560:, without permission by the Burmese government. These bases served various purposes, such as “listening posts for Taiwanese and American intelligence from which agents were sent into China; opium storage and refining centres; opium buying stations; storage and distribution points for contraband goods; and private fiefdoms of local commanders”. They occupied about one-third or around 20,000 square miles of Shan state. Many Shan rebels worked with them, and in return obtained arms and ammunition and funds. The business by ex-KMT merchants has still left its legacy in Shan State, as Burma is the number two opium producer in the world. Armed forces, such as the Burma Army and Shan resistance groups, as well as local villagers, are engaged in production and trafficking of narcotics.
612:(SSA-S), or Restoration Council of Shan State/ Shan State Army in 1996. However, in 2011 SSA-S signed a ceasefire agreement with the Burmese government. Although the Burmese government accomplished in signing a ceasefire with two of the largest armed rebel forces in the Shan State, there still has been reports of clashes. According to the Shan Human Rights Foundation, in October 2014, shells were fired in villages of Shan State, which caused over 180 villagers to evacuate. Between 1996 and 2001, there have been reports of 173 sexual assaults in Shan state by Burmese troops and between 1996 and 1998, 300,000 villagers had relocated.
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339:. The agreement was that the right of self-government and full autonomy was recognized for Shan and Karenni and autonomous status for Kachin and Chin area. Regarding this conference, Chao Tzang Yawnghwe, a former SSA soldier, writes in his memoir that “it was a rubber-stamp providing Britain with an opportunity to abdicate all responsibilities with respect to the Frontier Areas”. Although the ethnic groups that signed the agreement trusted in Aung San, they were not satisfied with it. The trust did not last long, as Aung San was assassinated on 19 July, the same year.
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533:(CPB) have been active along the borders of Kachin and Shan with China since 1967. They became a threat to the SSA from the early 1970s, as they operated exclusively in the lowlands and delta regions and by the mid-1970s, it had occupied the town on Shan-Chinese border, Kiu-khok or Wanting, and other places, in total 15,000 square miles of the Shan State. As holding a position of anti-communist and pro-West, SSA leaders saw the expanding forces of CPB as a problem.
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the south. There were further internal divisions, such as in 1966 two units breaking away and setting up their own nationalist front, and external pressures for not being able to unite Shan rebels as more fights intensified with the Burma Army, CPB, other rebels and drug trade. As a result, SSA collapsed in the mid-1976. About 4,000 soldiers switched loyalty to the CPB and others joined other rebel forces. Later, SSPP reformed a pro-communist army known as
494:(SSPP) was formed to tackle the problems the SSA faced. The Shan Unity Preparatory Committee (SUPC) was also formed to unite other Shan rebel groups. It planned to merge SSA with SSA/East, which TNA renamed itself, and the Shan National Independence Army (SNIA), which Noom Suk Harn renamed itself. However, it did not work out, as SNIA collapsed, and its leader set up a new organization to fight against communism.
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engage in cross-border trade with
Thailand and Laos. Many units of SSA defected to this policy, which led to an internal division in the beginning of the 1970s. By August 1968, 1,500 insurgents shifted to KKY forces and eventually over 20 KKY units were formed. As the policy boosted drug trade along the borders and increased international criticism against it, KKY policy was abandoned in 1973.
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319:(AFPFL). After the war ended, the Burmese insisted on the amalgamation of the ethnic groups and independence, and engaged on strikes. Devastated by the war themselves, the British signed an agreement in 1947, promising its independence within a year. Shan State's political status was further degraded from a sub-province to a “tribal area under direct bureaucratic rule”.
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in April 1962. Sao Shwe Thaik died in prison in
November the same year and while in exile his wife participated in the independence struggle of the Shan State. In 1964, Sao Nang Hearn Kham became the leader of SSIA and tried to unify the four rebel factions. However, she could not make Noom Suk Harn
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Burma's independence was accepted by the London
Agreement, which Aung San signed in 1947. In terms of the borderland states, clause 8 was provided for the “early unification of the Frontier Areas with Ministerial Burma” and a Frontier Areas Commission of Enquiry (FACE) was to be set up to hear the
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Since the
British rule in 1886, Shan rulers were placed under the direct rule of the Governor of India as separate sovereignty. As Shan rulers had full control of its internal matters, many recall the period of British rule as “Golden Age”. However, when the Government of Burma Act 1921 was passed,
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As the struggle became fierce in the Shan State, SSA units in the north approached CPB for support, which CPB responded with military training and arms provision. On the other hand, the SSA in southern Shan opposed to the alliance with CPB, therefore, led to an internal split in SSA- the north and
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As the Burma Army was also fighting against CPB, it came up with a policy in 1963 to combat them by using forces of the ethnic groups on the borders, which was called Ka-kew-ye (KKY) policy. This was to call local rebels to join the KKY forces to fight off CPB, and in return, would be permitted to
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Since its formation, SSA had attracted widespread intellectual and rural support. In 1961, there were no more than 1,500 Shan rebels in total, which by 1969 grew to 7,000 to 9,000. The battles were so fierce that in 1978 20 to 30 casualties were suffered daily by the group in Shan State alone. SSA
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Despite these efforts by SSA, nothing effective had been done. Chao Tzang
Yawnghwe deplores in his memoir, "I cannot but feel that very few people are genuinely interested in seeking a solution especially when governments and international agencies have shown very little willingness to tackle the
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therefore, did not allow it to happen. Nevertheless, Ne Win called for peace talks with the Shan state rulers in 1963. However, opposition groups did not agree with the military rule which had no plurality in politics and united all groups under
Burmese government, therefore, the fight continued.
