Shasta people - Knowledge (XXG)

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Afterwards they claimed the Shasta were preparing for an attack on Americans. This false rumor created a panic among settlers. 28 men gathered to attack the cave. In the skirmish four Americans and one Shasta died. Federal troops from Fort Jones and local volunteers assembled on the Klamath River five miles away from the cave. In total about fifty armed Americans were present. Additional forces from Fort Lane arrived with a howitzer. It was fired at the cave multiple times. Representatives of the headman known to settlers as "Bill" pressed for peace and of their innocence. Military officials concluded that this was the case. American colonists were held accountable for the outbreak of violence. Smith's decision to cease hostilities with Bill's people was unpopular with local American settlers. He was claimed to have left Americans "wholly unprotected from the ruthless and murderous incursions of these savages..."

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was then residing. Headman Bill and several Shasta accompanied the American officer. Upon reaching the village the man was collected. On 24 May while returning to Yreka the Shasta group was attacked on the Klamath River by a group of American settlers and "De Chutes". The American officer told the Shasta to flee while he attempted to talk the party down. The armed men refused to allow the Shasta to leave peaceably and shot at them. Two Shasta were killed instantly and three seriously injured. Headman Bill was among those wounded and struggled against being scalped by Americans. Eventually they succeeded in removing his scalp and threw him into the Klamath River while he remained alive. Lt. Bonnycastle decried the "cowardly and brutal murder" committed by the American settlers who apparently escaped unpunished for their actions.

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that the individual had to be materially wealthy. This came from the expectation for them to use their property in negotiations to settle disputes between members of their village or with other settlements. In raids on enemies the headman did not participate but negotiated with enemy headmen to establish peaceable relations. Each of the four Shasta bands had individual headmen as well. While only the Ikirukatsu were reported to have had hereditary succession to the position it is thought the other three bands had some form of hereditarian succession as well. While each of the four band headmen were considered equal, in particularly trying disputes the Ikirukatsu headman would negotiate an end to the issue.

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the establishment of US Army post at or near the confluence of the Trinity and Klamath Rivers. He felt it was necessary to maintain peaceable relations between the colonists and various natives peoples in the Klamath Basin. The government was suggested to model its native policies in Northern California after those of employed by the Hudson's Bay Company in the Columbia Department. Select individuals would be given material patronage which would assist them in gaining prominence among their local settlements. This in turn would simplify interactions with various native cultures as power gradually centralized under amendable leadership. There wasn't a fort located in this vicinity until 1858, when

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some commercial and cultural exchanges between the peoples. The Wintu were an active source of Tan oak acorns and abalone beads. The Shasta were the primary distributors of dentalia to the Wintu, along with some obsidian and buckskin. A drink made by both the Shasta and the Wintu was a cider created from Manzanita berries. Members of both cultures were inspired by the manufactured goods created by the other nation. Ahotireitsu Shasta considered clothing made by Wintu fashionable and made hats from Indian hemp after their style. Upper Sacramento Valley and McCloud Wintu admired the smooth headgear used by the Shasta. These twine hats were copied by the Wintu, who used material from

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Shasta river had been prospected to varying amounts by April 1851. Scott River became touted as having "the richest mines in all California." Contemporaries described an influx of miners into the northern region. "The tide of emigration to Scott's River flows due north, sweeping everything in its way..." Redick McKee visited the Scott River in October 1851. He reported that "squatter' tents and cabins may be seen on almost every little patch or strip where the soil promises a reward to cultivation." Additionally he noted the Scott River was under heavy modification by miners. "Every yard almost for three or four miles is either dam or race work."

417:". They inhabited portions of the north and south forks of the Salmon River, in addition to part of the combined waterway. Seventeen settlements are recorded to have existed within Konomihu territory. Political authority was more fragmented than the Shasta, reportedly there being no form of appointed or hereditary village headmen. Most knowledge of Konomihu interactions with neighboring peoples has been lost. It is known that despite occasional disputes with the Irauitsu Shasta, intermarriage was common. The Irauitsu appear to have been important trading partners as well. In return for their buckskin garments the Konomihu received abalone beads. 637:

had only 3 families, while Dixon has suggested that both Irauitsu and Ahotireitsu villages usually had more families. The beginning of a winter house started with excavating a pit. Common dimensions rectangular or oval shaped excavation were 16.3 feet (5.0 m) by 19.8 feet (6.0 m), with a depth of 3.3 feet (1.0 m). Once the area was cleared load bearing wooden poles were placed in the excavated corners. Additional wooden supports and posts placed throughout the structure. After the pit walls were covered with cedar-bark, the sugar-pine or cedar wooden roof was finally put into place.

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argued that "the Indians must soon be removed by the Government Agents, or be exterminated by the sword of the whites." Violence and murder against natives were often promoted as the only way to end their "thieving and other annoying propensities." Violence began to erupt across the Klamath River in the summer of 1850. In August it was reported that miners had killed fifty to sixty Hupa and burnt down three of their villages around the juncture of the Klamath and Trinity rivers. At the junction of the Shasta and Klamath rivers in October a confrontation erupted in which miners killed six Shasta.

716:"Their bows and arrows are beautifully made: the former are of yew and about three feet long; they are flat, and an inch and a half to two inches wide: these are backed very neatly with sinew, and painted. The arrows are upwards of thirty inches long; some of them were made of a close-grained wood, a species of spiraea, while others were of reed; they were feathered for a length of from five to eight inches, and the barbed heads were beautifully wrought from obsidian... Their quivers are made of deer, raccoon, or wild-cat skin; these skins are generally whole, being left open at the tail end." 654: 490: 971:" from the Shasta word for "lake", the Modoc were traditionally held in low regard and were seen as without much material wealth by the Shasta. For example, a Shasta informant reported that "How could you settle anything with them? They didn't have any money." There was an amount of commercial transactions between the Shasta and the Klamath but these were apparently rare occurrences. Spier reported that Shasta manufactured beads were exchanged for animal pelts and blankets. Outside of trading with the Modoc, this was some of the only trading done between the Klamath and the 768: 641:

such as seasonal religious ceremonies and dances. Dixon incorrectly reported that okwá'ŭmma were used as sweat houses. If a villager had too many guests for their house, permission would be secured to use the okwá'ŭmma instead. Okwá'ŭmma were owned by a prominent individual, often the headman, and constructed with communal labor. They were uncommon buildings, as along the Klamath River perhaps only three existed. Male relatives of the owner inherited the structure, if only female relatives remained it was burnt down.

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opened and the meat dried with sunlight for future use. Grasshoppers and crickets were consumed by both the Ahotireitsu and Ikirukatsu Shasta. Parcels of grasslands were set ablaze by Shasta men. After the fires had died down the cooked grasshoppers were collected and dried. When grasshoppers were served with particular grass seeds the insects were pounded into a fine powder. Visitors to Shasta Valley would join Ahotireitsu during periods of abundant insect populations to collect their own food stores.

295: 436:. There were at least five reported settlements inhabited by Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta according to information gained from particular informants. Residents of the New River forks were proposed by Merriam to speak a distinct language from the Salmon River inhabitants. Dixon criticized the idea and presented evidence for the linguistic unity of the cultural group. Merriam's conclusion of there being two differing languages between the Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta group has not been adopted by other scholars. 1422:. Incoming colonists implemented agricultural operations across the Rogue Valley in 1852 and 1853. Open meadows became plowed and fenced into private farms. Oak forests were timbered for building supplies and additional agricultural land. Livestock such as pigs dug and ate the bulbs and roots to important flowering species. These practices quickly ruined many food sources for the indigenous of the region, including camas, acorns and seeds from a variety of grass species. 1215:

sources. The Shasta weren't seen favorably by incoming miners, being considered to have "inherited a spirit of warfare, and delight in perilous incidents of daring thefts or bold fighting. This image of native aggression was repeatedly mentioned in contemporary newspapers. The Shasta and other natives in the north were apparently found to be "more warlike than those of any other section of the State, and bear the most implacable hatred towards all pale faces."

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commissioners were stated to have always consulted with local American colonists and miners in establishing the borders of each reservation. Pointedly he went on to argue that unless if someone were to "propose a more humane and available system" the reservations had to be acknowledged by the California Government. The state rejected all treaties and instructed its representatives in Washington, D.C. to lobby against them as well.

4657: 66: 666: 625: 78: 860:". Along with the Yurok, both nations inspired many facets of Shasta society and were their principal trading partners. These peoples were particularly similar to the Shasta and these ethnicities formed the southern terminus "of that great and distinctive culture common to all peoples of the Pacific coast from Oregon to Alaska." Additional members of this grouping included the 1370:

the miners. They feared that this breach of the new treaty would provoke conflict with the Shasta. McKee was requested to return to the area and mediate a solution. Although one of the murderers escaped two of the men were captured by the miners. The slain man's familial relations were given six blankets as compensation pending a ruling of the three murderers.

884: 215:. In the late 1850s the Shastan peoples of California were forcibly removed from their territories and also sent to the same two distant reservations. By the early years of the 20th century perhaps only 100 Shasta individual existed. Some Shasta descendants still reside at the Grand Ronde and Siletz Reservations, while others are in Siskiyou county at the 501:

animals in the Shasta territories led to many confrontations with other California Natives keen on gaining animal meat and pelts. Strategies to procure and later store these foodstuffs shared similarities with adjoining cultures. Undergrowth in forests was removed with controlled fires to promote advantageous plant species that were often food sources.

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necessary to create treaties with every native group. This meant they were operating independent of each other. McKee was assigned the task of creating treaties with natives of Northern California. He and his entourage created agreements with natives in Humboldt Bay and the lower Klamath River. Later in September 1851 he arrived in Shasta territory.

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government throughout 1852 and 1853. Funding was to be appropriated in Congress for employing a carpenter, a group of farmers and several teachers on the reservation. Prospecting along the Scott river was to be allowed for two additional years. Any additional mining operations within the reservation had a single year to continue.

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groups, although its terms were far from clear to the indigenous leaders. The fifth article stipulated that the Federal government was to fund and staff several facilities on the eventual reservation the Oregon Shasta and their neighbors were to be relocated to. This included a hospital, a schoolhouse, and two blacksmith shops.

