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degree of control to it. Bipolar percussion is not popular with hobbyists, but there is evidence that bipolar percussion was the preferred way of dealing with certain problems. Bipolar percussion has the benefit of producing many sharp flakes, and triangular pieces of stone which can be useful as drills. Bipolar percussion also does not require the manufacturer to locate a platform before setting to work, and bipolar percussion can produce sharp flakes almost the size of the original piece of tool stone. The lack of control makes bipolar percussion undesirable in many situations, but the benefits mean that it often has a use, especially if workable material is rare. Bipolar percussion is often used to break open small cobbles, or to have a second chance with spent lithic cores, broken bifaces, and tools that have been reworked so much that it is impossible to make further useful tools using traditional lithic reduction. The end result of bipolar percussion is often a big mess, with only a few pieces that can be useful as cores or flakes for further working, but if other methods would result in a total dead-end, bipolar percussion may be desirable.
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The 'T' is the 'height' of maximum blank thickness and the 't' is the height of retouched scar from the ventral surface. The ratio between t and T is the geometric index of reduction. In theory this ratio shall range between 0 and 1. The bigger the number is the larger amount of lost weight from lithic flake. By using a logarithmic scale, a linear relationship between the geometric index and the percentage of original flake weight lost through retouch is confirmed. In choosing a reduction index, it is important to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each method, and how they fit to the intended research question, as different indices provide different levels of information. For example, Kuhn's geometric index of unifacial reduction (GIUR), which describes the ratio of scar height relative to the flake thickness, is highly influenced by the morphology of the flake blank which limits the applicability of this reduction index.
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shattering through them, making it desirable for working tool stone that already has been worked to some degree before. Soft hammers of course also do not have as much force behind them as hard hammers do. Flakes produced by soft hammers are generally smaller and thinner than those produced by hard-hammer flaking; thus, soft-hammer flaking is often used after hard-hammer flaking in a lithic reduction sequence to do finer work. As well as this, soft-hammers can produce longer flakes which aid in the conservation of materials because they produce a longer cutting edge per unit of mass lost.
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modern hobbyists must use a third object in order to hold the targeted piece of tool stone while they strike it. Often, some sort of clamp or vise is used. No evidence for such devices has yet been found in the archaeological record, but this is partly because they would normally be made of perishable materials, and partly because they can have great variation in design.
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1186:(Excellent illustrations by Valerie Waldorf of processes, techniques, hand tools, ancient and modern knapped artifacts . On front and rear cover are photos of precisely made replicas of prehistoric points and within the text are B&W photos including two full-scale "Danish dagger" replicas made by the author.)
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Since indirect percussion can be so precisely placed, the platform is often much smaller on flakes produced in this way than in other methods of flake removal. Of course, indirect percussion requires two hands to hold the percussing tool set. One holds the hammer, and one holds the punch. Therefore,
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Projectile percussion is so basic as to not be considered a technique. It involves throwing the toolstone at a stationary anvil stone. This method provides virtually no control over how the toolstone will fragment, and therefore produces a great deal of shatter, and few flakes. It is difficult to be
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In bipolar percussion the objective piece of toolstone is placed on an anvil stone, and then the percussion force is applied to the tool stone. Like projectile percussion, the tool stone is likely to shatter, rather than producing a single flake. Unlike projectile percussion, the technique has some
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By understanding the complex processes of lithic reduction, archaeologists recognize that the pattern and amount of reduction contribute tremendous effect to lithic assemblage compositions. One of the measurements is the geometric index of reduction. There are two elements in this index: 't' and 'T'.
203:. This process is predictable, and allows the flintknapper to control and direct the application of force so as to shape the material being worked. Controlled experiments may be performed using glass cores and consistent applied force in order to determine how varying factors affect core reduction.
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Usually, the objective piece is held clasped in the flintknapper's hand, with a durable piece of fabric or leather protecting the flintknapper's palm from the sharpness of the flakes removed. The tip of the flaking tool is placed against the edge of the stone tool and pressed hard, removing a small
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Soft-hammer percussion involves the use of a billet, usually made of wood, bone or antler as the percussor. These softer materials are easier to shape than stone hammers, and therefore can be made into more precise tools. Soft hammers also deform around the sharp edges of worked stone, rather than
507:, places the use of pressure flaking by early humans to make stone tools back to 73,000 BCE, 55,000 years earlier than previously accepted. The previously accepted date, "no more than 20,000 years ago", was based upon the earliest evidence previously available, which derived from findings of the
320:-stone and the flake is detached by using a striking implement, the method is known as bipolar percussion or bipolar technique. The resulting flake presents a double bulb of percussion, one at each end; alternatively, especially in the case of a quartz flake, there would be crushing at each end.
