259:
per second with shots of an attached ball to the horn in the range of 1K-100K per square millimeter. The strikes, which can be described as cold-forging, introduce SPD to produce a NC surface layer by refining the coarse grains until nanometer scale without changing the chemical composition of a material which render the high strength and high ductility. This UNSM technique does not only improve the mechanical and tribological properties of a material, but also produces a corrugated structure having numerous of desired dimples on the treated surface.
677:
is still useful as it implies that all other things remaining equal, reducing the stacking fault energy, a property that is a function of the alloying elements, will allow for better grain refinement. A few studies, however, suggested that despite the significance of stacking fault energy on the grain refinement at the early stages of straining, the steady-state grain size at large strains is mainly controlled by the homologous temperature in pure metals and by the interaction of solute atoms and dislocations in single-phase alloys.
1548:
180:, bonding the 2 sheets together. This sheet is cut in half, the 2 halves are stacked, and the process is repeated several times. Compared to other SPD processes, ARB has the benefit that it does not require specialized equipment or tooling, only a conventional rolling mill. However, the surfaces to be joined must be well-cleaned before rolling to ensure good bonding.
722:
Kawasaki, M.; Krǎl, P.; Kuramoto, S.; Langdon, T.G.; Leiva, D.R.; Levitas, V.I.; Mazilkin, A.; Mito, M.; Miyamoto, H.; Nishizaki, T.; Pippan, R.; Popov, V.V.; Popova, E.N.; Purcek, G.; Renk, O.; Révész, A.; Sauvage, X.; Sklenicka, V.; Skrotzki, W.; Straumal, B.B.; Suwas, S.; Toth, L.S.; Tsuji, N.; Valiev, R.Z.; Wilde, G.; Zehetbauer, M.J.; Zhu, X. (April 2022).
602:
271:
relation. Conventionally processed industrial metals typically have a grain size from 10–100 μm. Reducing the grain size from 10 μm to 1 μm can increase the yield strength of metals by more than 100%. Techniques that use bulk materials such as ECAE can provide reliable and relatively inexpensive ways
258:
An ultrasonic nanocrystalline surface modification (UNSM) technique is also one of the newly developed surface modification technique. In the UNSM process, not only the static load, but also the dynamic load are exerted. The processing is conducted striking a workpiece surface up to 20K or more times
676:
While the model was developed specifically for mechanical milling, it has also been successfully applied to other SPD processes. Frequently only a portion of the model is used (typically the term involving the stacking fault energy) as the other terms are often unknown and difficult to measure. This
188:
Repetitive corrugation and straightening (RCS) is a severe plastic deformation technique used to process sheet metals. In RCS, a sheet is pressed between two corrugated dies followed by pressing between two flat dies. RCS has gained wide popularity to produce fine grained sheet metals. Endeavors to
197:
In asymmetric rolling (ASR), a rolling mill is modified such that one roll has a higher velocity than the other. This is typically done with either independent speed control or by using rolls of different size. This creates a region in which the frictional forces on the top and bottom of the sheet
125:
Equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE, sometimes called Equal channel angular pressing, ECAP) was developed in the 1970s. In this process, a metal billet is pressed through an angled (typically 90 degrees) channel. To achieve optimal results, the process may be repeated several times, changing the
58:
The significance of SPD was known from the ancient times, at least during the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, when repeated hammering and folding was employed for processing strategic tools such as swords. The development of the principles underlying SPD techniques goes back to the
1189:
Mirab, Saeideh; Nili-Ahmadabadi, Mahmoud; Khajezade, Ali; Abshirini, Mohamad; Parsa, Mohammad Habibi; Soltani, Naser (August 2016). "On the
Deformation Analysis during RCSR Process Aided by Finite Element Modeling and Digital Image Correlation: On the Deformation Analysis during RCSR Process…".
