinn & Ofcansky 2013
838:Da Riva & Biocca 2016
620:Ethiopian Orthodox Church
1370:Expeditions from Germany
211:Mohammed Abdullah Hassan
176:East Africa Protectorate
1292:American Anthropologist
1169:Haller, Dieter (2012).
879:Encyclopedia Britannica
690:Westphal-Hellbusch 1959
1211:10.25969/mediarep/1652
1197:Kuba, Richard (2018).
601:
524:
515:
447:
416:
374:Berlin–Baghdad railway
366:
357:
332:at Darfur and Ottoman
322:
315:Friedrich Salomon Hall
305:
256:
250:
156:
152:
126:
99:Friedrich Salomon Hall
26:
1375:World War I espionage
599:
513:
478:The sambuk docked at
441:
414:
355:
303:
221:against the British.
158:Oberste Heeresleitung
149:
90:. Despite travelling
24:
611:prisoner of war camp
600:Iron Cross 2nd Class
520:Hamburg America Line
291:Maria Theresa thaler
217:and inspire a wider
172:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
56:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
1365:African expeditions
925:on 30 December 2016
631:Frobenius Institute
289:, Austro-Hungarian
602:
534:Bernhard von Bülow
516:
448:
417:
358:
306:
200:Italian Somaliland
180:British Somaliland
153:
54:and to proceed to
27:
1278:978-0-8108-7457-2
1241:978-1-57958-046-9
1182:978-3-593-39600-2
1139:(in French) (6).
453:Empress of Russia
444:Empress of Russia
348:Journey to Africa
311:Bekir Sami Kunduh
304:Bekir Sami Kunduh
184:French Somaliland
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415:A Red Sea sambuk
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1146:10.4000/cy.3099
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1107:10.2307/2713696
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957:The Independent
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484:Italian Eritrea
462:French cruiser
458:Farasan Islands
350:
344:"Abdul Kerim".
334:plenipotentiary
266:
228:
196:Italian Eritrea
144:
132:First World War
115:
52:First World War
46:to support the
17:
12:
11:
5:
1388:
1386:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1360:1915 in Africa
1352:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1326:
1298:(5): 848–865.
1283:
1277:
1262:
1253:
1240:
1225:
1219:
1194:
1181:
1166:
1128:
1100:(4): 455–458.
1083:
1080:
1077:
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1052:
1040:
1028:
1026:, p. 1243
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624:Haile Selassie
566:
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500:
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489:Carmine Senise
446:in the Red Sea
362:Constantinople
349:
346:
265:
262:
188:Entente Powers
168:Central Powers
143:
142:Strategic aims
140:
114:
111:
68:Ottoman Empire
48:Central Powers
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1220:9783839430064
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1103:
1099:
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1086:
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1081:
1074:, p. 156
1073:
1068:
1065:
1062:, p. 109
1061:
1056:
1053:
1050:, p. 455
1049:
1044:
1041:
1038:, p. 179
1037:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1011:, p. 177
1010:
1005:
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999:
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995:
993:
989:
986:, p. 176
985:
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978:
976:
974:
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958:
954:
947:
945:
943:
941:
937:
924:
920:
916:
910:
907:
904:, p. 424
903:
898:
896:
892:
880:
876:
870:
867:
864:, p. 174
863:
858:
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832:
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828:
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766:
764:
760:
747:
741:
739:
737:
735:
731:
728:, p. 170
727:
722:
719:
716:, p. 167
715:
710:
707:
704:, p. 168
703:
698:
695:
692:, p. 850
691:
686:
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1072:Haller 2012
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1024:Magill 2011
929:28 February
542:Edward Grey
525:Christian X
473:Al Hudaydah
342:Arabic name
229: [
33:(codenamed
1354:Categories
654:References
644:New Guinea
606:Iron Cross
586:La Tribuna
559:Montenegro
530:false flag
215:Suez Canal
136:Wilhelm II
113:Background
106:Somaliland
60:Suez Canal
1337:: 167–205
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1314:0002-7294
1247:3 October
1155:1248-0568
1116:0022-2992
1060:Kuba 2018
648:Australia
565:Aftermath
551:Port Said
514:Von Bülow
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429:Red Cross
324:geheimrat
207:Lij Iyasu
92:incognito
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382:Damascus
330:resident
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264:Planning
237:legation
164:Ethiopia
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469:Desaix
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433:sambuk
378:Aleppo
372:, the
241:cipher
174:, the
80:sambuk
35:HIDDEK
1318:S2CID
1120:JSTOR
581:Genoa
393:Jaffa
338:pasha
283:marks
279:Libya
233:]
219:jihad
1343:2019
1310:ISSN
1273:ISBN
1249:2016
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1190:2019
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964:2019
931:2017
886:2020
754:2019
646:and
553:(in
549:for
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295:lira
198:and
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