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Indirect percussion involves the use of a punch and hammer. The punch and hammer make it possible to apply large force to very small areas of a stone tool. Indirect percussion is therefore often used to achieve detail work on smaller tools. Some modern hobbyists make use of indirect percussion
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In most cases, the amount of pressure applied to the objective piece in soft-hammer percussion is not enough for the formation of a typical conchoidal fracture. Rather, soft-hammer flakes are most often produced by what is referred to as a bending fracture, so-called because the flake is quite
206:
It has been shown that stages in the lithic reduction sequence may be misleading and that a better way to assess the data is by looking at it as a continuum. The assumptions that archaeologists sometimes make regarding the reduction sequence based on the placement of a flake into a stage can be
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by pressing on the stone with a sharp instrument rather than striking it with a percussor. This method, which often uses punches made from bone or antler tines (or, among modern hobbyists, copper punches or even nails), provides a greater means of controlling the direction and quantity of the
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An alternative view of the bipolar reduction technique is offered by Jan Willem Van der Drift which contradicts the suggestion that there is little control over fracturing. The characteristics of bipolar reduction are different from that occurring in conchoidal fracture and are therefore often
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from the lithic core. As flakes are detached in sequence, the original mass of stone is reduced; hence the term for this process. Lithic reduction may be performed in order to obtain sharp flakes, of which a variety of tools can be made, or to rough out a blank for later refinement into a
356:. This technique can be used by flintknappers to remove broad flakes that can be made into smaller tools. This method of manufacture is believed to have been used to make some of the earliest stone tools ever found, some of which date from over 2 million years ago.
542:. Blanks are the starting point of a lithic reduction process, and during prehistoric times were often transported or traded for later refinement at another location. Blanks might be stones or cobbles, just as natural processes have left them, or might be
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that has been detached by natural geological processes, and is an appropriate size and shape. In some cases solid rock or larger boulders may be quarried and broken into suitable smaller pieces, and in others the starting point may be a piece of the
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The use of pressure flaking facilitated the early production of sharper and more finely detailed tools. Pressure flaking also gave toolmakers the ability to create notches where the objective piece could be bound more securely to the shaft of the
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flake from the opposite side. The process also involves frequent preparation of the edge to form better platforms for pressing off flakes. This is usually accomplished with abraiders made from a coarse-grained stone such as
207:
unfounded. For example, a significant amount of cortex can be present on a flake taken off near the very end of the reduction sequence. Removed flakes exhibit features characteristic of conchoidal fracturing, including
219:). Flakes are often quite sharp, with distal edges only a few molecules thick when they have a feather termination. These flakes can be used directly as tools or modified into other utilitarian implements, such as
404:
sure whether or not this method of lithic reduction was ever a commonplace practice, although noting sharp edges on a broken rock might have led early humans to first recognize the value of lithic reduction.
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or other objective piece, such as a partially formed tool, is held in one hand, and struck with a hammer or percussor. Percussors are traditionally either a stone cobble or pebble, often referred to as a
553:, or roughly shaped piece of stone, that probably reveals the final form of the tool, but is not complete. Preforms might also be transported or traded. Typically, a preform is the shaped remnant of a
253:
has demonstrated that heated stones are sometimes much easier to flake, with larger flakes being produced in flint, for example. In some cases the heating changes the colour of the stone.
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pieces, or flakes that are debitage from making another piece. Whatever their origin, on most definitions no further steps have yet been taken to shape them, or they become a preform.
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Hard hammer techniques are generally used to remove large flakes of stone. Early flintknappers and hobbyists replicating their methods often use cobbles of very hard stone, such as
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that originates from the point of impact and results in the separation of material from the objective piece, usually in the form of a partial cone, commonly known as a
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954:
Pelcin, A. (1997). "The
Formation of Flakes: The Role of Platform Thickness and Exterior Platform Angle in the Production of Flake Initiations and Terminations".