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the rape attempt wasn't from Bill's band. Despite this Bill pushed for a guarantee that the man wouldn't be hanged. Fort Jones command insisted this wasn't possible. The commanding officer declared that if the man wasn't delivered soon all Shasta would be held responsible for his actions. A large party of "

282:, in addition to a third group of people that was named Shatasla. Maloney argued that Shatasla was an archaic variant of Shasta. something Garth later conjectured as well. This interpretation has been contested by other scholars based on linguistic and historical evidence. Previous to Maloney's assertion, 1384:

In May 1854 a Shasta man was accused of attempting to rape an American woman. A directive issued from Fort Jones called for the man to be captured and eventually presented to civil authorities in Yreka. Indian agent Rosborough informed representatives of Bill of the military order. The man accused of

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Violence against the Shasta continued after the agreement with McKee. On 18 January 1852 three American men attacked and killed a Shasta individual without provocation on Humbug Creek. A panic arose among the local Shasta who fled into the nearby mountains. This senseless killing caused a panic among

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Armed warriors came largely from the Klamath River and Ahotireitsu Shasta in conflicts with the Modoc. These clashes have been speculated to have been the most violent for the Shasta by scholars. While disputes and raids occurred with the Wintu, they were apparently not as destructive as warfare with

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The okwá'ŭmma ("big house") was a structure maintained in populous Shasta villages. A pit up to 26.3 feet (8.0 m) wide, 39 feet (12 m) wide and 6.6 feet (2.0 m) deep was dug, with a building process similar to winter dwellings employed. Their functionality was primarily for assemblies,

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genus were known as "ipos" to the Shasta who relished them. Once the bulb was husked ipos roots were consumed raw or dried in sunlight and later stored. Shastan cuisine had many meals that included dried ipos. Guests were often given small servings of serviceberries and dried ipos while the main meal

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Eventually the Shasta and Takelma were pressed into accepting deportation from the Rogue Valley. American officials under Joel Palmer met with the leadership of the Irkirukatsu Shasta, "Grave Creek Umpqua" and the unrelated Shasta Costa on 18 November 1854. The "Chasta Treaty" was signed between the

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A group of 150 to 300 Shasta gathered in the upper Rogue River basin in the winter of 1851 to 1852. Reportedly they had congregated to settle a dispute over a woman and were close to finishing negotiations. The American witness to the proceedings considered it largely a "war expedition". However the

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The area specified in the treaty for the reservation was estimated by McKee to contain four or five square miles of arable land. The Shasta were promised to receive "free of charge" 20,000 pounds of flour, 200 cattle, a large inventory of garments, and a multitude of household goods from the Federal

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was a member of McKee's delegation and left a record of its activities. There was a repeating cycle of violence and reprisals then ongoing in northern California. Local American militias were reported to be excessively violent in "revenging outrages" supposedly committed by natives. Gibbs argued for

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By August 1850 there were over 2,000 miners prospecting on Klamath and Salmon rivers. Over a hundred miles of the Klamath River had been searched for gold deposits and portions were occupied by mining operations. While the Shasta River hadn't yet been exploited it was considered by miners to contain

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in search of more gold. During 1850 discoveries of gold were made on the Trinity and Klamath rivers. In the Shasta heartland along the banks of the Salmon, Scott and upper Klamath gold was found during the following two years. Incoming miners founded the towns of Scott Bar and Yreka near these newer

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during the summer of 1841. During September and October they traveled through Shasta territories by generally following the Siskiyou Trail. On 1 October the party crossed the Klamath River. The explorers visited a Shasta village where inhabitants gave them salmon and sold several yew bows and arrows

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recorded that the cattle drivers were "at their mercy, but they have offered no injury to ourselves or property." A Shasta boy estimated by Edwards to be the age of ten accompanied the settlers for some time. As the group continued north some of the cattle men began to discuss killing natives of the

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The Karuk culture was held in a favorable regard by most Shasta, particularly for their manufactured items. Shasta merchants would bring stockpiles of trade goods in demand down river, which included a variety of preserved foodstuffs, animal pelts, and obsidian blades. Merchandise found desirable by

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trees and woven together tightly with twine. As a rule head coverings were made from elk hide, sometimes placed in several layers thick. Notably Shasta women could join in both preparations for an upcoming attack and as active participants in the battle itself. Dixon recorded in such instances women

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were an important possession for the Shasta. Principally they were used for ornamentation through being sown into clothing, in addition to usage as a bartering medium. Konomihu produced buckskin leggings, robes and skirts that were painted with black, red and white patterns and adorned with dentalia

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deer were forced by controlled burning of oak leaves into gaps between the flames where hunters would wait. Shasta also chased deer into nooses that were tied to trees. Alternatively dogs were trained to chase deer into creeks. Hidden until their prey was in the water, Shasta hunters would then kill

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In July 1852 a party of miners found and killed fourteen Shasta people in Shasta Valley in revenge for the murder of a white man. This escalation of violence continued to deplete the number of Shasta. Their reprisals against white violence were to protect "their communities from assault, abduction,

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in June 1852. After a closed session the treaties were rejected. Ellison suggested that the vast amount of land set aside by the treaties and the expenditures allocated by the commissioners made the agreements unpopular in Congress. In total about 11,700 square miles (30,000 km) or about 7% of

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The treaties negotiated by McKee, Barbour, and Wozencraft amounted to 18. McKee pressed for the California legislature to accept the treaties. He argued the reservations were designed to allocate natives to keep portions of their traditional lands while keeping open the many areas bearing gold. The

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of California as an American state the topic of relations with its indigenous peoples was raised in the Senate once more. Charles Fremont presented legislation that promoted the forced seizure of their lands for resale to American colonists. He however felt that the natives had legal right to their

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to trap beavers in the Klamath Mountains. Arriving from the east, Ogden's party was favorably received by Shasta. Ogden was disappointed by the small number of beaver in the mountainous region and shifted the party north to the Rogue Valley across the Siskiyous. Shasta guides accompanied them until

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basin. Not much has been recorded on interactions the Shasta had with them. It is known that the Shasta were the principal source of dentalia for both peoples. There was some direct contact with the Atsugewi though it was probably minimal. Atsugewi informants agreed that they traditionally had many

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Warfare was principally performed in asymmetrical small raids. Leaders of these attacks were determined by raiding party members. An armed group was organized usually to redress aggression and violence against village members. Prisoners gained in raids were not often killed and instead were allowed

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Dwellings utilized by the Konomihu varied according to season like the Shasta. During the salmon runs of spring and summer huts created from plant brush were used. These were abandoned in the autumn in favor of bark houses while deer were hunted. These winter houses were markedly different from the

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Fishing runs began in the spring and continued throughout the summer and autumn. The White Deerskin dance by the Karuk determined the appropriate time for the Shasta to eat fish. Held sometime in July, the dance was an important event for Shasta to witness and known as "kuwarik". Prior to the event

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reported that some of the terms of the 1854 "Chasta Treaty" had yet to be implemented by 1858. Once relocated to the Siletz Reservation the promised blacksmiths, school teachers and medical officials had to be shared among all natives residing there, rather than just the signatories of the "Chasta

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Life on the reservations was a challenging adjustment for the Shasta. The Grand Ronde in November 1856 had an estimated population of 1,025 natives, with 909 either Takelma or Shasta although this perhaps including some Shasta Costa or other natives of Southern Oregon. In May 1857, the majority of

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The accused Shasta was eventually presented to authorities in Yreka. As Fort Jones' commanding officer was absent from the area he was allowed to temporarily depart the town on the condition he remain in the area. A captain was eventually ordered to visit the nearby Shasta settlement where the man

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Americans in Cottonwood organized the "Squaw Hunters" in January 1854. It was an armed group made to "get squaws, by force, if necessary…" That month they went to a nearby cave where over 50 Shasta were residing. The Squaw Hunters attacked the Shasta there and killed 3 children, 2 women and 3 men.

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and in the Upper Sacramento Valley had the majority of interactions with the Shasta. While clashes did occur with Wintu speakers, it wasn't nearly as common as conflict with the Modoc. These conflicts earned the Shasta the Wintun name of "yuki" or "enemy". Despite the occasional skirmish there was

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Shasta architecture appears to have largely been derived from the downriver Hupa, Karuk and Yurok peoples. Permanent houses were constructed by the Shasta for the winter. These dwellings were built in the same locations annually, commonly near a creek. Klamath River Shasta winter villages commonly

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the nuts were turned into a dough. Black Oak meal was preferred compared to the slimier and less popular White Oak meal for both consumption and trade. Canyon Oak acorns were often buried and allowed to turn black before being cooked. Often nuts from Sugar pines were steamed, dried, and stored for

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were collected from the Klamath River by women and children that dived for the organisms. During the autumn the river shrunk in size, leaving exposed populations of mussels along the river banks. Once gathered in a sufficient quantity the mussels were steamed in earthen ovens. Then the shells were

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Shasta settlements often only contained a single family. In larger villages headmen held sway. The responsibilities of this position were varied. They were expected "to exhort the people to live in peace, do good, have kind hearts, and be industrious." A common requirement to hold the position was

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those Shasta, Takelma and other Rogue River peoples held at Grand Ronde encampment temporarily, were removed to the Upper Farm on the Siletz Reservation. On 21 September 1857 a federal government official visited the Siletz Reservation. He estimated the Shasta and Takelma to number 544 there. The

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The terms drafted by McKee for an agreement were not particularly favored by the Shasta or American settlers. The reservation was placed in Scott Valley although the majority of the valley was to remain in colonist possession. The location of the Shasta reservation was apparently accepted, albeit

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McKee toured the Shasta territories; inspecting the Shasta and Scott Valleys in particular. It was concluded that only the Scott could support a reservation and the agricultural work necessary to feed the Shasta. This assessment was due to the scarcity of agriculturally viable land in the Klamath

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As the population of non-natives rose in the north genocide of the indigenous was considered. Miners argued that natives along the Klamath River and its tributaries impeded access to gold deposits. They were deemed "the only obstacle to complete success in those mines." The Sacramento Daily Union

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In early August 1853 a settler named Edwards residing near modern-day Phoenix was found slain in his cabin. Edwards' death incited a harsh response from American settlers. Militias were organized to begin indiscriminately attacking any natives in the Rogue River basin. About a month prior he had

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had to be released before the Karuk dance. Not doing so was seen as particularly egregious and made one liable to be killed. Spears were reportedly uncommon for use in fishing among the Shasta. Fires were created and maintained at weirs to enable efficient night fishing. Fishing net designs were

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The Shastan peoples had a diet based around locally available food sources. Many plant and animal species that existed in Shasta territories were located in adjacent areas. These food sources were commonly gathered and used by the Shasta and other regional cultures. The large populations of game

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promoting the mineral potential of the Klamath River basin. These notices appealed for Americans to venture north where opportunities for acquiring wealth abound. In addition to maintaining extensive mining operations, whites began to cut forests down for sale in Sacramento. A thousand acres of

1125:, getting injured and losing several companions. They considered the Shasta to be acceptable targets to attack for revenge. A Shasta man was found and shot to death by Gay and Bailey. They also attempted to murder the Shasta youth that had joined the cattle herders but he escaped. While officer 944:

Based on a review on accounts by Takelma and Shasta informants and the journal of Ogden, Gray has determined and proposed a revised cultural boundary. During the early 19th century the southern Bear Creek valley was used by both the Shasta and Takelma peoples as Sapir had speculated. The higher

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and stole a Shasta slave. The abduction was tolerated by Americans and claims for compensation from the former slave owner were ignored. Contemporaries in Jacksonville considered this dispute to the cause of the murder. The Irkirukatsu Shasta were targeted in particular as they were considered

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The Indian Superintendency gave a report to Congress in November 1848. It was an overview on native population figures in the recently gained Pacific Coast and Southwest. Congress was advised to fund and hire new Indian agents in these new territories. A report presented to Congress in 1850 by

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Permanent tattooing was performed by elder women who used small obsidian flakes. Tattoos for women were generally several vertical marks on the chin that occasionally were prolonged to the edges of the mouth. Women without chin tattoos were seen as unattractive and targets of ridicule. For men

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largely agreed with Kroeber and concluded there were about 2,210 Shasta proper and another 1,000 related peoples. Subsequently, however Cook raised the figure to 5,900 total Shasta, inclusive of the smaller related cultures. Kroeber estimated the population of the Shasta proper in 1910 as 100.