721:
Edalati, K.; Bachmaier, A.; Beloshenko, V.A.; Beygelzimer, Y.; Blank, V.D.; Botta, W.J.; Bryła, K.; Čížek, J.; Divinski, S.; Enikeev, N.A.; Estrin, Y.; Faraji, G.; Figueiredo, R.B.; Fuji, M.; Furuta, T.; Grosdidier, T.; Gubicza, J.; Hohenwarter, A.; Horita, Z.; Huot, J.; Ikoma, Y.; Janeček, M.;
94:
component. However, the mechanisms that lead to grain refinement in SPD are the same as those originally developed for mechanical alloying, a powder process that has been characterized as "severe plastic deformation" by authors as early as 1983. Additionally, some more recent processes such as
1277:
Asghari-Rad, Peyman; Nili-Ahmadabadi, Mahmoud; Shirazi, Hassan; Hossein Nedjad, Syamak; Koldorf, Sebastian (March 2017). "A Significant
Improvement in the Mechanical Properties of AISI 304 Stainless Steel by a Combined RCSR and Annealing Process: A Significant Improvement in the Mechanical
385:
1225:
Shahmir, Hamed; Nili-Ahmadabadi, Mahmoud; Razzaghi, Alireza; Mohammadi, Mahdi; Wang, Chuan Ting; Jung, Jai Myun; Kim, Hyoung Seop; Langdon, Terence G. (June 2015). "Using dilatometry to study martensitic stabilization and recrystallization kinetics in a severely deformed NiTi alloy".
1161:
Mirsepasi, Arya; Nili-Ahmadabadi, Mahmoud; Habibi-Parsa, Mohammad; Ghasemi-Nanesa, Hadi; Dizaji, Ahmad F. (August 2012). "Microstructure and mechanical behavior of martensitic steel severely deformed by the novel technique of repetitive corrugation and straightening by rolling".
1731:
Edalati, K.; Akama, D.; Nishio, A.; Lee, S.; Yonenaga, Y.; Cubero-Sesin, J.; Horita, Z. (2014). "Influence of dislocation-solute atom interactions and stacking fault energy on grain size of single-phase alloys after severe plastic deformation using high-pressure torsion".
1546:, Zhu, Y.T.; Lowe, T.C.; Valiev, R.Z.; Stolyarov, V.V.; Latysh, V.V.; Raab, G.J., "Ultrafine-grained titanium for medical implants", issued 2002-06-04, assigned to The Regents Of The University Of California
898:
Qu, S.; An, X.H.; Yang, H.J.; Huang, C.X.; Yang, G.; Zang, Q.S.; Wang, Z.G.; Wu, S.D.; Zhang, Z.F. (2009). "Microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of Cu–Al alloys subjected to equal channel angular pressing".
1406:
Zhang, X.; Wang, H.; Kassem, M.; Narayan, J.; Koch, C.C. (10 May 2002). "Preparation of bulk ultrafine-grained and nanostructured Zn, Al and their alloys by in situ consolidation of powders during mechanical attrition".
202:
throughout the material in addition to the normal compressive stress from rolling. Unlike other SPD processes, ASR does not maintain the same net shape, but the effect on the microstructure of the material is similar.
597:{\displaystyle {\frac {d_{min}}{b}}=A_{3}\left(e^{-{\tfrac {\beta Q}{4RT}}}\right){\left({\frac {D_{p0}Gb^{2}}{\nu _{0}kT}}\right)}^{0.25}{\left({\frac {\gamma }{Gb}}\right)}^{0.5}{\left({\frac {G}{H}}\right)}^{1.25}}
641:
is the activation energy for vacancy migration, and Q is the activation energy for self-diffusion), βQ represents the activation energy for recovery, R is the gas constant, and T is the processing temperature.
238:
More recently, the principles behind SPD have been used to develop surface treatments that create a nanocrystalline layer on the surface of a material. In the surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT), an
225:
together, resulting in large deformations. The end product is generally a powder that must then be consolidated in some way (often using other SPD processes), but some alloys have the ability to consolidate
95:
asymmetric rolling, do result in a change in the dimensions of the workpiece, while still producing an ultrafine grain structure. The principles behind SPD have even been applied to surface treatments.
150:, though its use in metal processing is considerably more recent. In this method, a disk of the material to be strained is placed between 2 anvils. A large compressive stress (typically several
694:
Wei, Q; Cheng, S; Ramesh, K.T; Ma, E (15 September 2004). "Effect of nanocrystalline and ultrafine grain sizes on the strain rate sensitivity and activation volume: fcc versus bcc metals".