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applied force than when using even the most careful percussive flaking. Copper retoucheurs to facilitate this process were widely employed in the
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literally bent or "peeled" from the objective piece. A bending fracture can be produced with a hard hammer. Flakes removed in this manner lack a
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1216:
766:"Their lips are sealed: identifying hard stone, soft stone, and antler hammer direct percussion in Palaeolithic prismatic blade production"
416:, in which case the percussor never actually makes contact with the objective piece. This technique is referred to as indirect percussion.
392:, and are distinguished instead by the presence of a small lip where the flake's striking platform has separated from the objective piece.
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Alongside the various percussion and manipulation techniques described below, there is evidence that heat was at least sometimes used.
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Hiscock, Peter; Clarkson, Chris (2005). "Experimental evaluation of Kuhn's geometric index of reduction and the flat-flake problem".
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93:(also known as the "objective piece"). A basic distinction is that between flaked or knapped stone, the main subject here, and
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Percussion can also be done by throwing the objective piece at an anvil stone. This is sometimes called projectile percussion.
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breaks occur when the force propagates across and through the tool in such a way that the entire opposite margin is removed.
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561:. Sometimes basic features such as stems and notches have been initiated. In most cases, the term refers to an incomplete
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557:. Larger and thicker than the intended tool, it lacks the final trimming and refinement that is present in the completed
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Macgregor, O.J. (2005). "Abrupt
Terminations and stone artefact reduction potential". In Clarkson, C.; Lamb, L. (eds.).
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610:
Shott, M.J. (1996). "Stage versus continuum models in the debris assemblage from production of a fluted biface".
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126:, knife, or other object. Flakes of regular size that are at least twice as long as they are broad are called
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Hiscock, Peter; Tabrett, Amy (2010). "Generalization, inference and the quantification of lithic reduction".
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It is the use of hard-hammer percussion that most often results in the formation of the typical features of
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objects made by grinding. Flaked stone reduction involves the use of a hard hammer percussor, such as a
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1157:. British Archaeological Reports International Monograph Series S1408. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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occur when they are struck with sufficient force; for these stones this process is called
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923:"The effect of indentor type on flake attributes: evidence from a controlled experiment"
838:"Identifying bipolar knapping in the Mesolithic site of Font del Ros (northeast Iberia)"
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Lithics âDown Underâ: Australian
Approaches to Lithic Reduction, Use and Classification
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An example of an obsidian core that has had flakes removed using bipolar percussion.
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Percussion reduction, or percussion flaking, refers to removal of flakes by impact.
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1173:(Paperback) (Fourth ed.). Mound Builder Books, Branson MO, USA. p. 76.
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Kuhn, Steve (1990). "A Geometric Index of
Reduction for Unifacial Stone Tools".
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almost exclusively, with little or no pressure flaking to finish their work.
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is the process of fashioning stones or rocks from their natural state into
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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195:. The propagation of force through the material takes the form of a
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Roda
Gilabert, Xavier; Mora, Rafael; MartĂnez-Moreno, Jorge (2015).
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A blank is a stone of suitable size and shape to be worked into a
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1042:"Scientists Find Earliest Evidence of Method of Shaping Weapons"
1023:"Stone Agers Sharpened Skills 55,000 Years Earlier Than Thought"
493:
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by removing some parts. It has been intensely studied and many
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Cotterell, B.; Kamminga, J. (1987). "The
Formation of Flakes".
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474:. Great care must be taken during pressure flaking so that
27:
Process of fashioning stones or rocks into tools and weapons
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Normally the starting point is the selection of a piece of
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that break the entire tool do not occur. Occasionally,
171:, as well as other fine-grained stone material, such as
440:
Pressure flaking is a method of trimming the edge of a
336:
misinterpreted by archaeologists and lithic experts.
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316:When the objective piece is placed on a stationary
1136:Understanding Stone Tools and Archaeological Sites
215:(small secondary flakes detached from the flake's
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984:
908:
896:
268:Hitting hand-held core with a hammer or percussor
764:Driscoll, Killian; GarcĂa-Rojas, Maite (2014).
1217:
1057:
1055:
412:Often, flakes are struck from a core using a
308:, or a billet made of bone, antler, or wood.
8:
824:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology
73:of the precise style of their tools and the
1194:Technology and Terminology of Knapped Stone
1080:Lithics: Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis
284:: the objective stone is thrown at an anvil
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1310:
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1082:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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290:: flake struck from core by using a punch
130:. Lithic tools produced this way may be
77:of the reduction techniques they used.