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in the late 1840s eager to gain mineral wealth. For the Shasta, this was a devastating process as their lands soon had thousands of miners operating along various waterways. Conflicts arose as the outsiders did not respect the Shasta or their homeland. Introduction to new diseases and fighting

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were appointed and began negotiations in 1851. However, they collectively lacked expertise and familiarity with either California natives or how their societies utilized their territories. The Commissioners eventually divided California into three areas to cover the large amount of travelling

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or "plain speakers". Variations of Shasta used by whites include Chasta, Shasty, Tsashtl, Sasti, and Saste. Dixon noted that the Shastan peoples didn't use "Shasta" as a place name and likely wasn't a word at all in their languages. In interviews with Shasta informants Dixon was informed of a

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as they maintained their territorial autonomy and protected position against European descendants. Sometime around the 1820s the Modoc and Klamath adopted horses from the Sahaptin peoples to the north. With their new equestrian rides they began to attack the Shasta, Achomawi and Atsugewi for

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Body decoration and modification were common practices among the Shasta. For example, they employed dyes of red, yellow, blue, black and white in their artwork. These dyes were created from plant matter and natural clay deposits. Reportedly body painting was largely used by shamans and those

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the deer with arrows. There were a number of societal conventions related to the ownership of the deer. For example, whoever killed the prey had right to its pelt and hind legs. Other reported conventions regulated the divisions of meat in a fair manner and when Shasta were allowed to hunt.

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based Konomihu and Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta. There is little recorded information on the Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta, Konomihu and Okwanuchu. Merriam concluded that "any extended discussion of their culture, customs, beliefs, and ceremonies is out of the question..." Each group had particularly small

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Some ethnographic informants gave accounts of three thousand Shasta being present at the ceremony. They were reportedly served beef poisoned with strychnine by American officials. Survivors told of spending weeks locating the deceased. Only around 150 Shasta were said to have survived.

975:. Both the Modoc and their Klamath relatives gained horses in the 1820s. This greatly enhanced their military capabilities which began a period of attacks on their southern and western neighbors. Both the Ahotireitsu and Klamath River Shasta bands were targets of Modoc slave raiding. 706:

and abalone beads. Okwanuchu crafted tubular wooden pipes similar in design to those made by Wintu. Raccoon and fox pelts were used for protection against the harsh mountain winters. Moccasins were kept waterproof and soft with oils derived from either deer, fish, cougars or bears.

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An important item for Shasta households were baskets which principally came from the Karuk. The Konomihu likewise largely imported their baskets from abroad. Baskets made by Shasta were generally a composite of plant materials gathered from the Ponderosa pine,

1322:"In the morning, November 4th, the treaty was explained carefully as drawn up and the bounds of the reservation pointed out on a plat. In the afternoon it was signed in the presence of a large concourse of whites and Indians, with great formality." 1277:

contended for possession of the valley as well. Federal officials consulted with them for what they desired in a treaty with the Shasta. They called for the removal of all Shasta to a reservation placed on the headwaters of the Shasta River.

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the total land area of California was to contain the 18 reservations. Heizer concluded that the process of drafting treaties made by the Commissioners and their eventual rejection in the U.S. Congress "was a farce from beginning to end..."

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prominent man of Scott Valley that lived up until the 1850s with the name of Susti or Sustika. This was the probable origin of the term according to Dixon, an interpretation that Kroeber agreed with. Merriam reviewed information from

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U.S. Congress (1855). "President of the United States, communicating the instructions and correspondence between the government and Major General Wool, in regard to his operations on his operations on the coast of the Pacific...".

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and drew in outsiders by the hundreds of thousands. The newly arriving miners and colonists had little respect for California Natives and frequently spread violence against indigenous peoples. Miners progressively went north from

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in exchange for trade goods. Inhabitants of the village demonstrated their archery skills by repeatedly shooting a button from 20 yards (18 m) distant. At this demonstration was an elder Shasta man who was a father-in-law to

694:, Karuk and Yurok peoples. Pigments were made by the Shasta for the beautification of baskets and other personal possessions. Red and black dyes were the most commonly used and come from acorns and alder bark respectively. 779:

The Shasta were located at the crossroads of several major cultural regions. This was reflected in their neighbors, each with distinct material and cultural conditions. To the southwest on the lower Klamath River were the

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own territories and had to be compensated for their territorial losses. This was far from a universal opinion in the Senate as some legislators felt California Indigenous had no legal right to their own homelands.

1393:) visiting the area were threatened to be employed in military reprisals against the Shasta. Dignitaries from the Irauitsu expressed support in capturing the man though they also didn't want him to be hung. 1160:. Shortly after this peaceable dialogue and trade Emmons ordered the party to depart for "Destruction river" (the Upper Sacramento River) exiting Shasta lands for those of the Okwanuchu and later the Wintu. 747:

to live as a slave. Slavery was reportedly not widespread among the Shasta and wasn't seen as a favorable practice. Dixon stated that "persons owning slaves were said to be, in a way, looked down upon."

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William Carey Jones surmised information he gathered on land title in California. Jones concluded that Spanish and Mexican law didn't recognize the right of natives to owning their homelands. After the

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Sluices and other techniques used to acquire gold dust contributed to the degradation of fish habitat in the Klamath River basin, in addition to causing other environmental destruction of the watershed.

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in 1910 noted the word Shatalsa as being related to word Sahaptin. This older etymology was defended by Stern against Maloney's interpretation, in addition to recently being accepted by Clark as well.

3656:(1853). "Journal of the Expedition of Colonel Redick McKee, United States Indian Agent, through North-Western California. Performed in the Summer and Fall of 1851". In Schoolcraft, Henry R. (ed.). 1082:. The HBC continued to send expeditions southward through the Klamath Mountains to harvest beaver populations in Alta California. These groups of fur trappers and their families traveled along the 1318:

At the end of the discussions a bull was presented to the Shasta. A celebration was held which lasted late into the evening. Gibbs recorded the day assigned for the formal signing of the treaty:

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resided in settlements typically near a water source. Their villages often had only either one or two families. Larger villages had more families and additional buildings used by the community.

353:. Four bands of Shasta existed with variations in custom and differing dialects. Each band had names derived from nearby waterways. In this way people from Shasta River or Ahotidae were the " 4645: 1269:

Mountains. More promising areas did exist nearby but they were in Oregon. The Shasta wanted to retain the entirety of Scott Valley for their designated reservation. American colonists from

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was expected to soon be enacted in California. Financial compensation from Congress or the Indian Department was expected by Americans with properties within the reservation boundaries.

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likely did. Scholars have largely accepted Dixon's etymology for Shasta. Renfro questions its validity however as Ogden used a variation of the term before Sustika was likely prominent.

1400:

On 17 May 1854 some Shasta warriors attacked a mule train in the Siskiyou Mountains. Two Americans were leading the mules. One was killed in the skirmish while the other man escaped to

406:

territories. The Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta held 45 square miles (120 km), the Okwanuchu had 60 square miles (160 km), and the Konomihu only occupied 20 square miles (52 km).

514:

nearly identical to those created by Karuk and Yurok. Catfish and crawfish were caught with bait tied to lines. Once stuck on the line, the prey would be captured with a thin basket.

1129:

was furious at the murder, the majority of the party condoned the murder. Bailey and Gay faced no punishment for their actions and the party continued toward the Willamette Valley.

1104:. Driving their herd north along the Siskiyou Trail, they encountered several Shasta settlements. The Shasta were welcoming to the outsiders despite difficulties in communication. 998:

shared cultural traits with the Shasta especially their similar "religion, mythology, social organization, political organization, puberty customs, and paucity of ceremonial." The

750:

Shasta warriors wore protective adornments when headed into a conflict. Stick armor was preferred over the alternative elkhide. Materials for stick armor were largely sourced from

726:

preparing for warfare. The latter group generally used white and black colors during their war preparations. Red was applied by shamans upon their buckskins in geometric patterns.

880:

beads. The Karuk also were the primary source of dentalia for the Konomihu as well. Baskets and hats used by the Shasta were acquired primarily with these Klamath River nations.

1247:

In September the Senate passed two bills that formulated Federal policy with Californian Natives. Three commissioners were authorized to draft treaties with California Natives.

4565: 1435:

particularly unwelcoming and aggressive against American colonists. They received help from some Klamath River Shasta who were expelled from their home territories by miners.

4545:

Indian tribes of California: hearings before a subcommittee of the Committee on Indian Affairs, House of Representatives, Sixty-sixth Congress, second session, March 23, 1920

949:

were Shasta areas. Regardless of their conflicts over the Bear Creek Valley, the Takelma were active trading partners with the Shasta and were a major source of dentalia.

432:" or "person of ka·sah". The Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta largely lived in the Salmon River basin despite the scholarly appellation, though they did reside on the forks of the 528: 5021: 5016: 4638: 1198:

in 1850. Once it was firmly in control by American colonists it was speculated to become an important region for its agricultural and mineral potential. In 1852

1182:

The irregular contact with European descendants became far more frequent by the 1840s. Military forces of the United States conquered Alta California during the

730:

tattoos had an important functionality in bartering and exchanges. Applied in lines on their hands or arms, these lines were used to measure dentalia and beads.

239:

Preceding contact with European descendants the term Shasta likely wasn't used by the Shastan peoples themselves. Among the Shasta proper they called themselves

1062:

property, food stores and slaves to be sold at the Dalles. The Shasta actively fought against the invaders although they didn't gain sizable numbers of horses.

4623: 163:. Scholars have generally divided the Shastan peoples into four languages, although arguments in favor of more or fewer existing have been made. Speakers of 3915:. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. Vol. 23. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 297–332 1098: 3223: 5011: 5006: 4631: 1449: 1381:

In late April 1854 a group of miners found and killed 15 Shasta. These murders were committed in retaliation for some cattle having been stolen.

701:. During the winter snowshoes were often necessary to traverse their homeland. These were made primarily from deer hide with the fur left on. 4466: 4313: 4007: 3726: 3284: 125: 3431:. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. Vol. 36. University of California Press. pp. 1–147 459:

Estimates for historic Shasta, Okwanuchu, New River Shasta, and Konomihu population figures have substantially varied, as is true for most

759:

the Modoc. Attacks on Wintu and Modoc villages included torching the settlement. This was not practiced in raids between Shasta villages.

612:

was cooked. One particularly popular dish was powdered ipos root mixed into manzanita cider. Another consumed flowering plant species was

439:

What information has been preserved about the Okwanuchu amounts to little. The origin of the word Okwanuchu is unknown. They were called "

1041:

word for an American, "Boston," the Shasta word for whites is "pastin." The Shasta were isolated from the Spanish to the south and their

433: 3260:

Executive Documents printed by order of the House of Representatives during the first session of the Thirty-Fifth Congress, 1857-1858.

1307:

grudgingly, by most American colonists of the area. Some had purchased expensive land grants from other Americans. A variation of the

1133: 917:

The delimitation of territory with the Takelma to the north has been a matter of controversy between scholars. Shasta informants told

645:

Shasta, Karuk and Yurok. While partially underground their houses were built in 15 to 18 foot wide circles with sloped conical roofs.

576:

was pounded into a fine dust and consumed or used as chewing gum. Many fruits were harvested once ripe and often dried. This included

330: 3772: 3671: 3378: 3329: 3247: 420:

It is not known what the autonym of the Tlohomtah’hoi Shasta was. However it is known that the Shasta likely referred to them as "

4661: 1202:

was formed from the northern portions of Shasta County. This new American division contained the Shasta homelands of California.