189:
improve this technique lead to introduce
Repetitive Corrugation and Straightening by Rolling (RCSR), a novel SPD method. Applicability of this new method approved in the various materials.
247:
on top of the horn. The workpiece is mounted a small distance above the horn. The high frequency results in a large number of collisions between the balls and the surface, creating a
158:
force. HPT can be performed unconstrained, in which the material is free to flow outward, fully constrained, or to some degree between in which outward flow is allowed, but limited.
1516:
Senkov, O.N.; Senkova, S.V.; Scott, J.M.; Miracle, D.B. (25 February 2005). "Compaction of amorphous aluminum alloy powder by direct extrusion and equal channel angular extrusion".
1461:
Amanov, A.; Cho, I.S.; Pyun, Y.S.; Lee, C.S.; Park, I.G. (15 May 2012). "Micro-dimpled surface by ultrasonic nanocrystalline surface modification and its tribological effects".
1088:
Saito, Y.; Utsunomiya, H.; Tsuji, N.; Sakai, T. (1999). "Novel ultra-high straining process for bulk materials—development of the accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) process".
329:
The presence of a high hydrostatic pressure, in combination with large shear strains, is essential for producing high densities of crystal lattice defects, particularly
90:
Some definitions of SPD describe it as a process in which high strain is applied without any significant change in the dimensions of the workpiece, resulting in a large
103:
SPD methods are classified into three main groups of bulk-SPD methods, surface-SPD methods and powder-SPD methods. Here some popular SPD methods are briefly explained.
1565:
Mishra, A; Kad, B; Gregori, F; Meyers, M (1 January 2007). "Microstructural evolution in copper subjected to severe plastic deformation: Experiments and analysis".
380:. The model is based on the concept that the grain size is dependent on the rates at which dislocations are generated and annihilated. The full model is given by
67:
in the 1930s. This work concerned the effects on solids of combining large hydrostatic pressures with concurrent shear deformation and it led to the award of the
365:
describe a process in which dislocation motion becomes restricted due to the small subgrain size and grain rotation becomes more energetically favorable. Mishra
138:
During the constrained HPT process, the material experiences shear deformation between a fixed and a rotating anvil, without losing its original dimensions.
115:
During the ECAE process, the material is pressed through an angular die and experiences shear deformation, without changing its cross-sectional dimensions.
267:
Most research into SPD has focused on grain refinement, which has obvious applications in the development of high-strength materials as a result of the
1315:"Regulating of tensile properties through microstructure engineering in Fe-Ni-C TRIP steel processed by different strain routes of severe deformation"
1676:"High-pressure torsion of pure metals: influence of atomic bond parameters and stacking fault energy on grain size and correlation with hardness"
344:, which are initially distributed throughout the grains, rearrange and group together into dislocation "cells" to reduce the total strain energy.
221:
such as a shaker mill or planetary mill will also induce severe plastic deformation in metals. During milling, particles are fractured and
1057:"Severe plastic deformation for producing superfunctional ultrafine-grainedand heterostructured materials: An interdisciplinary review"
1371:
936:
1500:
71:
in
Physics in 1946. Very successful early implementations of these principles, described in more detail below, are the processes of
1346:
Mousavi, S.A.A. Akbari; Ebrahimi, S.M.; Madoliat, R. (12 June 2007). "Three dimensional numerical analyses of asymmetric rolling".
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Zhu, K.Y.; Vassel, A.; Brisset, F.; Lu, K.; Lu, J. (16 August 2004). "Nanostructure formation mechanism of α-titanium using SMAT".
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Dai, K.; Shaw, L. (15 August 2007). "Comparison between shot peening and surface nanocrystallization and hardening processes".
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72:
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Valiev, Ruslan Z.; Estrin, Yuri; Horita, Zenji; Langdon, Terence G.; Zechetbauer, Michael J.; Zhu, Yuntian T. (April 2006).
797:
Zhilyaev, A; Langdon, T (1 August 2008). "Using high-pressure torsion for metal processing: Fundamentals and applications".
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As deformation continues and more dislocations are generated, misorientation develops between the cells, forming "subgrains"
135:
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on the order of 10–10 s. The NC surface layer developed can be on the order of 50 μm thick. The process is similar to
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during milling. Mechanical alloying also allows powders of different metals to be alloyed together during processing.
