998:
1133:(1887–1939) found enough surviving practices to develop an influential theory of shamanism. He noted that the northern Tungus had been heavily influenced by Manchu language and culture: they wore Manchu clothing and hairstyle, read Manchu books, and conducted weddings and funerals according to Manchu customs. As he also discovered, the Manchus venerated many Buddhist deities, so much that he hypothesized that northeast Asian shamanism was an outgrowth of Buddhism. This thesis has not been widely accepted. His definition of shamanism, however, has been widely discussed. Equipped with specific ritual implements, the shaman enters into a trance to gain control of harmful spirits who cause illness or misfortune to a clan or a tribe. His role is recognized by his society, and there is an explicit explanation of how he masters the spirits.
609:
488:
234:
838:
1106:, for instance, often "asked questions about the secret Manchu rites in the Tangzi". Writers who wanted to satisfy their readers' curiosity about these exotic practices could only speculate or rely on the late eighteenth-century Shamanic Code. This is why nineteenth-century accounts by Han people about Manchu rituals are "fragmentary and often error-prone", while their explanations of ritual language are "positively confusing".
1181:
Shirokogoroff's interpretations because they neglect the political roles of shamans and shamanism's relation with the state. Eliade's claim that shamanism is by essence archaic, individualistic, and socially transgressive led him and his followers to neglect historical contexts in which shamanism fulfilled political functions or served the needs of the state, as it did under the Qing.
942:) also wrote down their rituals and incantations, showing that the court model was not always followed. Shamanic sacrifices among ordinary households were simpler than those of the imperial clan. Noble Manchus in Beijing often erected spirit poles in their private homes, but because Manchu households were forbidden from having private
878:, which scholars have translated variously as "Imperially commissioned Manchu rituals for sacrificing to deities and to Heaven", "Rites for the Manchu worship of Heaven and the spirits", and "Imperially commissioned code of rituals and sacrifices of the Manchus". The Code attempted to formalize Manchu shamanistic practices. Historian
647:, on the central axis of the palace complex. This palace had served as the Empress's residence under the Ming dynasty, but the Qing converted it for ritual use, installing a "spirit pole" to present sacrifices to heaven, changing the style of the windows, and setting up large cauldrons to cook sacrificial food.
1136:
Shirokogoroff claimed that true shamanism only existed among the Tungus and the
Manchus, but despite his warnings that Tungus shamanism could only be understood in relation to all other elements of Tungus culture, and that his findings should therefore not serve to develop a general interpretation of
1042:
the Han and
Manchus already worshipped. To convince Manchu nobles that they should use existing Manchu rituals for worshipping Heaven, he explained that, "In the empire we have a temple for honoring Heaven and sacrificing to Him. We Manchus have Tiao Tchin. The first day of every year we burn incense
853:
worried that shamanic traditions were becoming lost, especially among the Manchu
Bannermen who lived in garrisons throughout the empire. To fight this trend, in 1741 he commissioned a "Shamanic Code", based on the rites of the imperial clan, that would explain the use of shamanic instruments and the
401:
in the thirteenth century. This state sacrifice became an early counterpart to the worship of Heaven by the Han people. From as early as the 1590s, Nurhaci appealed to Heaven as, "the arbiter of right and wrong". He worshipped Heaven at a shamanic shrine in 1593 before leaving for a campaign against
178:
found enough surviving practices to build a theory of shamanism that shaped later theoretical debates about shamanism. Since the late 1980s, however, these theories have been criticized for neglecting the relation between shamanism and the state. Historians are now arguing that shamanistic practices
957:
in the
Chinese imperial tradition paralleled shamanistic sacrifices, but only the emperor made offerings to the Chinese heaven, whereas ordinary Manchus could also worship shamanistic heaven. Both Chinese and Manchu heaven were an "all-encompassing principle of cosmic order and human destiny" that
716:
who lived near the northeastern borders of the empire. They were taught the Manchu language and Manchu fashion, as well as legends recounting how Qing founder
Nurhaci had been assisted by the spirits in his many exploits. Qing emperors adopted different images to address the different subjects of
333:
There were two kinds of
Jurchen shamanistic rituals, corresponding to two kinds of shamans. The most common was "domestic ritual": ritual-based sacrifices to Heaven and to the clan's ancestors conducted by hereditary shamans from that clan. "Primitive ritual", on the other hand, was performed by
1101:
Elliott argues that "shamanism contributed to Manchu identity ... by constructing a very obvious boundary between Manchu and Han". Ethnic Han residents and visitors, who were forbidden to observe the rituals performed at the shamanic shrine, saw these rites as "different and mysterious" or
159:
and Han were forbidden to attend shamanic ceremonies. Partly because of their secret aspect, these rituals attracted the curiosity of
Beijing dwellers and visitors to the Qing capital. Even after the "Shamanic Code" was translated into Chinese and published in the 1780s, outsiders had little
1180:
Shirokogoroff's and Eliade's views of shamanism were both centered on individuals and on the role of shamans in small groups. Shirokogoroff, for instance, considered eighteenth-century Qing shamanism too formalized to be authentic. Historians of northeast Asia have criticized Eliade's and
918:
The compilation of this Code "opened Qing shamanism to bureaucratic review" and modified the practices of ordinary
Manchus. The Code was distributed to Bannermen to guide their practices. Commercial editions were even produced for sale to the common public. One of these editions, the
338:, these "transformational" shamans let themselves be possessed by various animal spirits and sought the help of these spirits for purposes like healing or exorcism. These shamans set up an altar in their own houses and received a different kind of training than hereditary shamans.
312:). The shaman (often a woman) was in charge of placating spirits and dead ancestors and of contacting them to seek a good hunt or harvest, quick healing, success in battle, and other such favors. The point of contact between the community and the spirits was the "spirit pole" (
345:, a feathered cap denoting their ability to fly to the spirit world, and a belt with dangling bells, and carried a knife, two wooden sticks with bells affixed to the top, and a drum they used during ceremonies. These attributes could still be observed among shamans from
1115:
1102:"secret and alien". A visitor to Beijing in the early Qing remarked that the Tangzi was one of the three things one did not ask about in the capital. The difference between shamanic rites and Han rituals still "aroused significant interest". Korean visitors from
155:(r. 1735–1796) commissioned the publication of a "Shamanic Code" to revive and regulate shamanic practices, which he feared were becoming lost. He had it distributed to Bannermen to guide their practice, but we know very little about the effect of this policy.
1017:
At least into the eighteenth century, shamanism served to strengthen Manchu ethnic identity by forming "the spiritual core of Manchu life". The Qing emperors also used shamanism to shape Manchu identity. In an edict dated 17 April 1727 in which he opposed the
535:, making it convenient for imperial visits. There, the emperor made offerings to Heaven and various other deities, including the horse spirit and the Manchu progenitor. Ethnic Han and Mongol peoples were strictly forbidden from entering this ritual area.
373:. Tribes that voluntarily joined Nurhaci were allowed to keep their own gods. This absorption of other clans' shamanic rituals into those of Nurhaci's clan started a process of "state codification of religion" that continued into the eighteenth century.
1093:
of the ancestral cults" and lost their place at the center of the spiritual life of Manchu clans. Nonetheless the persistence of shamanistic practices at the Qing court into the twentieth century suggests that the
Manchus were not automatically
3984:
989:, Guanyin, and Guandi received offerings several times a year, including at the New Year. Ordinary Manchu households rarely sacrificed to Buddhist deities, but almost all of them worshipped Guandi because of his association with war.
414:
in April 1618, he conducted a shamanic ceremony during which he burned an oath to Heaven written on a piece of yellow paper. This ceremony was deliberately omitted from the later
Chinese translation of this event by the Qing court.
376:
In another transformation that "mirrored the process of political centralization" in Nurhaci's state, the traditional Jurchen belief in multiple heavens was replaced by one Heaven, called "Abka", led by a universal sky god called
2582:, pp. 93 ("His authority as a scholar of shamanism is recognised and celebrated by most later scholars of shamanism") and 96–98 (warnings not to see his findings as typical of a general phenomenon called shamanism);
1076:
has countered that he has never seen shamanism listed among "the qualities the court expected of Manchus" in any Qing documents, and that shamanism was therefore "never formally enunciated as part of the Manchu Way"
4048:
854:
meaning of Manchu ritual incantations, many of which had been transmitted by officiants who were not fluent in Manchu, to the point of becoming nonsensical. It was completed in 1747. Its full title in Manchu was
929:), dated 1828, has survived. Even though this "Shamanic Code" did not fully unify shamanic practice among the Banners, it "helped systematize and reshape what had been a very fluid and diverse belief system".
2586:, p. 19 note 35 ("Shirokogoroff placed Manchu shamanism, particularly, so firmly in the center of shamanic studies that it remains a pole around which much theoretical discussion of shamanism rotates").
937:
There is little evidence concerning the shamanic practices of common Bannermen in the garrisons. We know that after the publication of the "Shamanic Code" some clans (like the Šušu) and tribes (like the
562:(1736–1796) it fell to the second rank after private sacrifices to the Aisin Gioro ancestors. Even with this somewhat diminished importance, these shamanic rites continued to the end of the dynasty.