1197:. C.R.E.P., Meudon, France. p. 193.
815:
813:
1061:
738:
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499:An archaeological discovery in 2010 in
453:â and may therefore be associated with
138:(exhibiting flaking on one side only).
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134:(exhibiting flaking on both sides) or
69:are identified almost entirely by the
496:and increasing the object's utility.
348:An example of hard hammer percussion.
7:
379:An example of soft hammer percussion
278:, using anvil and striking implement
101:, a soft hammer fabricator (made of
1191:Inizan, M. L.; et al. (1999).
363:on the detached flake, such as the
211:, bulbs of force, and occasionally
25:
2348:Megalithic architectural elements
956:Journal of Archaeological Science
927:Journal of Archaeological Science
773:Journal of Archaeological Science
666:Journal of Archaeological Science
639:Journal of Archaeological Science
1021:Bower, Bruce (29 October 2010).
534:Upper Neolithic axe-head preform
2967:Evolutionary origin of religion
1134:Kooyman, Brian Patrick (2000).
1009:Cotterell & Kamminga (1987)
985:Cotterell & Kamminga (1987)
909:Cotterell & Kamminga (1987)
897:Cotterell & Kamminga (1987)
1040:Tamar Kahn (29 October 2010).
624:10.1080/01977261.1996.11754381
436:An example of pressure flaking
146:Mount William stone axe quarry
1:
3084:Archaeological artefact types
2580:Art of the Middle Paleolithic
2110:British megalith architecture
575:Eccentric flint (archaeology)
2575:Art of the Upper Paleolithic
2115:Nordic megalith architecture
718:10.1080/00438243.2010.517669
651:10.1016/0305-4403(90)90038-7
155:or amorphous stone such as
3105:
2723:British Isles and Brittany
2644:Gwion Gwion rock paintings
2408:
2391:
2043:
2030:
1492:
1309:
1296:
1239:
1171:The Art of Flint Knapping
826:. Accessed 21 March 2024.
785:10.1016/j.jas.2014.04.008
688:10.1016/j.jas.2005.02.002
549:The next stage creates a
67:archaeological industries
457:in northwestern Europe.
251:Experimental archaeology
2955:Evolutionary musicology
2358:Oldest extant buildings
2285:Archaeological features
1804:Prepared-core technique
1169:Waldorf, D. C. (1994).
367:and compression rings.
113:), or a wood or antler
49:, in particular of the
2917:Unchambered long cairn
2765:Mound Builders culture
2098:Neolithic architecture
1233:Prehistoric technology
1078:Andrefsky, W. (2005).
968:10.1006/jasc.1996.0190
940:10.1006/jasc.1996.0145
854:10.1098/rstb.2014.0354
535:
437:
380:
371:Soft-hammer percussion
349:
340:Hard-hammer percussion
332:
264:The methods used are:
149:
42:
2592:List of Stone Age art
1794:Microblade technology
1742:Langdale axe industry
1340:Ard / plough
533:
435:
396:Projectile percussion
378:
347:
330:
282:Projectile percussion
144:
33:
3089:Primitive technology
2999:Prehistoric medicine
2994:Prehistoric counting
2977:Prehistoric religion
2972:Paleolithic religion
2950:Behavioral modernity
2307:Causewayed enclosure
2199:Abri de la Madeleine
1323:Neolithic Revolution
257:Percussion reduction
189:conchoidal fractures
185:planes of separation
18:Shaping (archeology)
3038:Prehistoric warfare
1784:Magdalenian culture
1747:Levallois technique
1678:Earliest toolmaking
921:Pelcin, A. (1997).
820:"bipolar technique"
526:Blanks and preforms
408:Indirect percussion
361:conchoidal fracture
288:Indirect percussion
36:Levallois technique
2989:Origin of language
2982:Spiritual drug use
2892:Rectangular dolmen
2794:Dartmoor kistvaens
2607:Carved stone balls
2319:Circular enclosure
2278:Other architecture
2221:Alp pile dwellings
1809:Solutrean industry
1720:Gravettian culture
1370:Secondary products
1099:American Antiquity
1011:, pp. 700â745
983:, pp. 18â20;
848:(1682): 20140354.