80:
30:
techniques involving very large strains typically involving a complex stress state or high shear, resulting in a high
1602:"Microstructure and evolution of mechanically-induced ultrafine grain in surface layer of AL-alloy subjected to USSP"
350:
The process repeats within the subgrains until the size becomes sufficiently small such that the subgrains can rotate
1783:
1491:
Segal, Vladimir M.; Beyerlein, Irene J.; Tome, Carlos N.; Chuvil'deev, Vladimir N.; Kopylov, Vladimir I. (2010).
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and composites without the need for the high temperatures used in conventional consolidation processes such as
827:
Segal, V.M. (1 November 1999). "Equal channel angular extrusion: from macromechanics to structure formation".
126:
orientation of the billet with each pass. This produces a uniform shear throughout the bulk of the material.
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31:
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Additional deformation causes the subgrains to rotate into high-angle grain boundaries, typically with an
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665:
649:
280:
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Mohamed, Farghalli A. (2003). "A dislocation model for the minimum grain size obtainable by milling".
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Cui, Q.; Ohori, K. (October 2000). "Grain refinement of high purity aluminium by asymmetric rolling".
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724:"Nanomaterials by severe plastic deformation: review of historical developments and recent advances"
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In accumulative roll bonding (ARB), 2 sheets of the same material are stacked, heated (to below the
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of producing ultrafine grain materials compared to rapid solidification techniques such as
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Ratna Sunil, B. (2015). "Repetitive corrugation and straightening of sheet metals".
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modification also have potential industrial applications as properties such as the
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F.A. Mohamad has proposed a model for the minimum grain size achievable using
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propose a slightly different explanation, in which the rotation is aided by
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Some known commercial application of SPD processes are in the production of
306:, allowing desirable characteristics such as nanocrystalline grain sizes or
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Hossein Zadeh, S.; Jafarian, H.R.; Park, N.; Eivani, A.R. (February 2020).
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High pressure torsion (HPT) can be traced back to the experiments that won
856:"Producing bulk ultrafine-grained materials by severe plastic deformation"
1369:
Koch, C C (1 August 1989). "Materials
Synthesis by Mechanical Alloying".
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along the grain boundaries (which is much faster than through the bulk).
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35:
75:(ECAP) developed by V.M. Segal and co-workers in Minsk in the 1970s and
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1708:
337:. Grain refinement in SPD processes occurs by a multi-step process:
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is connected to an ultrasonic (20 kHz) transducer), with small
361:
The mechanism by which the subgrains rotate is less understood. Wu
298:
Processes such as ECAE and HPT have also been used to consolidate
110:
637:
is the activation energy for pipe diffusion along dislocations, Q
217:
Mechanical alloying/milling (MA/MM) performed in a high-energy
111:
255:, but the kinetic energy of the balls is much higher in SMAT.
134:
934:
Gilman, P.S.; Benjamin, J.S. (1983). "Mechanical alloying".
765:"A review on high-pressure torsion (HPT) from 1935 to 1988"
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Fundamentals and engineering of severe plastic deformation
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is the temperature-independent component of the pipe
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154:) is applied, while one anvil is rotated to create a
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Wu, X; Tao, N; Hong, Y; Xu, B; Lu, J; Lu, K (2002).
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1495:. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers.
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1348:Journal of Materials Processing Technology
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611:is the minimum grain size and b is the
321:and UFG titanium for medical implants.
279:However, other effects of SPD, such as
822:
820:
660:is the dislocation velocity, k is the
291:processes) and magnetic properties of
1125:Materials and Manufacturing Processes
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50:(NC) structure (d < 100 nm).
7:
1518:Materials Science and Engineering: A
1436:Materials Science and Engineering: A
1164:Materials Science and Engineering: A
1055:Edalati, Kaveh; et al. (2024).
829:Materials Science and Engineering: A
769:Materials Science and Engineering: A
763:Kaveh Edalati, Zenji Horita (2016).