972: 4437: 4087: 3954: 3910: 3635: 4324: 3790: 3691:

The Takelmas and Their Athapascan Neighbors: A New Ethnographic Synthesis for the Upper Rogue River Area of Southwestern Oregon

460: 653: 1349: 1050: 216: 4506:

Documents of the Senate of the United States, printed by order of the Senate during the Special Session called March 4, 1853

4442:. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. Vol. 30. University of California Press 1418:

The Irkirukatsu Shasta joined their Takelma neighbors in militarily resisting American territorial encroachment during the

4570:. University of California Anthropological Records. Vol. 7. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 47–251 3257:

Browne, J. Ross (1858), "Report on the condition of the Indian reservations in the Territories of Oregon and Washington",

1465: 1426:

peaceable conclusion to the matter through material compensation followed traditional Shasta means of dispute resolution.

815:, with whom the Shasta have some linguistic affiliations. Kroeber placed the Achomawi and Atsugewi with the northeastern 4732: 4526:

Executive Documents printed by order of the Senate of the United States, Second Session, Thirty-Third Congress, 1854-'55

1191: 873: 537: 489: 467:

put the 1770 population of the Shasta proper as 2,000 and the New River, Konomihu, and Okwanuchu groups, along with the

318: 1357: 1046: 271: 3689: 3653: 1286: 926: 797: 1195: 1094: 402: 176: 137: 4484: 1183: 767: 333:. This area had four important waterways, each of which had a distinct group of resident Shasta. These were the 4561: 1386: 922: 228: 204: 3739:

The Eighteen Unratified Treaties of 1851-1852 between the California Indians and the United States Government

902:. They were used by the Shasta in personal adornments, artistic additions to clothing or as a trading medium. 4930: 3189: 1353: 1308: 1186:. American control was initially limited to areas that had been administered by the Mexican government. The 1066: 263: 255:, concluding that while the Shastan peoples didn't refer to themselves as Shasta traditionally; the nearby 5001: 3737: 1101: 581: 245: 160: 157: 153: 3697:. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers. Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon Press. Archived from 3426: 4456: 4413: 4392: 3979: 3447:

California in 1837. Diary of Col. Philip L. Edwards Containing An Account of a Trip to the Pacific Coast

1401: 1270: 1221: 1058: 294: 4585:

Oregon and the Collapse of Illahee U.S. Empire and the Transformation of an Indigenous World, 1792-1859

4524: 1256: 755:

would be armed with obsidian knives and attempt to disarm or destroy the weapons of enemy combatants.

3758: 3659:

Information respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States

3395: 3358: 1206: 1187: 1169: 1105: 1003: 945:

portions of the local Neil and Emigrant Creeks, in addition to the northern Siskiyou slopes close to

918: 517: 283: 183: 1093:

colonists traversed Shasta territories in the autumn of 1837. With them were several hundred cattle

1089:

The following known interaction with whites wasn't peaceable as Ogden's visit had been. A group of

1021: 698: 613: 556: 365:". Shasta families located directly along the Klamath River were referred to by the Ikirukatsu as " 346: 192: 4598:

Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition. During the years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842

1190:

was established in 1849 although much of the claimed land still remained in indigenous hands. The

309:

were the numerically largest of the Shastan speakers. Their territories spread from around modern

301:

is a prominent landmark among the Siskiyou Mountains and has cultural significance for the Shasta.

4370: 4047: 4026: 3851: 3622: 3614: 3480: 1240: 1157: 589: 279: 267: 208: 172: 1002:

band of Achomawi were known to have had occasional disputes. Villages in the vicinity of modern

697:

Ropes, cordage and manufactured goods such as mats, nets and clothing were largely derived from

4259: 4196: 3206: 929:. He was additionally given Shasta place names of this area. This information was forwarded to 4462: 4309: 4280: 4238: 4217: 4175: 4154: 4133: 4112: 4003: 3950: 3928: 3830: 3809: 3768: 3722: 3667: 3597:

Garth, Thomas R. (1964). "Early Nineteenth Century Tribal Relations in the Columbia Plateau".

3374: 3346: 3325: 3313: 3280: 3243: 1295: 1274: 1137: 1110: 1090: 1070: 876:, Yurok produced redwood canoes, a gamut of baskets of varying designs, seaweed, dentalia and 683: 577: 560: 533: 472: 464: 448: 390: 252: 220: 168: 129: 100: 3577: 3556: 3535: 3514: 3493: 937:. Alfred Kroeber would in turn claim that Shasta territories extended as far north as modern 4712: 4360: 4072: 3889: 3606: 3472: 3411: 3318: 1452: 1431: 1419: 1413: 1345: 1252: 1211: 1174: 1140: 824: 687: 604: 593: 564: 545: 520:

were hunted according to one of several strategies employed by the Shasta. In the autumn at

468: 394: 326: 196: 141: 96: 369:" after their particular words for the Klamath River and gulch. The Irauistu knew them as " 4846: 1199: 1054: 1042: 946: 887: 731: 702: 675: 573: 310: 164: 149: 191:

against invading Americans rapidly reduced the number of Shasta. The Shasta residents of

4000:

An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846-1873

463:. In the 1990s some Shasta stated upwards of 10,000 Shastan peoples lived in the 1840s. 4925: 4892: 4717: 4592: 1144: 1083: 1079: 1074: 1038: 962: 891: 865: 828: 820: 796:. They were the northernmost extension of a central Californian culture focused on the 709: 256: 3795:. Anthropological Records. Vol. 3. University of California Press. pp. 1–338 1065:

The first recorded encounter with European descendants for the Shasta came in 1826. A

393:

speakers resided adjacent to the Shasta proper. These were the Okwanuchu of the upper

4995: 4945: 4825: 4302: 3626: 1390: 1114: 999: 938: 585: 510: 398: 334: 275: 145: 133: 132:. They traditionally inhabited portions of several regional waterways, including the 58: 3295: 933:

who suggested that the Shasta and Takelma both utilized this disputed region of the

4819: 4696: 4618: 4433: 4344: 3663: 3610: 1248: 1148: 1122: 1015: 958: 934: 930: 899: 847: 816: 785: 772: 665: 629: 555:

were a valuable foodstuff in Shasta cuisine. Local sources of the nut included the

521: 413:", related to the term used for the Karuk. The Konomihu referred to themselves as " 350: 338: 322: 314: 298: 20: 4543: 4504: 4077: 4060: 3932: 3872: 3463:

Ellison, William H. (1922). "The Federal Indian Policy in California, 1846-1860".

3416: 3399: 3258: 624: 616:. Commonly called "chwau", the bulbs were prepared by either roasting or boiling. 4596: 4365: 4348: 3762: 3640:. Anthropological Records. Vol. 14. Berkeley: University of California Press 3445: 3362: 1143:(1838–1842) visited the Klamath Mountains. Emmons had been given instructions by 661:

made baskets. These were quite popular among the Shasta and frequently purchased.

428:" or "those from upcountry (away from the stream)", while the Karok called them " 4975: 4965: 4830: 4743: 4722: 4682: 1291: 1152: 1126: 823:

into the "Northeast" cultural group. They received cultural influences from the

751: 608: 506: 493: 342: 4850: 4798: 4793: 4707: 4677: 4656: 3719:

California Place Names: The Origin and Etymology of Current Geographical Names

1026: 249: 187: 71: 4486:

American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States and Puerto Rico

4960: 4864: 4814: 4777: 4692: 4509:. United States Congressional serial set. Washington, D.C.: Robert Armstrong 994: 112: 4727: 4619:

Native Tribes, Groups, Language Families and Dialects of California in 1770

3959:

University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology

3888:(M.S.), Dissertations and Theses, Portland, OR: Portland State University, 1352:

and the recently appointed superintendent of Indian affairs for California

223:. Many former members of the Shasta tribe have also been inducted into the 3698: 856:

Coming from the Shasta word for "down the river" the Karuk were known as "

669:

Basketry hat, attributed to the Shasta, made before 1916 from plant fibers

4909: 4903: 4787: 4772: 4702: 4687: 4672: 3657: 1219:

rich gold deposits. In the winter of 1850 advertisements appeared in the

1049:

erupted Mexican officials assumed control of the Spanish settlements and

988: 984: 831: 812: 808: 734:

were made to hold either a long dentalia shell or ornate feathers, while

4051: 4030: 883: 544:

Additional nutritional sources included several smaller animal species.

4935: 4887: 4881: 4841: 4836: 4808: 4756: 4752: 4738: 4382:

Silver, Shirley (1978). "Shastan Peoples". In Heizer, Robert F. (ed.).

3883: 3618: 3484: 1118: 912: 877: 735: 568: 200: 4374: 3894: 1374:

unfree labor, rape, murder, massacre, and, ultimately, obliteration."

1029:

ferns in their reproductions more often than among their own designs.

4970: 4919: 4914: 4871: 4856: 4613: 861: 804: 212: 83: 4614:

The Shasta Nation, an organization maintained by contemporary Shasta

3476: 3242:. Northwest reprints. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 775:

man in a redwood canoe. These vehicles were prized among the Shasta.

632:

winter dwelling. Shasta residencies were largely the same in design.

4386:. Handbook of North American Indian. Vol. 8. pp. 211–224. 3662:. Vol. 3. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo & Co. pp. 1057:

territory. This didn't change matters for the natives north of the

4980: 4955: 4950: 4940: 4803: 4767: 4762: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3013: 3011: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 1173: 895: 882: 843: 793: 781: 766: 679: 664: 658: 652: 623: 600: 552: 527: 488: 293: 224: 4461:. Vol. 1. Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press. 3978:

Library, University of Oregon (12 May 1854), Lyons, D. J. (ed.),

3320:

The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization

3081: 3079: 4876: 4782: 4748: 851: 800: 789: 691: 377:", terms derived from "down river" and "up river" respectively. 4627: 2787: 2785: 2718: 2716: 3140: 3138: 2846: 2844: 2842: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1151:

rivers. The assembled men had departed from Fort Vancouver to

993:

The Achomawi and Atsugewi speakers resided to the east in the

496:

were traditionally a major source of nutrition for the Shasta.

471:, as 1,000. Using population information on a nearby culture, 4458:

Chiefs and Chief Traders, Indian Relations at Fort Nez Percés

4329:

Reports of the University of California Archaeological Survey

3850:

Kemble, Edward C.; Durivage, J. E., eds. (8 November 1850c).

3767:. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 2202: 2200: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1821: 1819: 1779: 1777: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1712: 3877:. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 3829:

Kemble, Edward C.; Durivage, J. E., eds. (20 August 1850b).

3808:

Kemble, Edward C.; Durivage, J. E., eds. (14 August 1850a).

2914: 2912: 2910: 2502: 2500: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1669: 1667: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1509: 792:. Past the southern borders of Shasta territory resided the 2829: 2827: 2733: 2731: 2475: 2473: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2081: 2079: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2049: 2047: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2009: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1684: 1682: 4279:

Taylor, R. H.; Massett, Stephen, eds. (25 February 1851).

4017:

Maloney, Alice Bay (1945). "Shasta Was Shatasla in 1814".