654:(1644–1661), the sacrifices were performed by the wives of Aisin Gioro men and by the emperor's consorts. After that, the shamanesses were selected from the wives of "imperial guards" (Chinese:
3882:
54:: those who entered in a trance and let themselves be possessed by the spirits, and those who conducted regular sacrifices to heaven, to a clan's ancestors, or to the clan's protective spirits.
4643:
4604:
3977:
4648:
4484:
882:
sees it as part of the Qianlong Emperor's attempts to "standardize the cultural and spiritual life of the Manchus", taking the practices of the imperial clan as a model.
1489:, pp. 202 (eighteenth century) and 203 ("The first steps toward state codification of religion were taken, and the process would accelerate under succeeding emperors").
823:
began in 1681, shamanic sacrifices were performed for imperial sons who survived inoculation. The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722) attempted to cure his sixth son Yinzuo (
4323:
527:
of the former Qing capital Mukden. This "Manchu shamanist sanctuary", an octagonal building whose shape was specific to the Aisin Gioro clan, was located outside the
4063:
1043:
and paper to honor Heaven. We Manchus have our own particular rites for honoring Heaven." In this edict, which we know through a French translation by court Jesuit
2972:
Humphrey, Caroline (1994), "Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia: Views from the Center and Periphery", in Nicholas Thomas; Caroline Humphrey (eds.),
3679:
297:
placed god figurines when they were still mobile hunters. Once Jurchen bands started to settle into palisaded villages (their typical kind of settlement), their
4468:
4439:
4058:
3514:
1013:
for worshipping the "Lord of Heaven" through a foreign religion rather than through shamanism, which he claimed was the proper Manchu way of worshipping heaven.
1924:
4140:
2942:
4128:
4113:
330:). Shamans played a crucial role in these early Jurchen communities, as the authority of the clan headman often depended on the assent of the shaman.
3815:
3256:
Kim, Loretta E. (2012–2013), "Saints for Shamans? Culture, Religion and Borderland Politics in Amuria from the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries",
1165:
901:
2937:
1169:(1964, based on a French original dated 1951). Eliade's notion of "classic shamanism" or "shamanism in the strict and proper sense" was based on
819:. He called a shaman named Jingguda to his bedside, but the shaman's ritual therapies failed and Dodo died in April 1649 at the age of 35. After
4851:
4190:
2752:
Chang, Chia-feng (2002), "Disease and its Impact on Politics, Diplomacy, and the Military: The Case of Smallpox and the Manchus (1613–1795)",
4915:
4882:
4123:
2742:
3740:
4352:
4103:
4016:
3755:
578:
620:
in the 1850s or 1860s—served as a point of contact between a community and the spirits. The Qing built one in the women's quarters of the
4021:
3925:
3436:
Wu, Ben (1998). "Ritual Music in the Court and Rulership of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.
1173:. But whereas Shirokogoroff emphasized that control over the spirits was the chief function of shamanic rituals, Eliade stated that the
389:("Sky Father"). This new shamanic Heaven became the object of a state cult similar to that of the Jurchen rulers' cult of Heaven in the
1068:, proficiency with shamanism was among the qualities that the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796) promoted as being part of the "Old Way" (
4568:
3937:
3810:
3634:
3050:
495:) where Qing emperors performed sacrifices to Heaven from 1644 (the year it was built) to 1900 (the year it was destroyed during the
4857:
4698:
3930:
3507:
3101:
3080:
3069:
3029:
3008:
2992:
2981:
2962:
2918:
2907:
2883:
2860:
2844:
2833:
2814:
2795:
2723:
1991:
1908:
1881:
1858:
1163:(1907–1986) borrowed from the Russian ethnologist and many others to build his seminal theory of shamanism, which he presented in
334:
people who had undergone a "shamanic illness", which was seen as a sign that they had been chosen by the spirits. Entering into a
210:
and seems to be of Tungusic origins. The most common religion among the Manchus was shamanism, which they and their ancestors the
4668:
2053:, pp. 113 (date when variolation began in the Qing imperial family) and 233 (sacrifices for emperor's sons who had survived it).
4785:
4028:
3715:
3601:
3750:
3689:
3649:
97:(1644–1912) in 1636, further put shamanistic practices in the service of the state, notably by forbidding others to erect new
4369:
4235:
4003:
3659:
3850:
3790:
558:(1723–1735) eras, this ceremony was the emperor's first activity on the first day of the New Year, but sometime during the
4803:
4578:
4434:
4118:
4108:
4093:
4088:
3920:
3870:
3624:
1190:
1031:
689:
143:
Until at least the eighteenth century, shamanism was at the core of Manchu spiritual life and differentiated Manchus from
4562:
4340:
4207:
4073:
3967:
3577:
3567:
3500:
1086:
633:
Daily shamanistic rites were also conducted in the women's quarters, in the Palace of Earthly Tranquility (Chinese:
508:
89:
at the center of his state's ritual, sacrificing to heaven before engaging in military campaigns. His son and successor
390:
43:
4920:
4479:
4462:
3972:
3947:
3910:
3820:
3780:
3532:
369:
of the defeated tribes and replaced their protective deities with the magpie, the totemic animal of his own clan, the
179:
in northeast Asia were intimately tied to the establishment of states, an analysis that fits the Qing case very well.
1375:, pp. 236 ("domestic" ritual; "liturgically based sacrifices to heaven and to the ancestors") and 237 (most common);
997:
4862:
4308:
871:
585:. A new shrine was rebuilt inside the palace in December 1901. Its former site became part of the expanded Italian
3770:
3557:
78:
4872:
4591:
4520:
4313:
3845:
3639:
1411:, p. 233 (also "transformational shamans"). Elliott and Rawski both borrow the term "transformational" from
308:, a village or association of villages who claimed to share common ancestors—had its sacred protective spirits (
218:
114:
4793:
4613:
4347:
4318:
4068:
2893:
1073:
804:
791:. Shamanism was thus only one aspect of the Qing's "extraordinarily flexible view of community and rulership".
590:
582:
4389:
3855:
3840:
3674:
3572:
1738:, pp. 30 (location of the Kunning palace), 238 (daily rituals there), and 460 (translation of Kunning gong).
608:
3060:
Thomas, Nicholas; Humphrey, Caroline (1994), "Introduction", in Nicholas Thomas; Caroline Humphrey (eds.),
430:"the monopoly of the ruler". He also banned shamans from treating illness, albeit with little success. The
101:(shrines) for ritual purposes. In the 1620s and 1630s, the Qing ruler conducted shamanic sacrifices at the
4770:
4658:
4539:
4364:
3582:
1152:—drew from Shirokogoroff's work to emphasize the social roles of shamans. Lewis's influential analysis of
959:
426:" in 1635, forbade commoners and officials from erecting shamanic shrines for ritual purposes, making the
407:
151:
garrisoned in various cities in China proper were adopting many aspects of the Han lifestyle. In 1747 the
4663:
3725:
3629:
4844:
4703:
4330:
4292:
4180:
4160:
4078:
3877:
3860:
3694:
1157:
1149:
1019:
570:
799:
Besides state ritual, the Manchus often resorted to shamans to treat illness. In 1649 Dorgon's brother
487:
4775:
4742:
4708:
4653:
4533:
4515:
4225:
4155:
3962:
3745:
2932:
2781:
2374:, pp. 240–41 (for the account that follows) and p. 467, note 39 (for the date of this incident).
1600:, p. 383 (this "special sanctuary" for shamanic rites was constructed "in the autumn of 1644");
1170:
1065:
879:
780:
752:
436:, a chronicle documenting Manchu history from 1607 to 1636, show that state rituals were held at the
82:
899:
in 1773. In 1777 the Qianlong Emperor ordered the code translated into Chinese for inclusion in the
4828:
4678:
4618:
4550:
4230:
4083:
4038:
3785:
3664:
3644:
3552:
2805:
Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1994), "Manchu Education", in Benjamin A. Elman; Alexander Woodside (eds.),
1138:
1130:
1119:
965:
In their shamanic ceremonies, Manchus worshipped a number of gods, including non-Tungusic deities.
432:
175:
74:
1363:, p. 236 ("in discussions of Manchu shamanism it is common to speak of two types of ritual").
4713:
4424:
4419:
4245:
4185:
4175:
4170:
4165:
3989:
3835:
3654:
3269:
3195:
1962:
886:
842:
812:
207:
598:
3273:
1407:, p. 237 ("transformational shamanism"; possession by animal spirits; specific purposes);
4723:
4718:
4693:
4638:
4633:
4556:
4504:
4409:
4240:
4145:
4043:
3942:
3905:
3830:
3760:
3730:
3684:
3406:
3389:
3372:
3355:
3097:
3093:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China
3076:
3065:
3046:
3025:
3004:
2988:
2977:
2958:
2914:
2903:
2879:
2871:
2856:
2840:
2829:
2810:
2791:
2769:
2738:
2719:
1987:
1904:
1877:
1174:
1153:
1027:
1002:
748:
555:
516:
62:
471:
supposedly tried to bewitch the entire Aisin Gioro lineage with the help of shamans in 1612.