696:Materials Science and Engineering: A
333:, which can result in a significant
198:being rolled are opposite, creating
1393:10.1146/annurev.ms.19.080189.001005
958:10.1146/annurev.ms.13.080183.001431
607:On the left side of the equation: d
1372:Annual Review of Materials Science
937:Annual Review of Materials Science
14:
295:are highly dependent on texture.
1674:Edalati, K.; Horita, Z. (2011).
1356:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.11.045
976:Materials Science and Technology
16:Group of metalworking techniques
1061:Journal of Alloys and Compounds
121:Equal channel angular extrusion
1280:Advanced Engineering Materials
1192:Advanced Engineering Materials
107:Equal channel angular Pressing
73:equal-channel angular pressing
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1754:10.1016/j.actamat.2014.01.036
1700:10.1016/j.actamat.2011.07.046
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1626:10.1016/S1359-6454(02)00051-4
1587:10.1016/j.actamat.2006.07.008
1421:10.1016/S1359-6462(02)00048-9
1110:10.1016/S1359-6454(98)00365-6
1074:10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.174667
1042:10.1016/j.actamat.2004.05.023
921:10.1016/j.actamat.2008.12.002
841:10.1016/S0921-5093(99)00248-8
811:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2008.03.002
799:Progress in Materials Science
741:10.1080/21663831.2022.2029779
1228:Journal of Materials Science
1137:10.1080/10426914.2014.973600
81:Institute of Metals Physics
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1530:10.1016/j.msea.2004.09.061
1471:10.1016/j.wear.2011.06.001
1448:10.1016/j.msea.2006.07.159
1332:10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.01.041
1176:10.1016/j.msea.2012.04.073
996:10.1179/026708300101507019
777:10.1016/j.msea.2015.11.074
728:Materials Research Letters
708:10.1016/j.msea.2004.03.064
325:Grain refinement mechanism
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20:Severe plastic deformation
1248:10.1007/s10853-015-8957-5
881:10.1007/s11837-006-0213-7
168:Accumulative roll bonding
162:Accumulative roll bonding
1774:Deformation (mechanics)
1292:10.1002/adem.201600663
1204:10.1002/adem.201600100
771:. 0921–5093: 325–352.
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335:refining of the grains
304:hot isostatic pressing
148:Nobel Prize in Physics
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46:< 1000 nm) or
1544:US patent 6399215
666:stacking fault energy
650:diffusion coefficient
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130:High pressure torsion
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77:high-pressure torsion
1465:. 286–287: 136–144.
1350:. 187–188: 725–729.
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308:amorphous structures
285:Lankford coefficient
92:hydrostatic pressure
1746:2014AcMat..69...68E
1692:2011AcMat..59.6831E
1653:2003AcMat..51.4107M
1618:2002AcMat..50.2075W
1579:2007AcMat..55...13M
1385:1989AnRMS..19..121K
1240:2015JMatS..50.4003S
1102:1999AcMat..47..579S
1034:2004AcMat..52.4101Z
988:2000MatST..16.1095C
950:1983AnRMS..13..279G
913:2009AcMat..57.1586Q
872:2006JOM....58d..33V
213:Mechanical alloying
207:Mechanical alloying
59:pioneering work of
1409:Scripta Materialia
662:Boltzmann constant
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378:mechanical milling
234:Surface treatments
193:Asymmetric rolling
176:temperature), and
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65:Harvard University
1784:Materials science
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1090:Acta Materialia
1087:
1086:
1082:
1054:
1053:
1049:
1022:Acta Materialia
1019:
1018:
1011:
973:
972:
965:
933:
932:
928:
901:Acta Materialia
897:
896:
889:
853:
852:
848:
826:
825:
818:
796:
795:
784:
762:
761:
757:
720:
719:
715:
693:
692:
688:
683:
668:, and H is the
659:
647:
640:
636:
632:
628:
621:
610:
569:
567:
546:
537:
535:
505:
504:
493:
477:
476:
470:
468:
448:
440:
429:
425:
415:
391:
384:
383:
327:
287:(important for
265:
241:ultrasonic horn
236:
215:
209:
195:
186:
170:
164:
132:
123:
109:
101:
56:
48:nanocrystalline
17:
12:
11:
5:
1797:
1795:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1759:
1723:
1666:
1631:
1592:
1554:
1535:
1524:(1–2): 12–21.