3721:(4th ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. 3125: 3123: 3121: 3096: 3094: 2929: 2927: 2691: 2689: 2034: 2032: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1806: 1804: 1496: 1494: 1492: 1147:

to explore the headwaters of the Klamath, Sacramento, and

603:

were gathered seasonally to supplement other food stores.

4088:"Ethnographic Notes on California Indian Tribes. Part II" 3555:

Ewer, F. C.; Fitch, G. Kenyon, eds. (14 February 1851b).

3513:

Ewer, F. C.; Fitch, G. Kenyon, eds. (12 December 1850a).

1546: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1536: 357:", those from the Upper Rogue Valley or Ikiruk were the " 3536:"Intelligence Respecting the Klamath and Scott's Rivers" 3534:

Ewer, F. C.; Fitch, G. Kenyon, eds. (20 January 1851a).

3240:

Requiem for a people: The Rogue Indians and Frontiersmen

3155: 3153: 2885: 2883: 2760: 2758: 2529: 2527: 2400: 2398: 4587:, Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press 3492:

Ewer, F. C.; Fitch, G. Kenyon, eds. (14 October 1850).

3279:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co., Inc. 2814: 2812: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2227: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 447:" by the Achomawi. Intermarriage between Okwanuchu and 4567:

Culture Element Distributions: XX Northeast California

4038:

Merriam, C. Hart (1926). "Source of the name Shasta".

3576:

Ewer, F. C.; Fitch, G. Kenyon, eds. (18 April 1851c).

2556: 2554: 2337: 2335: 2187: 2185: 2183: 1836: 1834: 1699: 1697: 4349:"Notes on the Takelma Indians of Southwestern Oregon" 3955:"Culture element distributions: III, Area and climax" 2298: 2296: 361:", and inhabitants of Scott River or Iraui were the " 148:

rivers. Shastan lands presently form portions of the

4393:"Letter from the Mines.–Difficulty with the Indians" 4304:

The Shasta Indians of California and their neighbors

3263:, Washington, D.C.: James B. Steedman, pp. 2–44 3351:

The Population of the California Indians, 1769-1970

1404:. Five horses and a mule were taken by the Shasta. 106: 90: 44: 34: 4436:(1930). Kroeber, Alfred L.; Lowie, Robert (eds.). 4301: 3367:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 3317: 1205:The lure of achieving material wealth created the 1086:which traversed portions of the Shasta homelands. 690:. Their designs took influences from the nearby 16:Indigenous ethnic group of Western United States 4308:. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph Publishers, Inc. 3789:Holt, Catherine (1946). Kroeber, Alfred (ed.). 3297:Four Years in a Government Exploring Expedition 2722: 2620: 2608: 4548:. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office 4529:. Vol. 6. Beverley Tucker. pp. 1–128 4092:University of California Archaeological Survey 3937:. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office 4639: 4040:Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 3058: 3017: 2978: 2862: 2850: 2803: 2791: 2776: 2680: 2668: 2518: 1117:had previously had fought against a group of 1006:were liable to be raided by Shasta warriors. 509:could be caught and dried, but not consumed. 8: 4098:(2). University of California Press: 167–256 3965:(4). University of California Press: 101–115 3764:Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico 3324:. Berkeley: University of California press. 29: 4325:"Trade and Trails in Aboriginal California" 3353:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1483: 4646: 4632: 4624: 4391:Schnebly, D. J., ed. (24 February 1852a). 2695: 2656: 2644: 536:were commonly consumed, although imported 274:and an assembled Sahaptin congregation of 28: 4364: 4176:"Late from Shasta Plains–Indian Troubles" 4076: 4061:"THE NEW RIVER INDIANS TLÓ-HŌTM-TAH'-HOI" 3893: 3415: 3100: 2933: 4601:. Vol. 5. Philadelphia: C. Sherman. 4174:Morse, John F., ed. (9 February 1852a). 4153:Morse, John F., ed. (8 November 1851d). 4002:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 3885:The Siletz Indian Reservation, 1855-1900 3465:The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 3369:. The Huntington California Expedition. 3070: 3002: 2990: 2097: 1988: 1976: 1943: 1914: 1810: 1430:visited an Dakubetede settlement in the 1344:The treaties were endorsed by President 607:were commonly collected. Members of the 203:until they were forcibly removed to the 4132:Morse, John F., ed. (29 August 1851c). 4019:California Historical Society Quarterly 3144: 3129: 3112: 3085: 2918: 2737: 2479: 2464: 2452: 2428: 2416: 2404: 2389: 2251: 2218: 2206: 1885: 1825: 1783: 1724: 1610: 1586: 1527: 1476: 712:described Shasta made weaponry in 1845: 540:acorns were considered more appetizing. 4412:Schnebly, D. J., ed. (2 March 1852b). 4355:. American Anthropologist New Series. 4203:. Vol. 3, no. 315. p. 4 4195:Morse, John F., ed. (25 March 1852b). 3171: 3159: 3029: 2957: 2945: 2901: 2889: 2764: 2749: 2707: 2632: 2596: 2584: 2572: 2560: 2533: 2506: 2491: 2440: 2353: 2326: 2263: 2145: 2133: 2121: 2109: 1897: 1840: 1745: 1673: 1598: 124:are a group of linguistically related 5022:Native American history of California 5017:Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians 4258:Morse, John F., ed. (19 July 1852e). 4237:Morse, John F., ed. (16 June 1852d). 4216:Morse, John F., ed. (1 April 1852c). 4111:Morse, John F., ed. (24 July 1851a). 3934:Handbook of the Indians of California 3557:"Highly Important from Scott's River" 3300:. New York: Cornish, Lamport & Co 3041: 2874: 2833: 2818: 2545: 2377: 2365: 2341: 2314: 2287: 2275: 2239: 2174: 2162: 2085: 2070: 2053: 2023: 2000: 1931: 1864: 1852: 1795: 1768: 1688: 1658: 1646: 1634: 1622: 1574: 1562: 1500: 1132:Several years later a portion of the 1020:Bands of Wintu located around modern 807:. To the east and southeast were the 738:held an assembled group of dentalia. 7: 4735:(Lassik, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Wailaki) 3745:. Berkeley: University of California 3599:Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 3188:Anthony, James (14 February 1854a). 2302: 2191: 2038: 1964: 1703: 1550: 186:drew in an influx of outsiders into 45:Regions with significant populations 4331:(8). University of California: 1–30 572:future consumption. Pitch from the 373:" and the Ahotireitsu called them " 4197:"The Address of Col. Redick McKee" 3400:"Dr. Merriam's "Tló-hom-tah'-hoi"" 3190:"Indian Difficulties in the North" 1134:United States Exploring Expedition 921:that they previously occupied the 14: 3874:Indian affairs. Laws and treaties 3871:Kappler, Charles J., ed. (1904). 3294:Colvocoresses, George M. (1852). 3205:Anthony, James (24 April 1854b). 1348:, commissioner of Indian affairs 5012:Native American tribes in Oregon 5007:Indigenous peoples of California 4662:Indigenous peoples of California 4655: 4281:"Sacramento City Correspondence" 4155:"From Scott's River–The Indians" 3578:"The Discovery in Shasta Valley" 3275:Clark, Patricia Roberts (2009). 973:Indigenous peoples of California 834:, far more than the Shasta did. 451:speakers was apparently common. 409:The Shasta called the Konomihu " 337:and two of its tributaries, the 217:Quartz Valley Indian Reservation 177:Tlohomtah’hoi "New River" Shasta 76: 64: 51: 3222:Anthony, James (27 May 1854c). 567:. After leaching the acorns of 4833:(Monache, Owens Valley Paiute) 3611:10.1086/soutjanth.20.1.3629411 3444:Edwards, Philip Leget (1890). 925:southward and eastward of the 317:to the east, southward to the 313:in the north, Jenny Creek and 1: 4078:10.1525/aa.1930.32.2.02a00030 3417:10.1525/aa.1931.33.2.02a00250 3238:Beckham, Stephen Dow (1996). 1466:Shasta traditional narratives 1356:. The treaties were sent the 4366:10.1525/aa.1907.9.2.02a00010 4323:Sample, Laetitia L. (1950). 3882:Kent, Willam Eugene (2000), 3277:Tribal Names of the Americas 1192:California State Legislature 864:further to the west and the 4266:. Vol. 3, no. 413 4245:. Vol. 3, no. 386 4224:. Vol. 3, no. 321 4182:. Vol. 2, no. 279 4161:. Vol. 2, no. 200 4140:. Vol. 1, no. 139 4119:. Vol. 1, no. 109 3858:. Vol. 1, no. 280 3837:. Vol. 1, no. 201 3816:. Vol. 1, no. 193 3515:"Editors of the Transcript" 3500:. Vol. 1, no. 141 3494:"The North-Western Indians" 3226:. Vol. 7, no. 991 3209:. Vol. 7, no. 967 3192:. Vol. 6, no. 904 2723:Kemble & Durivage 1850b 2621:Kemble & Durivage 1850c 2609:Kemble & Durivage 1850a 1358:Committee on Indian Affairs 1047:Mexican War of Independence 657:An assembled collection of 582:Whiteleaf manzanita berries 461:native groups in California 266:a meeting occurred between 5038: 4300:Renfro, Elizabeth (1992). 4287:. Vol. 1, no. 59 3810:"Latest from Humboldt Bay" 3736:Heizer, Robert F. (1972). 3584:. Vol. 3, no. 17 3563:. Vol. 2, no. 95 3542:. Vol. 2, no. 73 3521:. Vol. 2, no. 42 3224:"More Indian Depredations" 1411: 1294:was established in modern 1167: 1013: 982: 956: 910: 841: 18: 4668: 4086:Merriam, C. Hart (1967). 4059:Merriam, C. Hart (1930). 3998:Madley, Benjamin (2017). 3909:Kniffen, Fred B. (1928). 3831:"New Harbor Improvements" 3634:Garth, Thomas R. (1953). 3450:. A. J. Johnston & Co 2669:Taylor & Massett 1851 680:several species of Willow 424:", the Hupa called them " 321:, and westward to modern 111: 95: 49: 39: 4455:Stern, Theodore (1993). 3717:Gudde, Erwin G. (2010). 3688:Gray, Dennis J. (1987). 1565:, pp. 48, 218, 224. 1033:Early nineteenth century 389:Three related groups of 19:Not to be confused with 4931:Plains and Sierra Miwok 4790:(Diegueño, Ipai, Tipai) 4414:"From the Shasta mines" 4353:American Anthropologist 4285:Marysville Daily Herald 4065:American Anthropologist 3404:American Anthropologist 1354:Edward Fitzgerald Beale 1309:Donation Land Claim Act 1069:(HBC) expedition under 890:were imported from the 838:Klamath River societies 264:Willamette Trading Post 4542:U.S. Congress (1920). 4503:U.S. Congress (1853). 4264:Sacramento Daily Union 4243:Sacramento Daily Union 4222:Sacramento Daily Union 4201:Sacramento Daily Union 4180:Sacramento Daily Union 4159:Sacramento Daily Union 4138:Sacramento Daily Union 4117:Sacramento Daily Union 4113:"The Northern Indians" 3425:Du Bois, Cora (1935). 3088:, pp. 81–82, 129. 2696:Ewer & Fitch 1850a 2657:Ewer & Fitch 1851b 2645:Ewer & Fitch 1851c 1649:, p. 218 cit. 33. 1389:" natives (likely the 1324: 1179: 1078:shortly before modern 903: 868:located to the north. 776: 718: 670: 662: 633: 541: 497: 302: 246:Albert Samuel Gatschet 4900:(Konomihu, Okwanuchu) 4733:Eel River Athapaskans 4583:Whaley, Gray (2010), 4420:. No. 1852/03/02 4399:. No. 1852/02/24 3984:Umpqua Weekly Gazette 3951:Kroeber, Alfred Louis 3929:Kroeber, Alfred Louis 3856:Daily Alta California 3852:"The town of Klamath" 3835:Daily Alta California 3814:Daily Alta California 3582:Sacramento Transcript 3561:Sacramento Transcript 3540:Sacramento Transcript 3519:Sacramento Transcript 3498:Sacramento Transcript 2290:, p. 253 cit. 3. 1320: 1222:Daily Alta California 1177: 1136:under the command of 1097:from Alta California 1037:Originating from the 979:Achomawi and Atsugewi 886: 770: 763:Neighboring societies 714: 668: 656: 627: 590:San Diego raspberries 531: 492: 297: 107:Related ethnic groups 4562:Voegelin, Erminie W. 4483:U.S. Census (2010), 4218:"Letter from Shasta" 3980:"Killing of Indians" 3637:Atsugewi Ethnography 3207:"From Yreka–Indians" 1234:Federal peace effort 1207:California Gold Rush 1188:California Territory 1184:Mexican–American War 1170:California Gold Rush 1106:Philip Leget Edwards 1067:Hudson's Bay Company 872:the Shasta included 586:Pacific blackberries 561:California Black Oak 534:California Black Oak 518:California mule deer 184:California Gold Rush 4439:Klamath Ethnography 4260:"From the Interior" 3759:Hodge, Frederick W. 3147:, pp. 655–656. 2960:, pp. 198–199. 2836:, pp. 171–172. 2806:, pp. 219–220. 2752:, pp. 163–164. 2521:, pp. 292–293. 2509:, pp. 237–239. 2431:, pp. 131–132. 2278:, pp. 398–399. 2209:, pp. 899–904. 2165:, pp. 439–441. 2124:, pp. 239–240. 2088:, pp. 412–413. 2073:, pp. 396–399. 2056:, pp. 447–449. 2041:, pp. 305–308. 2026:, pp. 416–422. 2003:, pp. 423–424. 1979:, pp. 177–181. 1967:, pp. 308–309. 1934:, pp. 431–432. 1917:, pp. 174–175. 1888:, pp. 293–294. 1828:, pp. 883–884. 1786:, pp. 288–289. 1748:, pp. 221–223. 1727:, pp. 233–235. 1691:, pp. 251–252. 1676:, pp. 211–214. 1577:, pp. 384–385. 1553:, pp. 301–302. 1530:, pp. 285–291. 1365:Continued conflicts 1059:Californian Ranchos 1045:colonies. When the 1022:McCloud, California 676:California hazelnut 614:Fritillaria recurva 290:Social organization 209:Siletz Reservations 31: 3912:Achomawi Geography 3792:Shasta Ethnography 3704:on 5 December 2013 3347:Cook, Sherburne F. 3314:Cook, Sherburne F. 3059:U.S. Congress 1855 3032:, p. 202-203. 3018:U.S. Congress 1855 2979:U.S. Congress 1855 2863:U.S. Congress 1853 2851:U.S. Congress 1920 2804:U.S. Congress 1853 2792:U.S. Congress 1853 2777:U.S. Congress 1853 2681:U.S. Congress 1853 2519:Colvocoresses 1852 1503:, p. 387-390. 1180: 1158:Michel Laframboise 904: 777: 688:Five-fingered fern 671: 663: 649:Manufactured items 634: 542: 498: 385:Affiliated peoples 303: 268:North West Company 262:In 1814, near the 126:Indigenous peoples 4989: 4988: 4468:978-0-87071-368-2 4315:978-0-87961-221-4 4009:978-0-300-18136-4 3895:10.15760/etd.2114 3728:978-0-520-26619-3 3428:Wintu Ethnography 3286:978-0-7864-3833-4 3174:, pp. 37–38. 3061:, pp. 80–83. 3020:, pp. 77–78. 2981:, pp. 18–19. 2921:, pp. 57–58. 2740:, pp. 44–46. 2482:, pp. 42–43. 2467:, pp. 40–41. 2112:, pp. 44–45. 1601:, pp. 8, 15. 