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and continued his military rule. Before the coup d’état, U Nu called ethnic leaders for a meeting to discuss federalism and ethnic rights; however, the next day of the coup, U Nu and other ethnic leaders, including Shan leaders, were arrested. Ne Win thought that federalism would break the union,
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Another proposal was "The 1975 Proposals by the Shan State Army jointly with the Shan United Army (SUA) and Shan State Army (East)". It showed concerns to the widespread addiction among Shan people as well as throughout the world. It stressed that opium trade flourishes under anarchism, which
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of southern Shan state who began as a group supporting the Karen, but later by early 1950s became a movement against the Shan princes. Meanwhile, Chinese
Nationalists (KMT) forces encamped on eastern Shan after being retreated from China. They built up strong forces with the assistance of the
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problem at its source, that is, in Shan State." He also explains the situation as "a goose that lays golden eggs-- enriching, on the one hand, the drug syndicates and traffickers and on the other providing multi-national and international bureaucracies with more jobs, funds and good living."
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were recruited. A leadership school was set up in 1969 and taught basic geography and history, basic government, the fundamentals of military organization and operations, intelligence gathering and reporting, political system and theories, and an introduction to international politics.
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and TNA agree for unification, therefore, SNUF merged with SSIA and formed Shan State Army (SSA). The formation took place at the headquarters of SSIA in the mountains near the Thai border. It aimed to expand its forces to a statewide organization by incorporating other rebel groups.
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Shan State has a vast share of opium production and in 1974, it produced a third of illegal opium in the world. With concerns towards the growing opium in the black market and increasing addiction among local villagers, SSA announced proposals to tackle opium trade in Shan State.
378:, and after a week of fierce battle, the rebels scattered into small armed bands all over Shan State. Former university students broke away from Noom Suk Harn and established Shan State Independence Army (SSIA) in 1961, together with Shan National United Front (SNUF).
346:. After almost 60 years of British rule, however, it was not in peace, as uprisings by ethnic groups as well as communists erupted. Ethnic groups demanded for succession and independence, as well as autonomy, equal rights and federal democracy within the
591:'s film, "The Warlords of the Golden Triangle" & "The Opium War" for its purpose to expose the situation of the opium trade in Shan State and call for end to military government, which SSA believed will also end illegal opium trade.
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the question of to where Shan principalities and other peripheral areas would belong arose. The
British decided to transfer these areas to the Governor of Burma and grouped the principalities together to form the
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Although most Shan rebels were anti-communists, smaller rebel groups, such as Shan
Nationalities People's Liberation Organisation (SNPLO), trained with the CPB and adopted communist ideologies.
608:(SSA-N) and continued its fight, until the fall of CPB in 1989, when it signed the ceasefire agreement with the Burmese government. In opposition to ceasefire, a faction that broke away formed
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580:. Shan State sought to find different agro-economic methods to replace opium production under democracy, therefore, asked international support for its resistance against the military regime.
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Mong. S. K. (2007). The Shan in
Myanmar. In Ganesan. N. & Hlaing. K. Y. (Eds.), Myanmar: State, society and ethnicity (pp. 256-277). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
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to fight against the British. He returned in 1942 with the Japanese Army and successfully pushed the British away to India. In 1945, he went against the Japanese under the
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Elections were held in 1960 and Prime Minister U Nu came back in power. However, this was short-lived, as on 2 March 1962, General Ne Win came back in power by a
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AFPFL was breaking up internally in the late 1950s and the military started to show its growing power. In 1958, the head of Burma Army, General
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to join their ranks. Although their initial purpose was to fight for autonomy in Shan State, their battle had extended to fighting against the
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Vice-chairman and Chief of staff: Moherng of Laikha and Muang Kung area (Former commander of Noom Suk Harn and broke away to form SNUF)
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explained the situation in Shan State during the time, and proposes that illegal opium trade will end under a democratic government.
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in Shan State. The SSA however, could not fulfill its goals, and in 1976 it dissolved. It would later become the basis for the
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eventually established four large base areas across Shan state, north to south and on the west to the bank of Salween River.