17:
4877:
4760:
4683:
4623:
4429:
4150:
4011:
3957:
3800:
3765:
3669:
3594:
3562:
3087:
2761:
1954:
1379:, p. 233 ("hereditary shamans who specialized in performing rites for their own clan").
1035:
850:
788:
784:
776:
768:
744:
726:
701:
559:
543:
403:
191:
164:
152:
133:
1089:
comments that once Manchu rituals were codified into formal regulations, they became "mere
892:
Rituels des Tartares Mandchous déterminés et fixés par l'empereur comme chef de sa religion
241:
shaman photographed in 1904 wore many of the same attributes as Manchu shamans, notably an
4892:
4838:
4688:
4673:
4497:
3952:
3915:
3865:
3825:
3775:
3720:
3589:
1126:
During his fieldwork among the Tungusic peoples of "Manchuria" from 1912 to 1918, Russian
1082:
1023:
977:
were two of a "handful of Chinese gods" who were integrated into the rituals of the state
816:
779:
in the hope to appease the Mongols and Tibetans. As the Son of Heaven, the Qing sponsored
730:
651:
547:
457:
313:
203:
110:
2927:
1177:
and visionary spirit-journey induced by trance was the most central aspect of shamanism.
678:), who were assisted by eunuchs, were managed by the "Office of Shamanism" (Chinese:
3186:
Hesse, Klaus (1987). "On the History of Mongolian Shamanism in Historical Perspective".
121:, they named it their new capital and erected an official shamanic shrine there. In the
85:, upon other clans, and often destroyed their shrines. As early as the 1590s, he placed
4755:
4628:
4394:
4357:
3805:
3795:
3735:
2950:
2785:
1945:
Farquhar, David (1978). "Emperor as Bodhisattva in the Governance of the Qing Empire".
1122:, whose influential theories on shamanism were based on his fieldwork among the Manchus
1114:
1072:) of the Manchus when he attempted to formalize the Manchu heritage late in his reign.
1044:
986:
905:. The Manchu version was printed in 1778, whereas the Chinese-language edition, titled
644:
621:
613:
574:
551:
528:
496:
211:
195:
129:
35:
31:
4909:
4867:
4833:
4798:
4414:
4404:
4220:
3611:
2183:, p. 355, note 5 (Manchu text printed in 1778, Chinese text completed in 1782);
1160:
1141:
800:
734:
713:
665:
602:
532:
445:
423:
238:
39:
4887:
4584:
4526:
4215:
4197:
4053:
3523:
1596: ... began almost immediately after the Manchu troops occupied the capital");
1127:
1095:
1010:
772:
449:
411:
394:
222:
215:
172:
148:
118:
94:
70:
1137:
shamanism, Shirokogoroff's ideas have shaped theoretical debates about shamanism.
3091:
3040:
3019:
2897:
2809:, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, pp. 340–78,
1981:
1898:
1871:
1061:, literally "spirit-jumping"), the Chinese name of the Manchu shamanic ceremony.
950:, where they installed portraits of their ancestors as well as a clan genealogy.
460:(r. 1643–1661), led the other Manchu princes in worshipping Heaven at the Mukden
361:
Jurchen shamanic practices were transformed by the rise of the Later Jin founder
136:
and professional shamans (usually women) conducted shamanic ceremonies until the
4823:
4544:
4265:
4260:
2021:, pp. 883–84 (Dodo contracting smallpox and role in conquest of Jiangnan);
970:
939:
820:
759:" or "(Manchu) Emperor" by their Mongol subjects, and as "Khagan of China" (or "
709:
617:
370:
144:
1030:(r. 1722–1735) singled out Manchu converts for criticism. To the emperor, the "
837:
664:), high officials belonging to Gioro households registered in the "Upper Three
467:
Shamans could also be used for personal purposes, as when Nurhaci's eldest son
4491:
4335:
4285:
4255:
4098:
2246:, p. 239 ("texts for many nonimperial clan rituals have been preserved").
1145:
756:
700:
The Qing emperor used shamanism to promote the dynasty's legitimacy among the
512:
419:
365:(1559–1626). As he started to unify the Jurchen tribes, Nurhaci destroyed the
233:
137:
90:
81:
in the early 17th century, he imposed the protective spirits of his clan, the
2765:
93:(1592–1643), who renamed the Jurchens "Manchu" and officially proclaimed the
4280:
4270:
2899:
The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China
1090:
896:
845:, who published the first European study of the Manchu Shamanic Code in 1773
346:
187:
168:
86:
2773:
1900:
New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
668:", which belonged directly to the emperor. These shamanesses (Chinese:
885:
Though the Shamanic Code was first kept in manuscript form, French Jesuit
46:(1115–1234), the Jurchens conducted shamanic ceremonies at shrines called
4765:
4510:
4457:
4399:
4275:
4250:
3286:(1982). "Manzhou minzu jisi tianshen bi ji shen'gan de shiliao yu qiyin"
808:
586:
350:
294:
3199:
1659:, p. 237 ("the presence of Han or Mongol officials was forbidden").
829:) with shamanic rites in June 1685, but that son died a few days later.
4750:
2926:
2787:
Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World
2716:
Empire of Emptiness: Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China
1966:
974:
966:
764:
504:
362:
156:
122:
58:
3492:
3125:(1990). "Cong Qingdai de gongzhong jisi he tangzi jisi kan samanjiao"
2025:, p. 196 (smallpox as the most feared disease among the Manchus).
3096:, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press,
3024:, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press,
2735:
Genealogies of Shamanism: Struggles for Power, Charisma and Authority
1103:
1006:
946:
shrines, they made offerings to the spirit at a small altar called a
760:
705:
453:
441:
398:
335:
106:
66:
51:
2853:
A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology
1958:
4474:
4033:
3205:
1113:
996:
836:
692:. Only members of the imperial clan could attend such ceremonies.
607:
486:
468:
342:
242:
232:
3021:
The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions
249:
The Manchu name for a shamanic shrine or altar to the spirits is
4133:
2855:, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press,
1039:
954:
870:
Wylie: Ghesei toktopuha Manchusai wetchere metere kauli pitghe,
739:
3496:
717:
their multi-ethnic empire. The Qing used the title of Emperor (
2242:, p. 359 (analysis, with examples of the Šušu and Xibe);
1624:, p. 237 ("smallish octagonal building") and p. 466, note 13;
538:
The Qing state's main shamanistic ritual was performed at the
531:
to the southeast, but still within the Inner City occupied by
519:
of the Ming dynasty to suicide, the Manchus constructed a new
3310:
XX (1992). "Samanjiao yu Manzhou tiaoshen yinyue de liubian"
2976:, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 191–228,
1608:"). Elliott, however, gives the date of construction as 1653.
503:
In 1644, just a few months after the Qing seized the city of
3003:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1698:, p. 684, citing L. C. Arlington and William Lewisohn,
747:" (or "Chinese Emperor") and "the Great Emperor" (or "Great
4644:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
1671:, p. 237 (date of the ceremony, emperor's attendance).
1628:, p. 371, note 29 (shape specific to the Aisin Gioro).
3064:, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 1–12,
2878:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 352–98,
2518:, p. 33 (surviving practices that allowed fieldwork).
406:. Qing annals also report that when Nurhaci announced his
650:
The shamans in the Kunning Palace were all women. In the
1620:, p. 355 (location, "Manchu shamanist sanctuary");
981:
and Kunning Palace. One of the four ritual sites in the
456:(1612–1650), who was then regent to the newly enthroned
2807:
Education and Society in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900
1842:
1840:
1359:, p. 233 ("the Jurchen had two kinds of shamans";
289:
may have originated in the portable "god boxes" (also "
2754:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
1473:, p. 236 (destruction of other tribes' shrines);
1218:, Volume 9: "The Ch'ing Empire to 1800", Part 1, p. 29
1022:
which attempted to convert the Han and the Manchus to
763:") by their Turkic Muslim subjects (now known as the
402:
the Yehe, a Jurchen tribe that belonged to the rival
381:("Sky God" or "God of Heaven"), also referred to as
4816:
4784:
4741:
4734:
4649:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
4603:
4448:
4380:
4301:
4206:
4002:
3893:
3703:
3610:
3540:
3531:
3158:. Tianjin: Tianjin People's Press, pp. 269–85.
1230:, p. 231 (every Tunguso-Manchurian language);
267:was derived from Chinese, but only around 1660 did
1925:"The Qing Dynasty and Its Central Asian Neighbors"
1859:Treaty between Tibet and Nepal, 1856 (translation)
1655:, p. 334 ("ritual areas closed to Chinese");
1442:
1440:
876:Hesei toktobuha Manjusai wecere metere kooli bithe
751:") by their Tibetan subjects (such as in the 1856
3488:. Beijing, China Chengshi Press, pp. 174–98.