536:
476:perverse fractures
444:by removing small
438:
390:bulb of percussion
381:
365:bulb of percussion
350:
333:
312:Bipolar percussion
272:Bipolar percussion
209:striking platforms
150:
43:
3066:
3065:
3062:
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3058:
3057:
3011:Prehistoric music
2960:music archaeology
2617:Cup and ring mark
2442:Clothing/textiles
2387:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2026:
2025:
2022:
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1829:Yubetsu technique
1814:Striking platform
1779:Lithic technology
1664:
1663:
1649:Game drive system
1568:Projectile points
1460:Mortar and pestle
962:(12): 1107â1113.
706:World Archaeology
612:Lithic Technology
580:Lithic technology
509:Upper Paleolithic
276:bipolar technique
153:Cryptocrystalline
75:chaßne opératoire
16:(Redirected from
3096:
3026:Divje Babe flute
2933:Archaeoastronomy
2676:Petrosomatoglyph
2410:
2393:
2242:Water management
2045:
2032:
1935:Denticulate tool
1757:Lithic reduction
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912:
906:
900:
894:
888:
885:Andrefsky (2005)
882:
876:
875:
865:
833:
827:
817:
808:
805:Andrefsky (2005)
802:
796:
795:
793:
791:
770:
761:
742:
741:, pp. 65â67
736:
730:
729:
701:
692:
691:
681:
672:(7): 1015â1022.
661:
655:
654:
634:
628:
627:
607:
601:
599:Macgregor (2005)
596:
563:projectile point
451:Early Bronze Age
428:Pressure flaking
124:projectile point
55:lithic reduction
21:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3069:
3068:
3067:
3054:
2921:
2907:Stone box grave
2877:Megalithic tomb
2782:Cotswold-Severn
2734:
2639:Guardian stones
2567:Prehistoric art
2561:
2404:
2379:
2368:Timber trackway
2273:
2237:
2233:Wattle and daub
2086:
2065:Standing stones
2039:
2018:
1833:
1660:
1637:
1562:
1479:
1389:Food processing
1384:
1333:New World crops
1305:
1292:
1235:
1230:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1168:
1165:
1163:Further reading
1152:
1146:
1133:
1096:
1090:
1077:
1074:
1069:
1068:
1060:
1053:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1007:
1003:
995:
991:
979:
975:
953:
952:
948:
920:
919:
915:
907:
903:
895:
891:
883:
879:
835:
834:
830:
818:
811:
803:
799:
789:
787:
768:
763:
762:
745:
737:
733:
703:
702:
695:
679:10.1.1.482.4543
663:
662:
658:
636:
635:
631:
609:
608:
604:
597:
593:
588:
571:
528:
430:
410:
398:
373:
342:
314:
297:
259:
247:
242:
233:
231:Reduction index
71:lithic analysis
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3102:
3100:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3071:
3070:
3064:
3063:
3060:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3040:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3016:Alligator drum
3008:
3007:
3006:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2952:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2943:lunar calendar
2940:
2929:
2927:
2926:Other cultural
2923:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2830:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2755:
2744:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2730:Venus figurine
2727:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2661:Megalithic art
2658:
2657:
2656:
2651:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2619:
2614:
2612:Cave paintings
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2495:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2450:
2449:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2416:
2414:Material goods
2406:
2405:
2396:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2333:
2328:
2327:
2326:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2304:
2303:
2302:
2292:
2287:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2137:
2132:
2130:Cliff dwelling
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2062:
2057:
2051:
2049:
2041:
2040:
2035:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1915:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1849:
1843:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1715:Fire hardening
1712:
1707:
1705:Clovis culture
1702:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1674:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1657:
1656:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1628:Manis Mastodon
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1583:
1572:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1528:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1507:throwing stick
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1440:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1403:
1398:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1330:
1319:
1317:
1307:
1306:
1301:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1221:
1214:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1188:
1179:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1150:
1144:
1131:
1111:10.2307/281378
1094:
1088:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1062:Kooyman (2000)
1051:
1032:
1013:
1001:
989:
973:
946:
933:(7): 613â621.
913:
901:
889:
877:
828:
809:
797:
743:
739:Kooyman (2000)
731:
712:(4): 545â561.
693:
656:
645:(5): 583â593.