1327:Alleged poisoning 1275:Shasta Butte City 1257:George W. Barbour 1164:Discovery of gold 1111:William J. Bailey 1091:Willamette Valley 1071:Peter Skene Ogden 953:Lutuamian peoples 923:Bear Creek Valley 721:Body modification 594:Blue elderberries 473:Sherburne F. Cook 465:Alfred L. Kroeber 345:, along with the 253:Peter Skene Ogden 199:and assisted the 167:proper-Kahosadi, 130:Klamath Mountains 118: 117: 101:Shastan languages 5029: 4660: 4659: 4648: 4641: 4634: 4625: 4602: 4588: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4518: 4516: 4514: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4491: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4418:Oregon Spectator 4408: 4406: 4404: 4397:Oregon Spectator 4387: 4378: 4368: 4340: 4338: 4336: 4319: 4307: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4191: 4189: 4187: 4170: 4168: 4166: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4082: 4080: 4055: 4034: 4013: 3994: 3993: 3991: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3924: 3922: 3920: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3897: 3878: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3804: 3802: 3800: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3744: 3732: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3703: 3696: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3630: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3488: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3421: 3419: 3396:Dixon, Roland B. 3391: 3389: 3387: 3359:Dixon, Roland B. 3354: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3323: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3290: 3271: 3270: 3268: 3253: 3234: 3232: 3231: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3175: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3148: 3142: 3133: 3127: 3116: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3089: 3083: 3074: 3068: 3062: 3056: 3045: 3039: 3033: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3006: 3000: 2994: 2988: 2982: 2976: 2961: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2922: 2916: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2878: 2872: 2866: 2860: 2854: 2848: 2837: 2831: 2822: 2816: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2780: 2774: 2768: 2762: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2735: 2726: 2720: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2684: 2678: 2672: 2666: 2660: 2654: 2648: 2642: 2636: 2630: 2624: 2618: 2612: 2606: 2600: 2594: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2564: 2558: 2549: 2543: 2537: 2531: 2522: 2516: 2510: 2504: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2393: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2363: 2357: 2351: 2345: 2339: 2330: 2324: 2318: 2312: 2306: 2300: 2291: 2285: 2279: 2273: 2267: 2261: 2255: 2249: 2243: 2237: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2204: 2195: 2189: 2178: 2172: 2166: 2160: 2149: 2143: 2137: 2131: 2125: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2089: 2083: 2074: 2068: 2057: 2051: 2042: 2036: 2027: 2021: 2004: 1998: 1992: 1986: 1980: 1974: 1968: 1962: 1947: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1918: 1912: 1901: 1895: 1889: 1883: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1844: 1838: 1829: 1823: 1814: 1808: 1799: 1793: 1787: 1781: 1772: 1766: 1749: 1743: 1728: 1722: 1707: 1701: 1692: 1686: 1677: 1671: 1662: 1656: 1650: 1644: 1638: 1632: 1626: 1620: 1614: 1608: 1602: 1596: 1590: 1584: 1578: 1572: 1566: 1560: 1554: 1548: 1531: 1525: 1504: 1498: 1487: 1484:U.S. Census 2010 1481: 1443:Reservation life 1432:Applegate Valley 1420:Rogue River Wars 1414:Rogue River Wars 1408:Rogue River Wars 1346:Millard Fillmore 1264:Local conditions 1253:O. M. Wozencraft 1141:George F. Emmons 888:Dentalium shells 825:Columbia Plateau 732:Septum piercings 703:Dentalium shells 565:Oregon White Oak 532:Acorns from the 480:Historic culture 401:rivers, and the 331:Marble Mountains 197:Rogue River Wars 82: 80: 79: 70: 68: 67: 57: 55: 54: 35:Total population 32: 5037: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5028: 5027: 5026: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4985: 4847:Northern Paiute 4664: 4654: 4652: 4610: 4605: 4593:Wilkes, Charles 4591: 4582: 4573: 4571: 4560: 4551: 4549: 4541: 4532: 4530: 4521: 4512: 4510: 4502: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4482: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4454: 4445: 4443: 4432: 4423: 4421: 4411: 4402: 4400: 4390: 4381: 4343: 4334: 4332: 4322: 4316: 4299: 4290: 4288: 4278: 4269: 4267: 4257: 4248: 4246: 4239:"Novel Arrival" 4236: 4227: 4225: 4215: 4206: 4204: 4194: 4185: 4183: 4173: 4164: 4162: 4152: 4143: 4141: 4134:"Shasta County" 4131: 4122: 4120: 4110: 4101: 4099: 4085: 4058: 4046:(19): 522–525. 4037: 4016: 4010: 3997: 3989: 3987: 3977: 3968: 3966: 3949: 3940: 3938: 3927: 3918: 3916: 3908: 3900: 3898: 3881: 3870: 3861: 3859: 3849: 3840: 3838: 3828: 3819: 3817: 3807: 3798: 3796: 3788: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3757: 3748: 3746: 3742: 3735: 3729: 3716: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3687: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3652: 3643: 3641: 3633: 3596: 3587: 3585: 3575: 3566: 3564: 3554: 3545: 3543: 3533: 3524: 3522: 3512: 3503: 3501: 3491: 3477:10.2307/1886099 3462: 3453: 3451: 3443: 3434: 3432: 3424: 3394: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3357: 3345: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3312: 3303: 3301: 3293: 3287: 3274: 3266: 3264: 3256: 3250: 3237: 3229: 3227: 3221: 3212: 3210: 3204: 3195: 3193: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3158: 3151: 3143: 3136: 3128: 3119: 3111: 3107: 3099: 3092: 3084: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3048: 3040: 3036: 3028: 3024: 3016: 3009: 3001: 2997: 2989: 2985: 2977: 2964: 2956: 2952: 2944: 2940: 2932: 2925: 2917: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2881: 2873: 2869: 2861: 2857: 2849: 2840: 2832: 2825: 2817: 2810: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2783: 2775: 2771: 2767:, pp. 4–5. 2763: 2756: 2748: 2744: 2736: 2729: 2721: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2694: 2687: 2679: 2675: 2667: 2663: 2655: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2631: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2607: 2603: 2595: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2571: 2567: 2559: 2552: 2544: 2540: 2532: 2525: 2517: 2513: 2505: 2498: 2490: 2486: 2478: 2471: 2463: 2459: 2451: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2403: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2340: 2333: 2325: 2321: 2313: 2309: 2301: 2294: 2286: 2282: 2274: 2270: 2266:, pp. 8–9. 2262: 2258: 2250: 2246: 2238: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2205: 2198: 2190: 2181: 2173: 2169: 2161: 2152: 2144: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2084: 2077: 2069: 2060: 2052: 2045: 2037: 2030: 2022: 2007: 1999: 1995: 1987: 1983: 1975: 1971: 1963: 1950: 1942: 1938: 1930: 1921: 1913: 1904: 1896: 1892: 1884: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1851: 1847: 1839: 1832: 1824: 1817: 1809: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1782: 1775: 1767: 1752: 1744: 1731: 1723: 1710: 1702: 1695: 1687: 1680: 1672: 1665: 1657: 1653: 1645: 1641: 1633: 1629: 1621: 1617: 1609: 1605: 1597: 1593: 1585: 1581: 1573: 1569: 1561: 1557: 1549: 1534: 1526: 1507: 1499: 1490: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1462: 1445: 1416: 1410: 1367: 1338: 1329: 1304: 1284: 1266: 1236: 1200:Siskiyou County 1172: 1166: 1055:Alta California 1053:by forming the 1035: 1018: 1012: 991: 981: 965: 955: 947:Siskiyou Summit 919:Roland B. Dixon 915: 909: 854: 840: 765: 744: 723: 651: 622: 487: 482: 457: 387: 319:Scott Mountains 292: 284:Frederick Hodge 272:Alexander Henry 237: 195:were active in 122:Shastan peoples 77: 75: 65: 63: 61: 52: 50: 27: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5035: 5033: 5025: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4994: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4901: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4868: 4867: 4862: 4854: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4828: 4823: 4817: 4812: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4653: 4651: 4650: 4643: 4636: 4628: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4609: 4608:External links 4606: 4604: 4603: 4589: 4580: 4558: 4539: 4519: 4500: 4480: 4467: 4452: 4430: 4409: 4388: 4379: 4359:(2): 251–275. 4341: 4320: 4314: 4297: 4276: 4255: 4234: 4213: 4192: 4171: 4150: 4129: 4108: 4083: 4071:(2): 280–293. 4056: 4035: 4025:(3): 229–234. 4014: 4008: 3995: 3975: 3947: 3925: 3906: 3879: 3868: 3847: 3826: 3805: 3786: 3773: 3755: 3733: 3727: 3714: 3685: 3672: 3650: 3631: 3594: 3573: 3552: 3531: 3510: 3489: 3460: 3441: 3422: 3410:(2): 264–267. 3392: 3379: 3373:(5): 381–498. 3355: 3343: 3330: 3310: 3291: 3285: 3272: 3254: 3248: 3235: 3219: 3202: 3184: 3182: 3179: 3177: 3176: 3164: 3149: 3134: 3132:, p. 125. 3117: 3115:, p. 115. 3105: 3101:Schnebly 1852b 3090: 3075: 3063: 3046: 3044:, p. 283. 3034: 3022: 3007: 2995: 2983: 2962: 2950: 2938: 2934:Schnebly 1852a 2923: 2906: 2894: 2879: 2877:, p. 173. 2867: 2865:, p. 211. 2855: 2838: 2823: 2821:, p. 144. 2808: 2796: 2794:, p. 224. 2781: 2779:, p. 226. 2769: 2754: 2742: 2727: 2712: 2700: 2685: 2683:, p. 212. 2673: 2661: 2649: 2637: 2625: 2613: 2601: 2589: 2577: 2565: 2550: 2548:, p. 325. 2538: 2536:, p. 240. 2523: 2511: 2496: 2494:, p. 518. 2484: 2469: 2457: 2445: 2443:, p. 212. 2433: 2421: 2409: 2394: 2392:, p. 314. 2382: 2380:, p. 198. 2370: 2368:, p. 131. 2358: 2346: 2331: 2319: 2307: 2292: 2280: 2268: 2256: 2244: 2242:, p. 436. 2223: 2221:, p. 102. 2211: 2196: 2194:, p. 313. 2179: 2177:, p. 452. 2167: 2150: 2148:, p. 218. 2138: 2126: 2114: 2102: 2100:, p. 202. 2090: 2075: 2058: 2043: 2028: 2005: 1993: 1991:, p. 179. 1981: 1969: 1948: 1946:, p. 170. 1936: 1919: 1902: 1890: 1869: 1857: 1855:, p. 177. 1845: 1830: 1815: 1813:, p. 209. 1800: 1798:, p. 264. 1788: 1773: 1771:, p. 496. 1750: 1729: 1708: 1706:, p. 316. 1693: 1678: 1663: 1661:, p. 224. 1651: 1639: 1637:, p. 520. 1627: 1615: 1613:, p. 232. 1603: 1591: 1589:, p. 525. 1579: 1567: 1555: 1532: 1505: 1488: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1469: 1468: 1461: 1458: 1450:Superintendent 1444: 1441: 1412:Main article: 1409: 1406: 1366: 1363: 1337: 1334: 1328: 1325: 1303: 1300: 1283: 1282:Gibbs proposal 1280: 1265: 1262: 1235: 1232: 1168:Main article: 1165: 1162: 1145:Charles Wilkes 1084:Siskiyou Trail 1075:Fort Vancouver 1073:departed from 1039:Chinook Jargon 1034: 1031: 1011: 1008: 980: 977: 967:Known as the " 963:Klamath people 954: 951: 908: 905: 874:Tan Oak acorns 839: 836: 829:Columbia River 764: 761: 743: 740: 722: 719: 710:Charles Wilkes 650: 647: 621: 618: 574:Ponderosa pine 486: 483: 481: 478: 456: 453: 386: 383: 291: 288: 236: 235:Origin of name 233: 116: 115: 109: 108: 104: 103: 93: 92: 88: 87: 47: 46: 42: 41: 37: 36: 25: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5034: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5002:Shasta people 5000: 4999: 4997: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4905: 4902: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4866: 4863: 4860: 4859: 4858: 4855: 4852: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 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3936: 3935: 3930: 3926: 3914: 3913: 3907: 3896: 3891: 3887: 3886: 3880: 3876: 3875: 3869: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3836: 3832: 3827: 3815: 3811: 3806: 3794: 3793: 3787: 3776: 3774:9780722208281 3770: 3766: 3765: 3760: 3756: 3741: 3740: 3734: 3730: 3724: 3720: 3715: 3700: 3693: 3692: 3686: 3675: 3673:9780665404474 3669: 3665: 3661: 3660: 3655: 3654:Gibbs, George 3651: 3639: 3638: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3562: 3558: 3553: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3449: 3448: 3442: 3430: 3429: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3382: 3380:9781555674298 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3333: 3331:9780520031425 3327: 3322: 3321: 3315: 3311: 3299: 3298: 3292: 3288: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3262: 3261: 3255: 3251: 3249:9780870715211 3245: 3241: 3236: 3225: 3220: 3208: 3203: 3191: 3186: 3185: 3180: 3173: 3168: 3165: 3162:, p. 22. 3161: 3156: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3109: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3071:Anthony 1854c 3067: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3003:Anthony 1854b 2999: 2996: 2992: 2991:Anthony 1854a 2987: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2954: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2898: 2895: 2892:, p. 92. 2891: 2886: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2856: 2853:, p. 50. 2852: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2800: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2704: 2701: 2697: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2677: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2626: 2622: 2617: 2614: 2610: 2605: 2602: 2598: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2578: 2575:, p. 91. 2574: 2569: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2461: 2458: 2455:, p. 29. 2454: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2419:, p. 25. 2418: 2413: 2410: 2407:, p. 37. 