1508:
1501:
1476:
1453:
1442:(1–2): 46–53.
1426:
1415:(9): 661–665.
1398:
1379:(1): 121–143.
1361:
1338:
1305:
1286:(3): 1600663.
1269:
1217:
1181:
1150:
1115:
1096:(2): 579–583.
1080:
1047:
1009:
963:
926:
887:
846:
816:
805:(6): 893–979.
782:
755:
734:(4): 163–256.
713:
702:(1–2): 71–79.
685:
684:
682:
679:
674:
673:
657:
645:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
623:
622:is a constant.
619:
616:
613:Burgers vector
608:
591:
585:
580:
577:
572:
564:
558:
552:
549:
545:
540:
532:
526:
520:
517:
512:
508:
500:
496:
492:
487:
484:
480:
473:
466:
457:
454:
451:
446:
443:
436:
432:
428:
422:
418:
414:
409:
404:
401:
398:
394:
359:
358:
351:
348:
345:
326:
323:
264:
261:
235:
232:
211:Main article:
208:
205:
200:shear stresses
194:
191:
185:
182:
166:Main article:
163:
160:
144:Percy Bridgman
131:
128:
119:Main article:
108:
105:
100:
97:
83:in modern-day
55:
52:
32:defect density
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1796:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1779:Metal forming
1777:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1727:
1724:
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1705:
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1596:
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1502:9781616681906
1498:
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1402:
1399:
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1378:
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1357:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1278:Properties".
1273:
1270:
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1261:
1257:
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1241:
1237:
1233:
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1221:
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1201:
1197:
1193:
1185:
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1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1084:
1081:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1051:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
970:
968:
964:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
938:
930:
927:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
894:
892:
888:
882:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
850:
847:
842:
838:
834:
830:
823:
821:
817:
812:
808:
804:
800:
793:
791:
789:
787:
783:
778:
774:
770:
766:
759:
756:
751:
747:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
717:
714:
709:
705:
701:
697:
690:
687:
680:
678:
671:
667:
663:
655:
654:shear modulus
651:
643:
624:
617:
614:
606:
605:
604:
589:
583:
578:
575:
570:
562:
556:
550:
547:
543:
538:
530:
524:
518:
515:
510:
506:
498:
494:
490:
485:
482:
478:
471:
464:
455:
452:
449:
444:
441:
434:
430:
426:
420:
416:
412:
407:
402:
399:
396:
392:
381:
379:
374:
372:
368:
364:
356:
352:
349:
346:
343:
340:
339:
338:
336:
332:
324:
322:
320:
316:
311:
309:
305:
301:
300:metal powders
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
277:
275:
274:melt spinning
270:
262:
260:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
233:
231:
229:
224:
220:
214:
206:
204:
201:
192:
190:
183:
181:
179:
175:
169:
161:
159:
157:
153:
149:
145:
136:
129:
127:
122:
113:
106:
104:
98:
96:
93:
88:
86:
85:Yekaterinburg
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
61:P.W. Bridgman
53:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
1740:(8): 68–77.
1737:
1733:
1726:
1683:
1679:
1669:
1644:
1640:
1634:
1609:
1605:
1595:
1573:(1): 13–28.
1570:
1566:
1538:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1492:
1462:
1456:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1347:
1341:
1322:
1318:
1308:
1283:
1279:
1272:
1231:
1227:
1220:
1195:
1191:
1184:
1167:
1163:
1128:
1124:
1118:
1093:
1089:
1083:
1064:
1060:
1050:
1025:
1021:
979:
975:
941:
935:
929:
904:
900:
866:(4): 33–39.
863:
859:
849:
832:
828:
802:
798:
768:
758:
731:
727:
716:
699:
695:
689:
675:
382:
375:
366:
362:
360:
342:Dislocations
331:dislocations
328:
312:
297:
289:deep drawing
278:
266:
263:Applications
257:
253:shot peening
237:
227:
216:
196:
187:
171:
141:
124:
102:
89:
57:
42:(UFG) size (
38:"ultrafine"
28:metalworking
23:
19:
18:
944:: 279–300.