629:
602:
590:
589:
587:
584:
583:
582:
577:
570:
567:
527:
524:
455:Beaker Culture
429:
426:
409:
406:
397:
394:
372:
369:
341:
338:
313:
310:
296:
295:Hand-held core
293:
292:
291:
285:
279:
269:
258:
255:
246:
243:
241:
238:
232:
229:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3101:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3005:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2965:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2924:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2902:Simple dolmen
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2887:Passage grave
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2833:Gallery grave
2831:
2829:
2826:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2748:Burial mounds
2746:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2731:
2728:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2708:Statue menhir
2706:
2704:
2701:
2697:
2696:Stone carving
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2586:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2535:Sewing needle
2533:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2374:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2363:Timber circle
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2312:Tor enclosure
2310:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2300:fulacht fiadh
2298:
2297:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1679:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1655:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1536:spear-thrower
1534:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1514:Bow and arrow
1512:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1423:Grinding slab
1421:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1355:Domestication
1353:
1351:
1350:Digging stick
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1328:Founder crops
1326:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1269:New Stone Age
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1242:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1222:
1220:
1215:
1213:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1196:
1195:
1189:
1182:
1180:9780943917016
1176:
1172:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1145:9780826323330
1141:
1138:. UNM Press.
1137:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1089:0-521-61500-3
1085:
1081:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1064:, p. 47
1063:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1036:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1017:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1002:
998:
993:
990:
987:, p. 690
986:
982:
977:
974:
969:
965:
961:
957:
950:
947:
941:
936:
932:
928:
924:
917:
914:
911:, p. 867
910:
905:
902:
899:, p. 986
898:
893:
890:
886:
881:
878:
873:
869:
864:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
832:
829:
825:
821:
816:
814:
810:
806:
801:
798:
786:
782:
778:
774:
767:
760:
758:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
744:
740:
735:
732:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
700:
698:
694:
689:
685:
680:
675:
671:
667:
660:
657:
652:
648:
644:
640:
633:
630:
625:
621:
617:
613:
606:
603:
600:
595:
592:
585:
581:
578:
576:
573:
572:
568:
566:
564:
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217:bulb of force
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119:lithic flakes
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48:
41:
37:
32:
19:
2843:wedge-shaped
2828:Funeral pyre
2821:Great dolmen
2777:Chamber tomb
2758:Round barrow
2713:Stone circle
2585:Blombos Cave
2513:Grooved ware
2437:Chalcolithic
2341:Thornborough
2259:Flush toilet
2194:Blombos Cave
2189:Rock shelter
2145:Quiggly hole
2037:Architecture
2012:illustration
1756:
1654:Buffalo jump
1475:Storage pits
1438:AĆıklı HöyĂŒk
1428:Ground stone
1264:Subdivisions
1193:
1170:
1154:
1135:
1102:
1098:
1079:
1035:
1026:
1016:
1004:
999:, p. 12
992:
976:
959:
955:
949:
930:
926:
916:
904:
892:
887:, p. 31
880:
845:
841:
831:
823:
807:, p. 12
800:
788:. Retrieved
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594:
550:
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537:
505:South Africa
501:Blombos Cave
498:
486:
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248:
234:
205:
201:lithic flake
151:
148:in Australia
95:ground stone
79:
54:
44:
2865:unchambered
2860:Long barrow
2850:Grave goods
2806:Court cairn
2801:Clava cairn
2753:Bowl barrow
2691:Rock cupule
2634:Golden hats
2627:Hill figure
2528:Unstan ware
2508:Cord-marked
2373:Sweet Track
2295:Burnt mound
2216:Stilt house
2204:Sibudu Cave
1997:Tally stick
1965:Quern-stone
1950:Hammerstone
1940:Fire plough
1911:Pesse canoe
1869:Bannerstone
1839:Other tools
1752:Lithic core
1700:Aurignacian
1588:Bare Island
1470:Quern-stone
1105:: 675â708.
779:: 134â141.
618:(1): 6â22.