2955:A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China
1754:, p. 304 (conversion of the Ming building);
1604:, p. 466, note 13 (modeled on "the Shenyang
643:), a building located near the north gate of the
491:An official illustration of the shamanic shrine (
109:, the Qing capital. In 1644, as soon as the Qing
1750:, p. 465, note 10 (windows and cauldrons);
1277:
1275:
1038:name for God in Chinese—was none other than the
3399:
3382:
3365:
2187:, p. 240 (Chinese text completed in 1780).
1098:" by the sole fact that they ruled over China.
444:in the 1620s and 1630s. Just before commanding
275:. Before that, it was rendered into Chinese as
4049:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
2872:"Manchu shamanic ceremonies at the Qing court"
2691:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2380:
1636:
1634:
601:, "directly opposite the 'modern' wing of the
245:, a cap, two wooden sticks, and a ritual drum.
4469:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
4440:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
3508:
3483:
3474:
3464:
3455:
3446:
3440:
3428:
3419:
3344:
3335:
3329:
3320:
3311:
3305:
3296:
3287:
3281:
3247:
3238:
3232:
3223:
3214:
3177:
3168:
3162:
3153:
3144:
3135:
3126:
3120:
2790:, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
2211:
2209:
2164:
2162:
2160:
1679:
1677:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1316:
1314:
1156:was also directly inspired by Shirokogoroff.
1056:
924:
910:
824:
280:
258:
8:
2473:, p. 383 ("different and mysterious");
2413:) and p. 467, note 39 (source of the edict).
1498:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
890:
2957:, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
4738:
3537:
3515:
3501:
3493:
3418:Mo Dongyin (1958). "Qingchu de samanjiao"
3367:"Manshū shamanizumu no saishin to chokuji"
3042:Social organization of the Northern Tungus
3039:Shirokogorov, Sergey Mikhailovich (1929).
1794:, entry 5333, p. 430 ("imperial guards");
743:), and Qing emperors were referred to as "
422:(r. 1626–1643), who renamed the Jurchens "
301:became permanent fixtures of the village.
4129:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
3151:Ming-Qing guoji xueshu taolunhui lunwenji
2718:, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press,
2643:
2619:
2607:
2595:
2579:
2567:
2539:
2511:
3978:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
3445:(1995). "Manzhou guizu yu saman wenhua"
3001:Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900
2943:United States Government Printing Office
2675:
2667:
2655:
2631:
2583:
2555:
2543:
2515:
2458:
2446:
2422:
2299:
2267:
2255:
2239:
2227:
2196:
2180:
2151:
2139:
2127:
2115:
2111:
2094:
2074:
2062:
1755:
1577:
1553:
1541:
1486:
1474:
1412:
1344:
1332:
1301:
1166:Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy
4585:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
3143:Fu Tongqin (1982). "Qingdai de tangzi"
2902:, Stanford: Stanford University Press,
2671:
2474:
2434:
2406:
2394:
2371:
2347:
2335:
2271:
2243:
2090:
2018:
1747:
1723:
1668:
1656:
1640:
1621:
1601:
1565:
1404:
1388:
1372:
1360:
1320:
1293:
1281:
1243:
1231:
1207:
902:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
688:), a bureau under the authority of the
593:notes that in today's Beijing, the old
542:by the emperor on the first day of the
77:under his own rule and established the
2679:
2527:
2499:
2487:
2470:
2359:
2323:
2311:
2287:
2215:
2200:
2184:
2168:
2107:
2086:
2050:
2041:, p. 215 (age and date of death).
2034:
2006:
1846:
1831:
1819:
1807:
1795:
1791:
1779:
1767:
1751:
1735:
1711:
1695:
1683:
1652:
1625:
1617:
1597:
1589:
1529:
1517:
1470:
1458:
1446:
1431:
1408:
1392:
1376:
1356:
1300:" as sacred spirits; dead ancestors);
1266:
1227:
1214:Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank,
1009:adept, reprimanded Manchu converts to
4883:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
4124:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
2199:, p. 299 (bureaucratic review);
2022:
1903:. Taylor & Francis. p. 124.
385:("Sky Khan" or "Khan of Heaven") and
7:
4104:Ministry of Posts and Communications
3228:. Shenyang, Liaoning People's Press.
2938:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
2038:
2037:, p. 233 (name of the shaman);
1876:. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 278.
1391:, p. 237 ("primitive ritual");
1234:, p. 235 (general description).
1005:(r. 1722–1735), here portrayed as a
907:Qinding Manzhou jishen jitian dianli
771:portrayed the image of himself as a
285:), or "visitation temple". The term
4852:History of Qing (People's Republic)
3349:. Changchun: Jilin Education Press.
3182:. Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe.
2514:, p. 93 (dates of fieldwork);
2477:, p. 241 ("secret and alien").
1592:, p. 236 ("work on building a
1395:, p. 233 ("shamanic illness").
357:Shamanism after the rise of Nurhaci
128:and in the women's quarters of the
4569:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
3938:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
3931:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
3811:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
3635:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
1947:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
1702:(Peking: Vetch, 1935), pp. 118–19.
1148:(b. 1930)—the latter a student of
915:), was completed in 1780 or 1782.
612:"Spirit poles"—as drawn here by a
160:understanding of these practices.
61:(1559–1626), the chieftain of the
25:
4858:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
4699:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
4574:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
3726:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
3245:Journal of Shenyang Palace Museum
3062:Shamanism, History, and the State
2974:Shamanism, History, and the State
2874:, in McDermott, Joseph P. (ed.),
1057:
925:
911:
825:
341:Manchu shamans typically wore an
281:
263:) means "hall", it may seem that
259:
253:. Because its Chinese equivalent
30:was the dominant religion of the
4669:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
3985:Articles of Favourable Treatment
3741:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
3473:yu zongjiao" . In Wang Zhonghan
1983:Buddhism Between Tibet and China
958:could be used to give the state
921:Manzhou tiaoshen huanyuan dianli
597:would have been located on East
353:in the early twentieth century.
190:is the religion most typical of
3716:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
3602:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
3274:10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0169
3237:(1995b). "Lun Qing gong saman"
2876:State and Court Ritual in China
973:(Buddhist "enlightened being")
624:to conduct shamanic ceremonies.
163:During his fieldwork among the
4370:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
3660:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
3484:
3465:
3456:
3447:
3441:
3429:
3420:
3345:
3330:
3321:
3312:
3297:
3288:
3282:
3248:
3239:
3233:
3224:
3215:
3178:
3154:
3136:
3127:
3121:
2851:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1999),
2828:, Oxford, England: Blackwell,
2824:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1997),
1216:The Cambridge History of China
684:
674:
669:
660:
655:
639:
326:
38:and of their descendants, the
1:
4804:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
4579:Islam during the Qing dynasty
4435:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
4119:Provincial military commander
4109:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
4094:Imperial Household Department
3921:Preparative Constitutionalism
3625:Sino-Russian border conflicts
3221:Shenmi de Qinggong saman jisi
2733:Boekhoven, Jeroen W. (2011),
2409:, p. 241 (literal meaning of
2270:, p. 33 (spirit poles);
1191:Islam during the Qing dynasty
993:Shamanism and Manchu identity
690:Imperial Household Department
577:as part of reprisals for the
18:Shamanism in the Qing dynasty
4916:Religion in the Qing dynasty
4563:Researches on Manchu Origins
3968:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
3578:Transition from Ming to Qing
3568:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
1087:Institute for Advanced Study
733:(along with titles like the
523:in the city, modeled on the
198:. The word "shaman" itself (
75:unified other Jurchen tribes
4463:Changzhou School of Thought
3973:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
3948:Railway Protection Movement
3926:1909 Parliamentary election
3911:British expedition to Tibet
3821:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
3781:Self-Strengthening Movement
3756:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
3400:
3383:
3366:
2678:, pp. 191–12 and 213;
2437:, pp. 240 and 467, note 37.
1758:, p. 32 (spirit pole).
1284:, pp. 465–66, note 13.
833:The "Shamanic Code" of 1747
208:Tunguso-Manchurian language
4937:
4863:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
3751:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
3690:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
3680:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
3650:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
3342:Samanjiao yu Dongbei minzu
3018:Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998),
2692:Thomas & Humphrey 1994
1980:Kapstein, Matthew (2014).
803:, who had helped the Qing
475:State shamanism after 1644
271:start to be translated as
214:practiced long before the
183:Historical origins to 1644
50:. There were two kinds of
4873:Names of the Qing dynasty
4521:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
3851:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
3846:Gongche Shangshu movement
3791:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
3640:Chinese Rites controversy
3475:
3410:
3393:
3376:
3359:
3336:
3306:
3169:
3163:
3145:
2870:di Cosmo, Nicola (1999),
2714:Berger, Patricia (2003),
2598:, pp. 97 and 105–06.