2406: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2359: 2355: 2350: 2347: 2344:, p. 31. 2343: 2338: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2320: 2317:, p. 41. 2316: 2311: 2308: 2305:, p. 18. 2304: 2299: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2269: 2265: 2260: 2257: 2253: 2248: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2168: 2164: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2139: 2136:, p. 46. 2135: 2130: 2127: 2123: 2118: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2103: 2099: 2098:Voegelin 1942 2094: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1997: 1994: 1990: 1989:Voegelin 1942 1985: 1982: 1978: 1977:Voegelin 1942 1973: 1970: 1966: 1961: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944:Voegelin 1942 1940: 1937: 1933: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1915:Voegelin 1942 1911: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1900:, p. 34. 1899: 1894: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1858: 1854: 1849: 1846: 1842: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1811:Voegelin 1942 1807: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1738: 1736: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1655: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1628: 1625:, p. 48. 1624: 1619: 1616: 1612: 1607: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1592: 1588: 1583: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1559: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1486:, p. 10. 1485: 1480: 1477: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1463: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1442: 1440: 1436: 1433: 1427: 1423: 1421: 1415: 1407: 1405: 1403: 1398: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1382: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1342: 1335: 1333: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1310: 1301: 1299: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1272: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1242: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1216: 1213: 1212:Sutter's Mill 1208: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1196:Shasta County 1193: 1189: 1185: 1176: 1171: 1163: 1161: 1159: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1135: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1115:George K. Gay 1112: 1107: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1087: 1085: 1081: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1032: 1030: 1028: 1023: 1017: 1009: 1007: 1005: 1001: 996: 990: 986: 978: 976: 974: 970: 964: 960: 952: 950: 948: 942: 940: 939:Trail, Oregon 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 914: 906: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 879: 875: 869: 867: 863: 859: 853: 849: 845: 837: 835: 833: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 799: 798:Russian River 795: 791: 787: 783: 774: 769: 762: 760: 756: 753: 748: 741: 739: 737: 736:ear piercings 733: 727: 720: 717: 713: 711: 707: 704: 700: 695: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 667: 660: 655: 648: 646: 642: 638: 631: 626: 619: 617: 615: 610: 606: 602: 597: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 578:Chokecherries 575: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 547: 539: 535: 530: 526: 523: 522:mineral licks 519: 515: 512: 511:Rainbow trout 508: 502: 495: 491: 484: 479: 477: 474: 470: 466: 462: 454: 452: 450: 446: 442: 437: 435: 431: 430:Kà·sahʔára·ra 427: 423: 418: 416: 412: 407: 404: 400: 396: 392: 384: 382: 378: 376: 372: 371:Wiruwhikwatsu 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 335:Klamath River 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 300: 296: 289: 287: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 260: 258: 254: 251: 247: 242: 234: 232: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 189: 185: 180: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 114: 110: 105: 102: 98: 94: 89: 85: 73: 60: 59:United States 48: 43: 38: 33: 30:Shasta people 22: 4922:(Gabrieliño) 4906:(Fernandeño) 4897: 4811:(Bear River) 4597: 4584: 4572:. Retrieved 4566: 4550:. Retrieved 4544: 4531:. Retrieved 4525: 4511:. Retrieved 4505: 4493:, retrieved 4485: 4472:. Retrieved 4457: 4444:. Retrieved 4438: 4422:. Retrieved 4417: 4401:. Retrieved 4396: 4383: 4356: 4352: 4333:. Retrieved 4328: 4303: 4289:. Retrieved 4284: 4268:. Retrieved 4263: 4247:. Retrieved 4242: 4226:. Retrieved 4221: 4205:. Retrieved 4200: 4184:. Retrieved 4179: 4163:. Retrieved 4158: 4142:. Retrieved 4137: 4121:. Retrieved 4116: 4100:. Retrieved 4095: 4091: 4068: 4064: 4043: 4039: 4022: 4018: 3999: 3988:, retrieved 3986:(1854/05/12) 3983: 3967:. Retrieved 3962: 3958: 3939:. Retrieved 3933: 3917:. Retrieved 3911: 3899:, retrieved 3884: 3873: 3860:. Retrieved 3855: 3839:. Retrieved 3834: 3818:. Retrieved 3813: 3797:. Retrieved 3791: 3778:. Retrieved 3763: 3747:. Retrieved 3738: 3718: 3706:. Retrieved 3699:the original 3690: 3677:. Retrieved 3658: 3642:. Retrieved 3636: 3605:(1): 43–57. 3602: 3598: 3586:. Retrieved 3581: 3565:. Retrieved 3560: 3544:. Retrieved 3539: 3523:. Retrieved 3518: 3502:. Retrieved 3497: 3471:(1): 37–67. 3468: 3464: 3452:. Retrieved 3446: 3433:. Retrieved 3427: 3407: 3403: 3384:. Retrieved 3370: 3366: 3363:"The Shasta" 3350: 3335:. Retrieved 3319: 3302:. Retrieved 3296: 3276: 3265:, retrieved 3259: 3239: 3228:. Retrieved 3211:. Retrieved 3194:. Retrieved 3167: 3145:Kappler 1904 3130:Beckham 1996 3113:Beckham 1996 3108: 3103:, p. 2. 3086:Beckham 1996 3073:, p. 2. 3066: 3037: 3025: 3005:, p. 2. 2998: 2993:, p. 2. 2986: 2953: 2948:, p. 2. 2941: 2936:, p. 2. 2919:Ellison 1922 2904:, p. 4. 2897: 2870: 2858: 2799: 2772: 2745: 2738:Ellison 1922 2725:, p. 3. 2710:, p. 2. 2703: 2698:, p. 2. 2676: 2671:, p. 2. 2664: 2659:, p. 2. 2652: 2647:, p. 2. 2640: 2635:, p. 2. 2628: 2623:, p. 3. 2616: 2611:, p. 2. 2604: 2599:, p. 2. 2592: 2587:, p. 2. 2580: 2568: 2563:, p. 2. 2541: 2514: 2487: 2480:Edwards 1890 2465:Edwards 1890 2460: 2453:Edwards 1890 2448: 2436: 2429:Du Bois 1935 2424: 2417:Du Bois 1935 2412: 2405:Du Bois 1935 2390:Kniffen 1928 2385: 2373: 2361: 2356:, p. 8. 2349: 2329:, p. 3. 2322: 2310: 2283: 2271: 2259: 2254:, p. 1. 2252:Kroeber 1925 2247: 2219:Kroeber 1936 2214: 2207:Kroeber 1925 2170: 2141: 2129: 2117: 2105: 2093: 1996: 1984: 1972: 1939: 1893: 1886:Kroeber 1925 1867:, p. 6. 1860: 1848: 1843:, p. 9. 1826:Kroeber 1925 1791: 1784:Merriam 1930 1725:Merriam 1967 1654: 1642: 1630: 1618: 1611:Maloney 1945 1606: 1594: 1587:Merriam 1926 1582: 1570: 1558: 1528:Kroeber 1925 1479: 1446: 1437: 1428: 1424: 1417: 1399: 1395: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1343: 1339: 1330: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1305: 1287:George Gibbs 1285: 1267: 1249:Redick McKee 1246: 1237: 1228: 1220: 1217: 1204: 1181: 1131: 1123:Rogue Valley 1088: 1064: 1036: 1019: 1016:Wintu people 992: 968: 966: 959:Modoc people 943: 935:Rogue Valley 931:Edward Sapir 916: 870: 857: 855: 848:Yurok people 778: 757: 752:serviceberry 749: 745: 728: 724: 715: 708: 696: 672: 643: 639: 635: 598: 551: 543: 516: 503: 499: 458: 444: 440: 438: 429: 425: 421: 419: 414: 410: 408: 403:Salmon River 388: 379: 374: 370: 367:Wasudigwatsu 366: 362: 358: 354: 351:Rogue Valley 339:Shasta River 323:Seiad Valley 315:Mount Shasta 306: 304: 299:Mount Shasta 261: 240: 238: 205:Grande Ronde 181: 121: 119: 26:Ethnic group 21:Shasta Costa 4926:Tübatulabal 4744:Halchidhoma 4723:Coast Miwok 4683:Ahwahnechee 4574:11 February 4552:18 February 4513:22 February 4495:27 February 4424:26 February 4403:26 February 4207:27 February 3990:26 February 3919:27 February 3901:17 February 3749:27 February 3708:27 February 3644:27 February 3454:16 February 3267:18 February 3172:Browne 1858 3160:Browne 1858 3030:Whaley 2010 2958:Madley 2017 2946:Morse 1852e 2902:Morse 1852b 2890:Renfro 1992 2765:Heizer 1972 2750:Madley 2017 2708:Morse 1852c 2633:Morse 1852d 2597:Morse 1852a 2585:Morse 1851a 2573:Renfro 1992 2561:Morse 1851c 2534:Wilkes 1845 2507:Wilkes 1845 2492:Wilkes 1845 2441:Silver 1978 2354:Sample 1950 2327:Sample 1950 2264:Sample 1950 2146:Silver 1978 2134:Renfro 1992 2122:Wilkes 1845 2110:Renfro 1992 1898:Renfro 1992 1841:Renfro 1992 1746:Silver 1978 1674:Silver 1978 1599:Renfro 1992 1292:Fort Gaston 1153:Fort Umpqua 1127:Ewing Young 1043:Californian 927:Table Rocks 699:Indian hemp 609:calochortus 605:Camas roots 507:Coho salmon 494:Coho salmon 422:tax·a·ʔáycu 415:Ḱunummíhiwu 355:Ahotireitsu 343:Scott River 280:Walla Walla 99:, formerly 4996:Categories 4851:Kucadikadi 4794:Lake Miwok 4708:Chemehuevi 4678:Acjachemen 4474:29 January 4446:28 January 4384:California 4335:28 January 4291:5 February 4270:5 February 4249:5 February 4228:5 February 4186:5 February 4165:5 February 4144:5 February 4123:5 February 4102:3 February 3969:2 February 3941:28 January 3862:5 February 3841:5 February 3820:5 February 3799:28 January 3780:29 January 3679:2 February 3588:5 February 3567:5 February 3546:5 February 3525:5 February 3504:5 February 3435:2 February 3386:28 January 3337:28 January 3230:2021-11-23 3181:References 3042:Clark 2009 2875:Gibbs 1853 2834:Gibbs 1853 2819:Gibbs 1853 2546:Gudde 2010 2378:Garth 1953 2366:Garth 1953 2342:Spier 1930 2315:Spier 1930 2288:Sapir 1907 2276:Dixon 1907 2240:Dixon 1907 2175:Dixon 1907 2163:Dixon 1907 2086:Dixon 1907 2071:Dixon 1907 2054:Dixon 1907 2024:Dixon 1907 2001:Dixon 1907 1932:Dixon 1907 1865:Cook 1976b 1853:Cook 1976a 1796:Dixon 1931 1769:Dixon 1907 1689:Dixon 1907 1659:Clark 2009 1647:Stern 1993 1635:Hodge 1910 1623:Garth 1964 1575:Dixon 1907 1563:Clark 2009 1501:Dixon 1907 1402:Cottonwood 1194:organized 1138:Lieutenant 1027:Woodwardia 1014:See also: 983:See also: 957:See also: 911:See also: 842:See also: 686:, and the 684:Bear grass 557:Canyon Oak 455:Population 395:Sacramento 375:Wiruwhitsu 359:Ikirukatsu 347:Bear Creek 250:fur trader 241:"Kahosadi" 193:Bear Creek 188:California 142:Sacramento 72:California 4961:Wukchumni 4865:Ramaytush 4861:Costanoan 4822:(Klamath) 4815:Mechoopda 4778:Kitanemuk 4713:Chimariko 4693:Bay Miwok 3627:164203291 3349:(1976b). 3316:(1976a). 2303:Gray 1987 2192:Holt 1946 2039:Holt 1946 1965:Holt 1946 1704:Holt 1946 1551:Holt 1946 1456:Treaty". 1271:Scott Bar 1241:admission 1095:purchased 995:Pit River 832:Sahaptins 469:Chimariko 445:Ikusadewi 434:New River 173:Okwanuchu 128:from the 113:Okwanuchu 91:Languages 4910:Timbisha 4904:Tataviam 4788:Kumeyaay 4773:Kawaiisu 4703:Cahuilla 4688:Atsugewi 4673:Achomawi 4595:(1845). 4564:(1942). 4347:(1907). 4052:24522525 4031:25155920 3953:(1936). 3931:(1925). 3761:(1910). 3398:(1931). 3361:(1907). 1460:See also 1453:Newsmith 1387:De Chute 1350:Luke Lea 1102:Alvarado 1099:Governor 1051:missions 1004:Big Bend 989:Atsugewi 985:Achomawi 969:Ipaxanai 813:Atsugewi 809:Achomawi 803:and the 563:and the 449:Achomawi 441:ye·tatwa 426:Yɨdahčɨn 363:Irauitsu 325:and the 270:officer 231:tribes. 169:Konomihu 161:counties 150:Siskiyou 4936:Vanyume 4893:Serrano 4888:Salinan 4882:Quechan 4842:Nomlaki 4837:Nisenan 4809:Mattole 4799:Luiseño 4757:Whilkut 4753:Chilula 4739:Esselen 4718:Chumash 4533:4 March 3619:3629411 3485:1886099 3304:5 March 3213:5 March 3196:5 March 1336:Failure 1121:of the 1119:Takelma 1000:Madhesi 913:Takelma 907:Takelma 892:Takelma 878:abalone 866:Takelma 821:Klamath 742:Warfare 620:Housing 599:Flower 569:tannins 546:Mussels 538:Tan Oak 443:" and " 399:McCloud 391:Shastan 349:in the 311:Ashland 257:Klamath 229:Alturas 201:Takelma 158:Jackson 154:Klamath 146:McCloud 134:Klamath 97:English 4971:Yokuts 4946:Washoe 4920:Tongva 4915:Tolowa 4898:Shasta 4884:(Yuma) 4872:Patwin 4857:Ohlone 4826:Mohave 4728:Cupeño 4697:Saklan 4465: 4375:659586 4373: 4312: 4050: 4029: 4006: 3771: 3725: 3670: 3666:–177. 3625: 3617: 3483: 3377: 3328: 3283: 3246: 1391:Tenino 1302:Treaty 1255:, and 1149:Umpqua 1109:area. 1080:Talent 862:Tolowa 858:Iwampi 850:, and 805:Patwin 592:, and 553:Acorns 411:Iwáppi 327:Salmon 307:Shasta 276:Cayuse 213:Oregon 175:, and 165:Shasta 138:Salmon 84:Oregon 81: 69: 56: 4981:Yurok 4956:Wiyot 4951:Wintu 4941:Wappo 4820:Modoc 4804:Maidu 4768:Cahto 4763:Karuk 4490:(PDF) 4371:JSTOR 4048:JSTOR 4027:JSTOR 3743:(PDF) 3702:(PDF) 3695:(PDF) 3623:S2CID 3615:JSTOR 3481:JSTOR 1472:Notes 1296:Hoopa 1010:Wintu 900:Yurok 896:Karuk 844:Karuk 817:Modoc 794:Wintu 786:Yurok 782:Karuk 773:Yurok 659:Karuk 630:Yurok 601:bulbs 225:Karuk 221:Yreka 4976:Yuki 4966:Yana 4877:Pomo 4831:Mono 4783:Kizh 4749:Hupa 4576:2018 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