555:lithic core
514:culture in
306:hammerstone
221:spokeshaves
99:hammerstone
91:lithic core
47:archaeology
3073:Categories
3004:trepanning
2897:Ring cairn
2855:Jar burial
2838:transepted
2770:U.S. sites
2671:Petroglyph
2597:Bird stone
2555:wine press
2228:Stone roof
2211:Roundhouse
2103:long house
2080:Stonehenge
2048:Ceremonial
1992:Stone tool
1819:Tool stone
1789:Metallurgy
1693:Mousterian
1670:Toolmaking
1608:Cumberland
1581:Transverse
1551:Schöningen
1443:Qesem cave
1411:Earth oven
1365:Irrigation
1276:Technology
1244:Prehistory
1072:References
540:stone tool
481:outrepasse
461:linear or
442:stone tool
240:Techniques
213:eraillures
169:chalcedony
117:to detach
82:tool stone
3048:symbolism
2912:Tor cairn
2870:GrĂžnsalen
2811:Cremation
2703:Sculpture
2681:Pictogram
2666:Petroform
2486:amber use
2454:Cosmetics
2264:Reservoir
2249:Check dam
2179:Pueblitos
2174:Pit-house
2157:Longhouse
2091:Dwellings
1960:Microlith
1891:Bow drill
1886:Bone tool
1879:prismatic
1688:Acheulean
1603:Cresswell
1576:Arrowhead
1502:Boomerang
1418:Granaries
1380:Terracing
1259:Stone Age
1127:163565502
1046:AllAfrica
726:162434327
674:CiteSeerX
512:Solutrean
472:quartzite
354:quartzite
181:quartzite
136:unifacial
51:Stone Age
38:of flint-
2686:Rock art
2649:painting
2622:Geoglyph
2447:timeline
2427:Beadwork
2167:Mehrgarh
2162:Mudbrick
2070:megalith
1945:Fire-saw
1767:debitage
1762:analysis
1730:Hand axe
1710:Cupstone
1288:Glossary
1249:Timeline
872:26483532
569:See also
559:artifact
544:quarried
225:scrapers
193:knapping
173:rhyolite
165:obsidian
132:bifacial
87:debitage
40:knapping
3079:Lithics
3043:Symbols
2654:pigment
2540:Weaving
2503:Cardium
2498:Pottery
2493:Mirrors
2481:Jewelry
2422:Baskets
2402:culture
2254:Cistern
2060:Pyramid
2002:Weapons
1980:Scraper
1970:Racloir
1930:Cleaver
1918:Chopper
1824:Uniface
1735:Grooves
1725:Hafting
1683:Oldowan
1642:Systems
1593:Cascade
1556:woomera
1546:harpoon
1519:history
1485:Hunting
1465:Pottery
1406:Cooking
1315:Farming
1281:history
1254:Outline
863:4614717
790:19 July
551:preform
245:Heating
177:felsite
63:weapons
3021:flutes
2816:Dolmen
2740:Burial
2550:winery
2523:Linear
2353:Midden
2331:Cursus
2324:Goseck
2184:Pueblo
2135:Dugout
2120:Burdei
1799:Mining
1623:Lamoka
1618:Folsom
1598:Clovis
1455:Metate
1433:Hearth
1401:Basket
1375:Sickle
1177:
1142:
1125:
1119:281378
1117:
1086:
870:
860:
724:
676:
516:France
490:weapon
468:basalt
463:lunate
179:, and
167:, and
128:blades
111:antler
2938:sites
2882:Mummy
2602:Cairn
2518:JĆmon
2469:shoes
2464:Hides
2336:Henge
2290:Broch
2152:Jacal
2007:Wheel
1955:Knife
1901:Canoe
1896:Burin
1874:Blade
1772:flake
1633:Plano
1541:baton
1531:Spear
1497:Arrow
1450:Manos
1303:Tools
1123:S2CID
1115:JSTOR
1027:Wired
769:(PDF)
722:S2CID
586:Notes
520:Spain
414:punch
318:anvil
161:flint
157:chert
115:punch
59:tools
3031:gudi
2789:Cist
2718:list
2545:Wine
2474:Ătzi
2459:Glue
2432:Beds
2400:and
2398:Arts
2269:Well
2125:Cave
2055:Kiva
1985:side
1975:Rope
1923:tool
1857:bone
1847:Adze
1613:Eden
1526:Nets
1396:Fire
1360:Goad
1345:Celt
1175:ISBN
1140:ISBN
1084:ISBN
868:PMID
792:2017
518:and
494:tool
301:core
223:and
107:bone
103:wood
34:The
2140:Hut
2075:row
1906:Oar
1864:Axe
1852:Awl
1107:doi
964:doi
935:doi
858:PMC
850:doi
846:370
822:in
781:doi
714:doi
684:doi
647:doi
620:doi
492:or
470:or
274:or
109:or
61:or
45:In
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1113:.
1103:52
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1054:^
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