1110:Scholarly interpretations
841:French Jesuit missionary
813:highly contagious disease
679:
634:
569:was destroyed in 1900 by
321:
4794:Great Qing Treasure Note
4614:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
4324:Administrative divisions
4141:Administrative divisions
4069:Flag of the Qing dynasty
3481:Manxue Chaoxianxue lunji
3384:Shinchō zenshi no kenkyū
2925:Fang, Chao-ying (1943).
2106:Taken respectively from
1118:The Russian ethnologist
767:). Qing rulers like the
573:in the aftermath of the
171:" in the 1910s, Russian
140:of the dynasty in 1912.
4390:Chengde Mountain Resort
4191:Three Eastern Provinces
3841:First Sino-Japanese War
3816:Northern Chinese Famine
3675:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
3573:Qing invasion of Joseon
3266:(subscription required)
3258:Central Asiatic Journal
3209:(subscription required)
2737:, Groningen: Barkhuis,
2558:, p. 370, note 60.
2546:, p. 370, note 60.
2230:, p. 240, note 17.
1986:. Wisdom. p. 185.
1726:, p. 466, note 13.
1700:In Search of Old Peking
1568:, p. 465, note 11.
1477:, p. 203 (magpie).
1461:, p. 370, note 18.
1308:"; protective spirits).
1064:According to historian
985:was a large hall where
807:in 1645, fell ill with
391:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
229:Early Jurchen shamanism
65:, who was originally a
4771:Great Qing Copper Coin
4659:Convention of Tientsin
4592:Annotated Bibliography
4540:Qing official headwear
3583:Battle of Shanhai Pass
3204: – via
3175:Manzu Samanjiao Yanjiu
2999:Naquin, Susan (2000),
2766:10.1093/jhmas/57.2.177
2154:, p. 355, note 5.
1897:Dunnell, Ruth (2004).
1873:Tibet Past and Present
1870:Bell, Charles (1992).
1139:Social anthropologists
1123:
1014:
933:Diversity of practices
891:
846:
805:conquer southern China
787:and worshipped at the
696:Role in Qing rulership
625:
500:
452:in early 1644, Prince
408:Seven Great Grievances
246:
4845:Draft History of Qing
4704:Treaty of Shimonoseki
4485:performance criticism
4089:Imperial Commissioner
4079:Great Qing Legal Code
3878:Eight-Nation Alliance
3861:Third plague pandemic
3771:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
3695:White Lotus Rebellion
2933:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
2782:Crossley, Pamela Kyle
2646:, p. 98 note 25.
1810:, entry 4827, p. 395.
1158:Historian of religion
1150:E. E. Evans-Pritchard
1117:
1020:Jesuit China missions
1000:
840:
781:imperial examinations
611:
581:of the international
490:
236:
4776:Great Qing Gold Coin
4709:Treaty of Tarbagatai
4654:Convention of Peking
4534:Pentaglot Dictionary
4516:Literary inquisition
4226:Ever Victorious Army
4059:Deliberative Council
3963:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
3916:1905 Batang uprising
3856:Hundred Days' Reform
3746:Small Swords Society
1066:Pamela Kyle Crossley
817:particularly dreaded
753:Treaty of Thapathali
440:of the Qing capital
165:Tungusic populations
4829:Anti-Qing sentiment
4679:Treaty of the Bogue
4619:Treaty of Nerchinsk
4551:Complete Tang Poems
4231:Green Standard Army
4114:Provincial governor
4084:Imperial Clan Court
4064:Diplomatic missions
4039:Consultative Bureau
3786:Tongzhi Restoration
3665:Afaqi Khoja revolts
3645:Ten Great Campaigns
3553:Jurchen unification
2674:, pp. 238–89;
2114:, p. 299; and
1499:Shirokogorov (1929)
1131:S. M. Shirokogoroff
1120:S. M. Shirokogoroff
889:had a study on it,
773:Buddhist sage ruler
433:Old Manchu Archives
206:) appears in every
176:S. M. Shirokogoroff
4921:Shamanism in China
4714:Treaty of Tientsin
4425:Western Qing tombs
4420:Eastern Qing tombs
4246:Peking Field Force
3990:Manchu Restoration
3883:Declaration of war
3836:Jindandao incident
3655:Lhasa riot of 1750
3334:and Ding Yizhuang
3289:滿洲民族祭祀天神必祭神杆的史料與起因
2951:Hucker, Charles O.
2658:, pp. 212–13.
2461:, pp. 353–54.
1834:, pp. 242–43.
1124:
1015:
887:Joseph-Marie Amiot
849:In the 1740s, the
847:
843:Joseph-Marie Amiot
626:
501:
247:
42:. As early as the
4901:
4900:
4812:
4811:
4724:Treaty of Whampoa
4719:Treaty of Wanghia
4694:Treaty of Nanking
4664:Li–Lobanov Treaty
4639:Chefoo Convention
4634:Burlingame Treaty
4505:Kangxi Dictionary
4410:Old Summer Palace
4241:Firearm Battalion
4044:Cup of Solid Gold
3998:
3997:
3943:Manchurian plague
3906:Late Qing reforms
3897:(1901–1912)
3831:Sikkim expedition
3761:Panthay Rebellion
3731:Taiping Rebellion
3707:(1801–1900)
3685:Sino-Nepalese War
3630:Dzungar–Qing Wars
3616:(1683–1799)
3544:(1616–1683)
3401:Tōyōshi kenkyūkai
3167:and Meng Huiying
3128:从清代的宫中祭祀和堂子祭祀看萨满教
3107:. In two volumes.
3088:Wakeman, Frederic
2744:978-9-0779-2292-7
2290:, pp. 234–5.
2142:, pp. 202–3.
2065:, pp. 28–29.
1154:spirit possession
1028:Yongzheng Emperor
1003:Yongzheng Emperor
815:that the Manchus
749:Emperor Manjushri
554:(1662–1722), and
404:Hūlun confederacy
79:Later Jin dynasty
63:Jianzhou Jurchens
16:(Redirected from
4928:
4878:New Qing History
4761:Qianlong Tongbao
4739:
4684:Treaty of Canton
4624:Unequal treaties
4430:Fuling Mausoleum
4029:Advisory Council
3958:Wuchang Uprising
3898:
3801:Tianjin Massacre
3766:Second Opium War
3708:
3670:Sino-Burmese War
3617:
3595:Battle of Penghu
3563:Seven Grievances
3545:
3538:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3494:
3487:
3486:
3478:
3477:
3468:
3467:
3459:
3458:
3450:
3449:
3444:
3443:
3432:
3431:
3426:Manzushi luncong
3423:
3422:
3414:
3412:
3403:
3397:
3395:
3386:
3380:
3378:
3369:
3363:
3361:
3352:Mitamura Taisuke
3348:
3347:
3339:
3338:
3333:
3332:
3324:
3323:
3315:
3314:
3309:
3308:
3300:
3299:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3284:
3277:
3267:
3251:
3250:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3235:
3231:Jiang Xiangshun
3227:
3226:
3218:
3217:
3213:Jiang Xiangshun
3210:
3203:
3181:
3180:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3165:
3157:
3156:
3148:
3147:
3139:
3138:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3123:
3106:
3074:
3056:
3034:
3013:
2986:
2967:
2946:
2930:
2912:
2894:Elliott, Mark C.
2888:
2865:
2838:
2819:
2800:
2776:
2747:
2728:
2695:
2689:
2683:
2665:
2659:
2653:
2647:
2641:
2635:
2629:
2623:
2617:
2611:
2605:
2599:
2593:
2587:
2577:
2571:
2570:, p. 95–97.
2565:
2559:
2553:
2547:
2537:
2531:
2525:
2519:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2484:
2478:
2468:
2462:
2456:
2450:
2444:
2438:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2414:
2404:
2398:
2392:
2375:
2369:
2363:
2357:
2351:
2345:
2339:
2333:
2327:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2219:
2213:
2204:
2194:
2188:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2119:
2104:
2098:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2032:
2026:
2016:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1867:
1861:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1835:
1829:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1799:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1715:
1709:
1703:
1693:
1687:
1681:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1629:
1615:
1609:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1515:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1435:
1429:
1416:
1402:
1396:
1386:
1380:
1370:
1364:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1330:
1324:
1318:
1309:
1296:, p. 236 ("
1291:
1285:
1279:
1270:
1264:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1225:
1219:
1212:
1144:(1901–2002) and
1060:
1059:
928:
927:
914:
913:
894:
869:
851:Qianlong Emperor
828:
827:
789:Temple of Heaven
785:Chinese classics
777:Tibetan Buddhism
769:Qianlong Emperor
745:Emperor of China
702:Tungusic peoples
686:
681:
676:
671:
662:
657:
641:
636:
616:explorer in the
583:Legation Quarter
517:the last emperor
328:
323:
293:") in which the
284:
283:
262:
261:
192:Tungusic peoples
153:Qianlong Emperor
21:
4936:
4935:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4927:
4926:
4925:
4906:
4905:
4902:
4897:
4893:Willow Palisade
4839:Chuang Guandong
4808:
4780:
4730:
4689:Treaty of Kulja
4674:Treaty of Aigun
4607:
4599:
4498:History of Ming
4450:
4444:
4382:
4376:
4302:Special regions
4297:
4236:Imperial Guards
4202:
3994:
3953:1911 Revolution
3899:
3896:
3889:
3866:Boxer Rebellion
3826:Sino-French War
3776:Amur Annexation
3721:First Opium War
3709:
3706:
3699:
3618:
3615:
3606:
3590:Great Clearance
3546:
3543:
3527:
3521:
3491:
3404:
3387:
3370:
3353:
3280:Li Hsüeh-chih
3265:
3255:
3208:
3185:
3115:
3113:Further reading
3110:
3104:
3086:
3072:
3059:
3053:
3038:
3032:
3017:
3011:
2998:
2984:
2971:
2965:
2949:
2924:
2910:
2892:
2886:
2869:
2863:
2850:
2836:
2823:
2817:
2804:
2798:
2780:
2751:
2745:
2732:
2726:
2713:
2704:
2699:
2698:
2694:, pp. 1–3.