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374:. The first fight between these Shan rebels and the Burma Army was in 1959, when Shan resistance groups captured the town
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This article is about the insurgent group that was active between 1964 and 1975. For the modern Shan State Army, see
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in 1555. Since then, Shan had tributary relations with Burman rulers; however, was never directly ruled by them.
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in 1922. Their status was largely degraded from an almost sovereignty to a tax-paying sub-province of Burma.
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wishes of the non-Burmese ethnic groups. On 12 February, Aung San invited the ethnic groups and held a
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Smith, M. (1991). Burma - Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London and New Jersey: Zed Books.
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troops fled to northern Burma and started to establish bases in Shan state with the support of the
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Fink. C. (2009). Living silence in Burma: Surviving under military rule. New York: Zed Books Ltd.
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Yawnghwe. C. T. (1987). The Shan of Burma. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
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Vice chief of staff: Sai Pan, Khun Thawa and Jimmy Yang (or Chao Ladd, who joined in 1966)
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On 4 January 1948, Burma became independent and was ruled by a civilian government led by
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Tailand National Army (TNA): established in 1963 by a faction which broke away from SSIA.
247:(Burma). The SSA was founded in 1964 after the merging of two existing insurgent groups.
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Resistance by the Shan State can be traced back to the pre-colonial period, when the
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Rogers. B . (2012). Burma: A nation at the crossroads. United Kingdom: Random House.
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The highest organ of SSA was the Shan State War Council (SSWC), which composed of:
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left Burma for Japan with his colleagues, and received military training by the
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Noom Suk Harn: established in 1958, as the first Shan resistance organization.
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Emblem based on the flag used later in uniforms of different Shan groups.
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The first was "The 1973 Proposals by the Shan State Army (SSA) with
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Shan National United Front (SNUF): established jointly with SSIA.
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to agree on their equal rights, which was only signed by Shan,
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in March 1962 by the Revolutionary Council headed by General
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United National Liberation Front of Western South East Asia
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Shan State Independence Army (SSIA): established in 1961.
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Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee
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By 1964, there were four major Shan State rebel groups:
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Relationship with ex-KMT merchant-warlords and armies
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34:. For the modern splinter group, see
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27:1964–1975 insurgent group in Myanmar
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856:. Associated Press. 18 April 2014
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827:"Opium Warlods - Adrian Cowell"
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1531:2016–present
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109:Headquarters
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599:Dissolution
564:Opium trade
484:Shan people
383:coup d’état
252:Shan people
226:abbreviated
1599:Categories
1554:Ceasefires
1415:Coalitions
1345:Mujahideen
1320:God's Army
1217:PRA-Magway
860:28 October
653:References
550:Mao Zedong
465:Chairman:
294:Bayinnaung
284:Shan State
282:See also:
260:Kuomintang
241:Shan State
133:Separatism
113:Shan State
1526:1991–1992
1496:Karen–Mon
1157:MRDA/BNRA
307:In 1941,
141:Opponents
1584:Tatmadaw
1516:Rohingya
616:See also
446:Thailand
430:Yawnghwe
309:Aung San
270:and the
170:Tatmadaw
124:Ideology
104:-Current
1500:Kokang
1297:Defunct
505:Palaung
432:in the
395:Process
376:Tangyan
337:Karenni
278:History
258:(CPB),
245:Myanmar
218:Burmese
117:Myanmar
98: (
81:Leaders
1486:Kachin
1172:NSCN-K
1078:KNA(B)
1058:DKBA-5
980:Active
752:
548:After
514:Kokang
438:Ne Win
368:Ne Win
329:Kachin
1491:Karen
1350:NDA-K
1242:SSA-S
1232:SSA-N
1141:MNTJP
1137:MNDAA
1117:KNPLF
1008:ABSDF
1521:1978
1509:2015
1504:2009
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1400:SURA
1395:SSNA
1390:SSCP
1360:RFCP
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1340:MRDA
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1305:ARIF
1266:UWSP
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1111:KNPP
1097:KNLA
1093:KNDO
1087:KNLP
1083:KNLA
1053:CNDF
1033:BPLA
1023:ARSA
862:2014
750:ISBN
356:Pa-O
344:U Nu
335:and
333:Chin
212:The
100:1964
96:1964
1385:SSA
1380:RNA
1375:RRF
1370:RPF
1365:RLP
1335:MRA
1330:MTA
1325:KDA
1310:CPA
1286:ZRO
1282:ZRA
1276:WNO
1272:WNA
1227:SNA
1222:RSO
1201:PNO
1197:PNA
1191:CPB
1187:PLA
1181:NUG
1177:PDF
1166:PSC
1132:LDU
1127:KPC
1101:KNU
1073:KNA
1067:KIO
1063:KIA
1047:CNF
1043:CNA
1038:CDF
1028:BLA
1017:ALP
1013:ALA
1002:ANC
992:ULA
554:KMT
428:of
239:in
229:SSA
45:or
1601::
1107:KA
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998:AA
988:AA
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