664:, γ is the
652:, G is the
317:targets by
249:strain rate
223:cold welded
152:gigapascals
69:Nobel Prize
1768:Categories
1709:2324/25601
1067:: 174667.
681:References
315:Sputtering
269:Hall-Petch
1718:137003355
1300:136241453
1264:137364496
1256:0022-2461
1212:138744444
1170:: 32–39.
1145:136416712
1004:137413931
750:246959065
544:γ
507:ν
442:β
435:−
371:diffusion
319:Honeywell
219:ball mill
146:the 1946
670:hardness
355:equiaxed
36:equiaxed
1742:Bibcode
1688:Bibcode
1649:Bibcode
1614:Bibcode
1575:Bibcode
1381:Bibcode
1236:Bibcode
1098:Bibcode
1030:Bibcode
984:Bibcode
946:Bibcode
909:Bibcode
868:Bibcode
281:texture
228:in-situ
156:torsion
99:Methods
54:History
1716:
1550:
1499:
1298:
1262:
1254:
1210:
1143:
1002:
748:
367:et al.
363:et al.
357:shape.
178:rolled
1714:S2CID
1296:S2CID
1260:S2CID
1208:S2CID
1141:S2CID
1000:S2CID
746:S2CID
633:/Q (Q
245:balls
40:grain
1497:ISBN
1463:Wear
1252:ISSN
1065:1002
590:1.25
531:0.25
34:and
1750:doi
1704:hdl
1696:doi
1657:doi
1622:doi
1583:doi
1526:doi
1522:393
1467:doi
1444:doi
1440:463
1417:doi
1389:doi
1352:doi
1327:doi
1288:doi
1244:doi
1200:doi
1172:doi
1168:551
1133:doi
1106:doi
1069:doi
1038:doi
992:doi
954:doi
917:doi
876:doi
860:JOM
837:doi
833:271
807:doi
773:doi
736:doi
704:doi
700:381
656:, ν
625:β=Q
609:min
563:0.5
63:at
24:SPD
1770::
1748:.
1738:69
1736:.
1712:.
1702:.
1694:.
1684:59
1682:.
1678:.
1655:.
1645:51
1643:.
1620:.
1610:50
1608:.
1604:.
1581:.
1571:55
1569:.
1557:^
1520:.
1479:^
1438:.
1413:46
1411:.
1387:.
1377:19
1375:.
1321:.
1317:.
1294:.
1284:19
1282:.
1258:.
1250:.
1242:.
1232:50
1230:.
1206:.
1196:18
1194:.
1166:.
1153:^
1139:.
1129:30
1127:.
1104:.
1094:47
1092:.
1063:.
1059:.
1036:.
1026:52
1024:.
1012:^
998:.
990:.
980:16
978:.
966:^
952:.
942:13
940:.
915:.
905:57
903:.
890:^
874:.
864:58
862:.
858:.
831:.
819:^
803:53
801:.
785:^
767:.
744:.
732:10
730:.
726:.
698:.
646:p0
629:−Q
276:.
87:.
1756:.
1752::
1744::
1720:.
1706::
1698::
1690::
1663:.
1659::
1651::
1628:.
1624::
1616::
1589:.
1585::
1577::
1532:.
1528::
1505:.
1473:.
1469::
1450:.
1446::
1423:.
1419::
1395:.
1391::
1383::
1358:.
1354::
1335:.
1329::
1323:9
1302:.
1290::
1266:.
1246::
1238::
1214:.
1202::
1178:.
1174::
1147:.
1135::
1112:.
1108::
1100::
1077:.
1071::
1044:.
1040::
1032::
1006:.
994::
986::
960:.
956::
948::
923:.
919::
911::
884:.
878::
870::
843:.
839::
813:.
809::
779:.
775::
752:.
738::
710:.
706::
672:.
658:0
644:D
639:m
635:p
631:m
627:p
620:3
618:A
615:.
584:)
579:H
576:G
571:(
557:)
551:b
548:G
539:(
525:)
519:T
516:k
511:0
499:2
495:b
491:G
486:0
483:p
479:D
472:(
465:)
456:T
453:R
450:4
445:Q
431:e
427:(
421:3
417:A
413:=
408:b
403:n
400:i
397:m
393:d
44:d
22:(
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