2690:
2686:
2670:, p. 363;
2666:
2662:
2654:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2630:
2626:
2618:
2614:
2606:
2602:
2594:
2590:
2578:
2574:
2566:
2562:
2554:
2550:
2538:
2534:
2526:
2522:
2510:
2506:
2498:
2494:
2485:
2481:
2469:
2465:
2457:
2453:
2445:
2441:
2433:
2429:
2421:
2417:
2405:
2401:
2393:
2378:
2370:
2366:
2358:
2354:
2346:
2342:
2334:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2298:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2274:, p. 239 (
2266:
2262:
2254:
2250:
2238:
2234:
2226:
2222:
2214:
2207:
2195:
2191:
2179:
2175:
2167:
2158:
2150:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2122:
2110:, p. 454;
2105:
2101:
2093:, p. 238;
2089:, p. 240;
2085:
2081:
2073:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2033:
2029:
2017:
2013:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1959:10.2307/2718931
1944:
1943:
1939:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1869:
1868:
1864:
1857:
1853:
1845:
1838:
1830:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1806:
1802:
1790:
1786:
1778:
1774:
1766:
1762:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1710:
1706:
1694:
1690:
1682:
1675:
1667:
1663:
1651:
1647:
1639:
1632:
1616:
1612:
1588:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1516:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1469:
1465:
1457:
1453:
1445:
1438:
1430:
1419:
1403:
1399:
1387:
1383:
1371:
1367:
1355:
1351:
1343:
1339:
1331:
1327:
1319:
1312:
1304:, p. 32 ("
1292:
1288:
1280:
1273:
1265:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1226:
1222:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1187:
1171:Siberian models
1112:
1083:Nicola Di Cosmo
1024:Catholic Church
995:
953:The worship of
935:
895:, published in
880:Pamela Crossley
867:
865:
863:
861:
859:
857:
855:
835:
797:
795:Healing rituals
698:
631:
599:Chang'an Avenue
579:two-month siege
515:who had pushed
485:
477:
458:Shunzhi Emperor
359:
320:; Chinese:
231:
204:Manchu language
185:
147:even as Manchu
113:to begin their
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4934:
4932:
4924:
4923:
4918:
4908:
4907:
4899:
4898:
4896:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4848:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4820:
4818:
4814:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4807:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4790:
4788:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4756:Kangxi Tongbao
4753:
4747:
4745:
4736:
4732:
4731:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4629:Boxer Protocol
4621:
4616:
4610:
4608:
4601:
4600:
4598:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4559:
4554:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4530:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4501:
4494:
4489:
4488:
4487:
4477:
4472:
4465:
4460:
4454:
4452:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4395:Forbidden City
4392:
4386:
4384:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4362:
4361:
4360:
4358:General of Ili
4355:
4345:
4344:
4343:
4341:List of ambans
4338:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4316:
4311:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4289:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4212:
4210:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4200:
4195:
4194:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4143:
4138:
4137:
4136:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4025:
4024:
4019:
4008:
4006:
4000:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3902:
3900:
3895:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3806:Margary Affair
3803:
3798:
3796:Mudan incident
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3736:Nian Rebellion
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3712:
3710:
3705:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3621:
3619:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3549:
3547:
3542:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3522:
3520:
3519:
3512:
3505:
3497:
3490:
3489:
3461:
3439:Yan Chongnian
3437:
3434:
3433:, pp. ??.
3416:
3377:滿洲シャマニズムの祭神と祝詞
3350:
3326:
3318:Manxue Yanjiu
3302:
3278:
3253:
3229:
3211:
3183:
3159:
3155:《明清国际学术讨论会论文集》
3141:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3102:
3084:
3070:
3057:
3052:978-0824096205
3051:
3036:
3030:
3015:
3009:
2996:
2982:
2969:
2963:
2947:
2945:. p. 215.
2922:
2908:
2890:
2884:
2867:
2861:
2848:
2834:
2821:
2815:
2802:
2796:
2778:
2749:
2743:
2730:
2724:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2703:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2684:
2682:, p. 231.
2660:
2648:
2644:Boekhoven 2011
2636:
2634:, p. 191.
2624:
2622:, p. 132.
2620:Boekhoven 2011
2612:
2610:, p. 106.
2608:Boekhoven 2011
2600:
2596:Boekhoven 2011
2588:
2580:Boekhoven 2011
2572:
2568:Boekhoven 2011
2560:
2548:
2542:, p. 96;
2540:Boekhoven 2011
2532:
2530:, p. 242.
2520:
2512:Boekhoven 2011
2504:
2502:, p. 475.
2492:
2490:, p. 383.
2479:
2463:
2451:
2439:
2427:
2425:, p. 361.
2415:
2399:
2397:, p. 241.
2376:
2364:
2362:, p. 231.
2352:
2350:, p. 240.
2340:
2338:, p. 239.
2328:
2326:, p. 236.
2316:
2314:, p. 502.
2304:
2302:, p. 196.
2292:
2280:
2260:
2258:, p. 360.
2248:
2232:
2220:
2218:, p. 298.
2205:
2203:, p. 298.
2189:
2173:
2171:, p. 240.
2156:
2144:
2132:
2130:, p. 359.
2120:
2118:, p. 355.
2099:
2097:, p. 355.
2079:
2067:
2055:
2043:
2027:
2011:
1999:
1992:
1972:
1937:
1916:
1909:
1889:
1882:
1862:
1851:
1836:
1824:
1822:, p. 242.
1812:
1800:
1798:, p. 238.
1784:
1782:, p. 238.
1772:
1770:, p. 129.
1760:
1740:
1728:
1716:
1714:, p. 384.
1704:
1688:
1686:, p. 269.
1673:
1661:
1645:
1643:, p. 237.
1630:
1610:
1582:
1580:, p. 162.
1570:
1558:
1546:
1544:, p. 135.
1534:
1522:
1520:, p. 235.
1503:
1501:, p. 204.
1491:
1479:
1463:
1451:
1449:, p. 234.
1436:
1434:, p. 233.
1417:
1397:
1381:
1365:
1349:
1337:
1325:
1323:, p. 236.
1310:
1286:
1271:
1269:, p. 236.
1248:
1246:, p. 235.
1236:
1220:
1206:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1186:
1183:
1128:anthropologist
1111:
1108:
1045:Antoine Gaubil
1032:Lord of Heaven
994:
991:
934:
931:
834:
831:
796:
793:
775:, a patron of
761:Chinese khagan
697:
694:
682:; pinyin:
672:; pinyin:
658:; pinyin:
645:Forbidden City
637:; pinyin:
630:
629:Kunning Palace
627:
622:Forbidden City
575:Boxer Uprising
571:foreign powers
509:peasant rebels
497:Boxer Uprising
484:
478:
476:
473:
418:Nurhaci's son
397:'s worship of
358:
355:
324:; pinyin:
230:
227:
196:Northeast Asia
184:
181:
173:anthropologist
130:Forbidden City
111:seized Beijing
36:northeast Asia
32:Jurchen people
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4933:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4913:
4911:
4904:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4868:Manchu people
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4853:
4849:
4847:
4846:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4834:Canton System
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4819:
4815:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4799:Hubu Guanpiao
4797:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4783:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4744:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4602:
4594:
4593:
4589:
4588:
4587:
4586:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4564:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4552:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4535:
4531:
4529:
4528:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4506:
4502:
4500:
4499:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4486:
4483:
4482:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4470:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4449:Society &
4447:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4415:Summer Palace
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4405:Mukden Palace
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4381:Palaces &
4379:
4371:
4368:
4367:
4366:
4363:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4349:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4329:
4325:
4322:
4321:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4300:
4294:
4291:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4221:Eight Banners
4219:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4211:
4209:
4205:
4199:
4196:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4148:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4135:
4132:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4074:Grand Council
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3894:20th century
3892:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3704:19th century
3702:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3600:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3591:
3588:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3550:
3548:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3525:
3518:
3513:
3511:
3506:
3504:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3482:
3472:
3471:Ni-shan saman
3463:Zhao Zhizong
3462:
3454:
3453:Manxue yanjiu
3438:
3435:
3427:
3417:
3408:
3402:
3391:
3385:
3374:
3368:
3357:
3351:
3343:
3328:Liu Xiaomeng
3327:
3319:
3313:萨满教与满族跳神音乐的流变
3303:
3295:
3294:Manzu Wenhua
3279:
3275:
3271:
3263:
3259:
3254:
3246:
3230:
3222:
3212:
3207:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3176:
3160:
3152:
3142:
3134:
3133:Manzu Yanjiu
3118:
3117:
3112:
3105:
3103:0-520-04804-0
3099:
3095:
3094:
3089:
3085:
3082:
3081:0-472-08401-1
3078:
3073:
3071:0-472-10512-4
3067:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3037:
3033:
3031:0-520-22837-5
3027:
3023:
3022:
3016:
3012:
3010:0-520-21991-0
3006:
3002:
2997:
2994:
2993:0-472-08401-1
2990:
2985:
2983:0-472-10512-4
2979:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2964:0-8047-1193-3
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2923:
2920:
2919:0-8047-4684-2
2916:
2911:
2909:0-8047-3606-5
2905:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2885:0-521-62157-7
2881:
2877:
2873:
2868:
2864:
2862:0-520-21566-4
2858:
2854:
2849:
2846:
2845:1-55786-560-4
2842:
2837:
2835:0-631-23591-4
2831:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2816:0-520-08234-6
2812:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2797:0-691-05583-1
2793:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2760:(2): 177–97,
2759:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2740:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2725:0-8248-2563-2
2721:
2717:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2693:
2688:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2676:Humphrey 1994
2673:
2669:
2668:di Cosmo 1999
2664:
2661:
2657:
2656:Humphrey 1994
2652:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2637:
2633:
2632:Humphrey 1994
2628:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2584:Crossley 1999
2581:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2561:
2557:
2556:di Cosmo 1999
2552:
2549:
2545:
2544:di Cosmo 1999
2541:
2536:
2533:
2529:
2524:
2521:
2517:
2516:Crossley 1997
2513:
2508:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2459:di Cosmo 1999
2455:
2452:
2449:, p. 375
2448:
2447:di Cosmo 1999
2443:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2428:
2424:
2423:Crossley 1994
2419:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2403:
2400:
2396:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2300:Humphrey 1994
2296:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2268:Crossley 1997
2264:
2261:
2257:
2256:di Cosmo 1999
2252:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2240:di Cosmo 1999
2236:
2233:
2229:
2228:Crossley 1990
2224:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2197:Crossley 1999
2193:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2181:di Cosmo 1999
2177:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2152:di Cosmo 1999
2148:
2145:
2141:
2140:Crossley 1999
2136:
2133:
2129:
2128:di Cosmo 1999
2124:
2121:
2117:
2116:di Cosmo 1999
2113:
2112:Crossley 1999
2109:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2095:di Cosmo 1999
2092:
2088:
2083:
2080:
2077:, p. 29.
2076:
2075:Crossley 1990
2071:
2068:
2064:
2063:Crossley 1990
2059:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2012:
2009:, p. 40.
2008:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1993:9780861718061
1989:
1985:
1984:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1938:
1930:September 17,
1926:
1920:
1917:
1912:
1910:9781134362226
1906:
1902:
1901:
1893:
1890:
1885:
1883:9788120810679
1879:
1875:
1874:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1855:
1852:
1849:, p. 10.
1848:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1816:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1756:Crossley 1997
1753:
1749:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1578:Crossley 1999
1574:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1559:
1556:, p. 11.
1555:
1554:Crossley 1997
1550:
1547:
1543:
1542:Crossley 1999
1538:
1535:
1532:, p. 10.
1531:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1492:
1488:
1487:Crossley 1999
1483:
1480:
1476:
1475:Crossley 1999
1472:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1413:Humphrey 1994
1410:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1350:
1347:, p. 32.
1346:
1345:Crossley 1997
1341:
1338:
1335:, p. 34.
1334:
1333:Crossley 1990
1329:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1302:Crossley 1997
1299:
1295:
1290:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1162:
1161:Mircea Eliade
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1142:Raymond Firth
1140:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1121:
1116:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1099:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1079:Manjusai doro
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1012:
1008:
1004:
999:
992:
990:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
963:
961:
956:
951:
949:
945:
941:
932:
930:
922:
916:
908:
904:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
881:
877:
873:
852:
844:
839:
832:
830:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
794:
792:
790:
786:
783:based on the
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
741:
736:
735:Son of Heaven
732:
728:
724:
720:
715:
711:
707:
703:
695:
693:
691:
687:
677:
667:
663:
653:
648:
646:
642:
628:
623:
619:
615:
610:
606:
604:
603:Beijing Hotel
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
563:
561:
557:
553:
550:(1644–1661),
549:
545:
541:
536:
534:
530:
529:Imperial City
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
498:
494:
489:
483:
479:
474:
472:
470:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
446:Banner troops
443:
439:
435:
434:
429:
425:
421:
416:
413:
409:
405:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
374:
372:
368:
364:
356:
354:
352:
348:
344:
339:
337:
331:
329:
319:
315:
311:
307:
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
278:
274:
270:
266:
256:
252:
244:
240:
235:
228:
226:
224:
220:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
182:
180:
177:
174:
170:
166:
161:
158:
154:
150:
146:
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
40:Manchu people
37:
33:
29:
19:
4903:
4888:Treaty ports
4850:
4843:
4817:Other topics
4590:
4583:
4573:
4561:
4549:
4532:
4527:Peiwen Yunfu
4525:
4503:
4496:
4467:
4216:Beiyang Army
4198:Zongli Yamen
4054:Da-Qing Bank
3871:Red Lanterns
3524:Qing dynasty
3480:
3470:
3469:XX (1995). "
3452:
3425:
3341:
3317:
3304:Liu Guiteng
3293:
3261:
3257:
3244:
3220:
3191:
3187:
3174:
3150:
3132:
3092:
3061:
3041:
3020:
3000:
2973:
2954:
2936:
2928:"Dodo"
2921:(paperback).
2898:
2875:
2852:
2825:
2806:
2786:
2757:
2753:
2734:
2715:
2687:
2672:Elliott 2001
2663:
2651:
2639:
2627:
2615:
2603:
2591:
2575:
2563:
2551:
2535:
2523:
2507:
2495:
2482:
2475:Elliott 2001
2466:
2454:
2442:
2435:Elliott 2001
2430:
2418:
2410:
2407:Elliott 2001
2402:
2395:Elliott 2001
2372:Elliott 2001
2367:
2355:
2348:Elliott 2001
2343:
2336:Elliott 2001
2331:
2319:
2307:
2295:
2283:
2275:
2272:Elliott 2001
2263:
2251:
2244:Elliott 2001
2235:
2223:
2192:
2176:
2147:
2135:
2123:
2102:
2091:Elliott 2001
2082:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2030:
2019:Wakeman 1985
2014:
2002:
1982:
1975:
1950:
1946:
1940:
1928:. Retrieved
1919:
1899:
1892:
1872:
1865:
1854:
1827:
1815:
1803:
1787:
1775:
1763:
1748:Elliott 2001
1743:
1731:
1724:Elliott 2001
1719:
1707:
1699:
1691:
1669:Elliott 2001
1664:
1657:Elliott 2001
1648:
1641:Elliott 2001
1622:Elliott 2001
1613:
1605:
1602:Elliott 2001
1593:
1585:
1573:
1566:Elliott 2001
1561:
1549:
1537:
1525:
1494:
1482:
1466:
1454:
1405:Elliott 2001
1400:
1389:Elliott 2001
1384:
1373:Elliott 2001
1368:
1361:Elliott 2001
1352:
1340:
1328:
1321:Elliott 2001
1305:
1297:
1294:Elliott 2001
1289:
1282:Elliott 2001
1244:Elliott 2001
1239:
1232:Elliott 2001
1223:
1215:
1210:
1179:
1164:
1135:
1125:
1100:
1078:
1074:Mark Elliott
1069:
1063:
1052:
1048:
1016:
1011:Christianity
982:
978:
964:
952:
947:
943:
936:
920:
917:
906:
900:
884:
875:
848:
798:
738:
722:
718:
704:such as the
699:
683:
675:sāmǎn tàitài
673:
659:
649:
640:Kunning gong
638:
632:
594:
591:Mark Elliott
589:. Historian
566:
564:
560:Qianlong era
539:
537:
524:
520:
502:
492:
481:
480:The Beijing
466:
461:
450:China proper
437:
431:
427:
417:
412:Ming dynasty
410:against the
395:Genghis Khan
386:
382:
378:
375:
366:
360:
340:
332:
325:
317:
309:
305:
303:
298:
290:
286:
276:
272:
268:
264:
254:
250:
248:
223:China proper
216:Qing dynasty
199:
186:
162:
142:
125:
119:China proper
102:
98:
95:Qing dynasty
71:Ming dynasty
56:
47:
27:
26:
4824:Aisin Gioro
4786:Paper money
4545:Qing poetry
4266:Wuwei Corps
4261:Shuishiying
4022:Family tree
3340:XX (1990).
3268:: 169–202,
3249:《沈阳故宫博物院院刊》
3161:Fu Yuguang
3045:. Garland.
2826:The Manchus
2707:Works cited
2680:Rawski 1998
2528:Rawski 1998
2500:Naquin 2000
2488:Naquin 2000
2471:Naquin 2000
2360:Rawski 1998
2324:Rawski 1998
2312:Naquin 2000
2288:Rawski 1998
2216:Rawski 1998
2201:Rawski 1998
2185:Rawski 1998
2169:Rawski 1998
2108:Rawski 1998
2087:Rawski 1998
2051:Rawski 1998
2035:Rawski 1998
2007:Berger 2003
1953:(1): 5–34.
1847:Rawski 1998
1832:Rawski 1998
1820:Rawski 1998
1808:Hucker 1985
1796:Rawski 1998
1792:Hucker 1985
1780:Rawski 1998
1768:Rawski 1998
1752:Naquin 2000
1736:Rawski 1998
1712:Naquin 2000
1696:Naquin 2000
1684:Rawski 1998
1653:Naquin 2000
1626:Rawski 1998
1618:Naquin 2000
1598:Naquin 2000
1590:Rawski 1998
1530:Rawski 1998
1518:Rawski 1998
1471:Rawski 1998
1459:Rawski 1998
1447:Rawski 1998
1432:Rawski 1998
1409:Rawski 1998
1393:Rawski 1998
1377:Rawski 1998
1357:Rawski 1998
1267:Rawski 1998
1228:Rawski 1998
971:bodhisattva
872:Möllendorff
821:variolation
652:Shunzhi era
618:Amur region
379:Abka Enduri
371:Aisin Gioro
83:Aisin Gioro
44:Jin dynasty
4910:Categories
4492:Four Wangs
4383:mausoleums
4336:Golden Urn
4309:Inner Asia
4286:Xiang Army
4256:Hushenying
4181:Liangguang
4161:Liangjiang
4099:Lifan Yuan
4004:Government
3460:2: 119–35.
3325:1: 239–53.
3194:: 403–13.
2023:Chang 2002
1197:References
1146:Ioan Lewis
1051:refers to
1049:Tiao Tchin
987:the Buddha
960:legitimacy
912:欽定滿洲祭神祭天典禮
757:Bogda Khan
513:Li Zicheng
420:Hong Taiji
304:Each clan—
145:Han people
138:abdication
91:Hong Taiji
4314:Manchuria
4281:Huai Army
4271:Yong Ying
4156:Shaan-Gan
3612:High Qing
3558:Later Jin
3485:《满学朝鲜学论集》
3448:满洲贵族与萨满文化
3424:. In his
3398:. Kyoto:
3381:. In his
3364:(1965).
3252:1: 62–66.
3225:神秘的清宫萨满祭祀
3188:Anthropos
3140:1: 45–49.
3119:Du Jiaji
2913:(cloth);
2486:Cited in
2039:Fang 1943
1202:Citations
1096:sinicized
1091:simulacra
1053:Tiao Shen
897:Amsterdam
858:ᡨᠣᡴᡨᠣᠪᡠᡥᠠ
556:Yongzheng
546:. In the
533:Bannermen
507:from the
347:Manchuria
188:Shamanism
169:Manchuria
149:Bannermen
87:shamanism
28:Shamanism
4766:Hongqian
4735:Currency
4605:Treaties
4511:Kaozheng
4458:Booi Aha
4400:Hetu Ala
4353:Timeline
4348:Xinjiang
4319:Mongolia
4276:Chu Army
4251:New Army
4208:Military
4146:Viceroys
3407:Japanese
3390:Japanese
3373:Japanese
3356:Japanese
3346:萨满教与东北民族
3219:(1995).
3200:40463470
3173:(1991).
3090:(1985),
2953:(1985),
2896:(2001),
2784:(1990),
2774:11995595
2411:tiaoshen
1185:See also
1175:ecstatic
969:and the
926:滿洲跳神還願典例
860:ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠᠰᠠᡳ
809:smallpox
723:hūwangdi
685:shénfáng
587:legation
544:New Year
387:Abka Ama
383:Abka Han
351:Mongolia
295:Jurchens
219:expanded
212:Jurchens
134:emperors
115:conquest
4751:Zhiqian
4743:Coinage
4480:Economy
4451:culture
4186:Yun-Gui
4176:Min-Zhe
4171:Sichuan
4166:Huguang
4012:Emperor
3533:History
3479:(ed.),
3430:《满族史论丛》
3394:清朝前史の研究
3301:2: 5–6.
3179:满族萨满教研究
2935:(ed.).
2702:Sources
1967:2718931
1085:of the
1070:fe doro
975:Guanyin
765:Uyghurs
755:), as "
727:Chinese
719:Huangdi
666:Banners
614:Russian
548:Shunzhi
511:led by
505:Beijing
424:Manchus
393:and to
363:Nurhaci
327:shénzhù
202:in the
157:Mongols
132:, Qing
123:Beijing
69:to the
59:Nurhaci
52:shamans
4365:Taiwan
3541:Early
3526:topics
3421:清初的萨满教
3411:東洋史研究会
3322:《满学研究》
3298:《满族文化》
3272:
3198:
3137:《满族研究》
3100:
3079:
3068:
3049:
3028:
3007:
2991:
2980:
2961:
2917:
2906:
2882:
2859:
2843:
2832:
2813:
2794:
2772:
2741:
2722:
2276:weceku
1990:
1965:
1907:
1880:
1606:tangse
1594:tangzi
1298:enduri
1104:Joseon
1040:Heaven
1036:Jesuit
1034:"—the
1026:, the
1007:Daoist
983:tangse
979:tangse
967:Guandi
955:heaven
948:weceku
944:tangse
864:ᠮᡝᡨᡝᡵᡝ
862:ᠸᡝᠴᡝᡵᡝ
731:Manchu
714:Oroqen
706:Evenks
661:shìwèi
595:tangse
567:tangse
552:Kangxi
540:tangse
525:tangse
521:tangse
493:tangse
482:tangse
462:tangse
454:Dorgon
442:Mukden
438:tangse
428:tangse
399:Tengri
367:tangse
336:trance
314:Manchu
310:enduri
299:tangse
291:tangse
287:tangse
277:yemiao
273:tangzi
269:tangse
265:tangse
255:tangzi
251:tangse
239:Buryat
126:tangse
107:Mukden
103:tangse
99:tangse
67:vassal
48:tangse
4557:Queue
4475:Dibao
4331:Tibet
4151:Zhili
4034:Amban
3360:三田村泰助
3270:JSTOR
3240:论清宫萨满
3206:JSTOR
3196:JSTOR
3149:. In
3146:清代的堂子
2931:. In
1963:JSTOR
1306:mukūn
868:ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ
866:ᡴᠣᠣᠯᡳ
856:ᡥᡝᠰᡝᡳ
725:) in
469:Cuyen
448:into
343:apron
306:mukūn
243:apron
237:This
221:into
200:saman
57:When
4293:Navy
4134:Ejen
4017:List
3457:满学研究
3098:ISBN
3077:ISBN
3066:ISBN
3047:ISBN
3026:ISBN
3005:ISBN
2989:ISBN
2978:ISBN
2959:ISBN
2915:ISBN
2904:ISBN
2880:ISBN
2857:ISBN
2841:ISBN
2830:ISBN
2811:ISBN
2792:ISBN
2770:PMID
2739:ISBN
2720:ISBN
1988:ISBN
1932:2023
1905:ISBN
1878:ISBN
1001:The
940:Xibe
811:, a
801:Dodo
740:Ejen
737:and
729:and
712:and
710:Daur
670:薩滿太太
565:The
349:and
318:šomo
167:of "
3476:王重翰
3442:阎崇年
3331:刘小萌
3283:李學智
3234:姜相顺
3216:姜相顺
3170:孟慧英
3164:富育光
3122:杜家骥
2762:doi
1955:doi
1081:).
721:or
635:坤寧宮
605:".
194:of
117:of
105:of
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3451:.
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3262:56
3260:,
3243:.
3192:82
3190:.
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2839:;
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2756:,
2379:^
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2208:^
2159:^
1961:.
1951:38
1949:.
1839:^
1676:^
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1274:^
1251:^
1058:跳神
1047:,
962:.
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826:胤祚
708:,
680:神房
656:侍衛
499:).
464:.
322:神柱
316::
282:謁廟
260:堂子
225:.
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3396:)
3388:(
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3362:)
3354:(
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3307:刘
3276:.
3202:.
3083:.
3055:.
3035:.
3014:.
2995:.
2968:.
2889:.
2866:.
2847:.
2820:.
2801:.
2777:.
2764::
2748:.
2729:.
1996:.
1969:.
1957::
1934:.
1913:.
1886:.
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