1258:
representative, who should be a grandson; and if the grandson is too young, someone must be employed to carry him in his arms. If there be no grandson, some one of the same surname should be selected for the occasion. In sacrificing to the one who had died prematurely, there are (only) the satisfying offerings, for he was not full-grown. To sacrifice to a full-grown man, for whom there have been the funeral rites without a representative, would be to treat him as if he had died prematurely." (7)
1416:
1195:(c. 2100 – c. 1600 BCE), a personator would make contact with the dead ancestral spirit before sitting down to eat and drink. During the Yin or Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – 1046 BCE), a personator would sometimes sit down without having contacted the spirit, and by the late Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE), a personation ceremony became a revelry with several personators repeatedly making toasts and drinking sacrificial wines.
972:
dead it was customary in China for the deceased to whom the sacrifice was made to be represented by a boy of the family, who sat in the dead man's place and was honored as his representative. On the basis of this custom the text is interpreted as meaning that a "corpse boy" is sitting in the wagon, or, in other words, that authority is not being exercised by the proper leaders but has been usurped by others.
124:
109:
139:
1212:(When the representative of the departed) had made the libation with the cup, or the horn, (the sacrificer) was told (to bow to him) to put him at ease. Anciently, the representative stood when nothing was being done; when anything was being done, he sat. He personated the spirit. The officer of prayer was the medium of communication between him and the sacrificer. (11)
995:
with wine," and 248/5 "the representative of the (dead) princes comes and feasts and is befumed (by the spirits); the good wine makes you merry." Most significantly, the ancestral spirits speak directly through the intoxicated personators (166, 210, and 247), approve of the sacrificial offerings, and bless their descendants (166, 209, 210, 247, and 248).
581:: "He (viz. Wu-Wang) made a wooden image of Wen-Wang and took it with on his carriage into the battle." Erkes further suggested, "very probably the custom of carrying a into battle had developed from an earlier one of taking the body itself, and that therefore the was something representing the corpse, i.e., an image of the deceased."
1178:(15) describes a wife personating her husband's dead grandmother: "A wife, on festive occasions, even though it were on receiving a gift from the ruler, (only) made a curtsy. When seated as a personatrix (of the deceased grandmother of her husband), she did not bow with her head to her hands, but made the curtsy." The
531:"corpse in a coffin". Hawkes justifies translating "corpse": "According to some accounts it was the 'spirit tablet' of his dead father which King Wu carried in his chariot to battle. But I think the poet understood him to have taken the actual corpse, and was surprised that he had not waited to bury it."
1347:
The ancients, when sacrificing to the dead, employed the personator, because the soul and the vital force of the dead person after being separated from the body, seek an agent of the same nature. Now, men being all of the same kind, the father and the children being all of one family and of the same
1311:
The personator is found in the ceremony wherein sacrifice is offered to ancestors, because the soul emitting no perceptible sounds and having no visible form, the loving sentiment of filial piety finds no means of displaying itself, hence a personator has been chosen to whom meats are offered, after
1164:
In China, possessions by spirits that occurred outside of this ritual scenario often involved younger members of the family as well. As in instances of mediumism around the world, the youthful and illiterate were regarded as more reliable conduits to the dead, since they could hardly be suspected of
1055:
The wild ducks are at the junction of the river; the representative of the (dead) princes comes and feasts and is (treated in temple-fashion =) revered; the feast is in the temple, that is where felicity and blessings descend; the representative feasts and drinks; felicity and blessings come and are
994:
There is an abundance of sacrificial wine and food (odes 166, 209, 210, and 248) shared by both the ancestral spirits (through the personator) and their descendants. Drunkenness is frequently mentioned: 209/5 "The spirits are all drunk," 209/6 "all are happy; they are drunk," 247/1, 2 "We are drunk
558:
He seems to think that the substitution of 'wooden tablet' for the corpse (if really a corpse is intended; the word shi is ambiguous) proves the to have been an image of the corpse, and therefore he translates by 'wooden statue.' Nothing could be more arbitrary. The , wooden ancestral tablet, was
413:
As soon as death took place, the corpse was transferred to the couch, and covered with a large sheet. The clothes in which the deceased had died were removed. A servant plugged the mouth open with the spoon of horn; and to keep the feet from contracting, an easy stool was employed. These observances
1458:
was an impersonator, that is, a person serving as a reminder of the ancestor to whom sacrifice was being offered. During such a ceremony, the impersonator was much more than an actor in a drama. Although the exact meaning may have been different, the group of
Sanxingdui masked figures in bronze all
1132:
passage (7) explains: "A rule of propriety says, 'A superior man may carry his grandson in his arms, but not his son.' This tells us that a grandson may be the personator of his deceased grandfather (at sacrifices), but a son cannot be so of his father." When a grandson personated his grandfather's
1118:
You should ask him, "Which do you respect most,—your uncle, or your younger brother?" He will answer, "My uncle." Ask him again, "If your younger brother be personating a dead ancestor, to which do you show the greater respect,—to him or to your uncle?" He will say, "To my younger brother." You can
1028:
translations: "representative of the (dead) princes" (Karlgren), "personators of your ancestors" (Legge admitting "The expression 公尸, 'ducal personators,' is somewhat difficult to account for"), "impersonator of the
Ancient", "ducal Dead", or "Dead One" (Waley, noting "Impersonator of a former Duke
1360:
In ancient times all employed a personator when sacrificing to the dead. Since the descendants continue the life of their ancestors, the personator shares, therefore, in the life of the departed person, and the ancestor's soul descends undoubtedly upon his descendants, and reposes therein to enjoy
1290:
The ancients employed a personator. This rite deserves censure, and has been abolished by our great
Worthies. One vied with the other in practicing it. Now that an era of progress has set in, and these silly customs have disappeared, it is important not to revive them; common sense bids to refrain
1206:
Under the dynasty the representatives of the dead sat. Their monitors and cup-suppliers observed no regular rules. The usages were the same (as those of Yin ), and the underlying principle was one. Under the dynasty, the personators had stood till the sacrifice was ended (whereas) under the Yin
971:
Here we have a choice of two explanations. One points to defeat because someone other than the chosen leader interferes with the command; the other is similar in its general meaning, but the expression, "carries corpses in the wagon," is interpreted differently. At burials and at sacrifices to the
1228:
says, "The Xia had standing personators, the Shang had sitting personators, and the Zhou had six personators who would make serial toasts." Granet mentions the Zhou personation parties: "It was not long before this archaic custom was criticized by the ritualists. When the sacrifices were offered
363:
meanings. The basic meaning (1) "corpse" was semantically extended into both (2) "act on behalf of a corpse" or "personator of a dead ancestor" and (3) "act like a corpse" or "motionless; inactive; doing nothing". Meaning (4) "lay out, arrange; display" generalizes "lay out a corpse." Meaning (5)
1410:
Several early sources give variations of the same chronicle about the personation ceremony. It began during the Xia
Dynasty, when personators would communicate on behalf of the dead; continued during the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties; but was criticized and discontinued after the Eastern Zhou
1190:
Several early texts and commentaries reiterate a traditional history of personation beginning in the second millennium BCE as a sacred communion with ancestral spirits, but ending as a drinking party in the late 1st millennium BCE. When the personation ceremony supposedly originated during the
1006:
odes (209–210 and 247–248). Ode 209 says "we make (the representative of the dead) sit at ease, we (assist him =) encourage him to eat" and "The august representative of the dead then rises, the drums and bells (by their sound) escort away the representative." The following ode 210 describes
1257:
asked, "Is it necessary that there should be a representative of the dead in sacrifices? Or may he be dispensed with as when the satisfying offerings are made to the dead?" Confucius said, "In sacrificing to a full-grown man for whom there have been the funeral rites, there must be such a
1127:
reiterates that personation contradicted the established social hierarchy (18): "Thus it is that there are two among his subjects whom the ruler does not treat as subjects. When one is personating (his ancestor) he does not treat him as such, nor does he treat his master as such." Another
432:
ode (245) laments that, "the good men sit motionless and silent". Karlgren explains, "'The good men act the corpse,' play the part of a representative of the dead at a sacrifice, who sits still and silent during the whole ceremony; here then, remain inactive, do nothing to help." The
559:
the resting place of the ancestor's spirit, once his body was dead and decomposed. In this sense it was a substitute for his body, his spiritual force had entered it, and therefore it was carried into battle, bringing this mental force of his into play on the side of his descendant.
1044:
The wild ducks are on the (river); the representative of the (dead) princes comes and feasts and is at peace; your wine is clear, your viands are fragrant; the representative feasts and drinks; felicity and blessings come and (achieve, complete you =) make you perfect.
1060:
The wild ducks are in the gorge; the representative of the (dead) princes comes and feasts and is befumed (by the spirits); the good wine makes you merry; the roast and broiled things are fragrant; the representative feasts and drinks; there will be no after trouble.
1397:
According to the theory of the bicameral mind, hallucinations of a person in some authority could continue after death as an everyday matter. And hence the almost universal custom of feeding the corpses after death, and burying them with the appurtenances of life.
1331:宇宙大疑議 "Discussion of Universal Great Doubts" says: "The personator is employed during sacrifices to the dead, in order to carry the ancestral tablet ... hence there is no need of having such a one immediately after death, as the tablet is not yet erected."
1182:(14) euphemistically says a female personator should preferably not be the wife of a concubine's grandson; "A man personates a dead man, and a woman a woman. In the latter case a woman of a different surname is chosen, and as such not one of inferior standing."
1165:
having fabricated their utterances and writings themselves. This fact brings to the fore questions of power. Women and junior male members of a family frequently found that mediumism was a way to bring attention to their own, otherwise easily ignored, concerns.
1049:
The wild ducks are on the sands; the representative of the (dead) princes comes and feasts and (approves =) finds it good; your wine is plentiful, your viands are fine; the representative feasts and drinks; felicity and blessings come and (act for =) favor you.
929:尸). Occupying their ritual rôle by virtue of their kinship position vis-à-vis the ancestor that is sacrificed to, the Impersonators are not trained religious specialists like the Spirit Mediums. Although it has been speculated that the actions of the
1052:
The wild ducks are on the island; the representative of the (dead) prices comes and feasts and reposes; your wine is strained, your viands are sliced; the representative feasts and drinks; felicity and blessings come and descend on you.
514:
did not live to see the conquering of the previous dynasty, Shang-Yin: "When Wu set out to kill Yin, why was he so grieved? He went into the battle carrying the 'corpse.' Why was he in such haste?" Commentators disagree whether this
1406:"corpse". Carr notes the historical correspondence between Jaynes's first millennium BCE timeline for the breakdown of the bicameral mind in other parts of the world and the 11th–3rd centuries BCE personation practices in China.
1103:
Several texts refer to a
Chinese custom that a personator should be a child of the same sex as the dead ancestor, preferably either a legitimate grandson or his wife. However, personation by younger relatives, who were of lower
83:
personation ceremonies as "grand family reunions where the dead and the living met, eating and drinking together, where the living worshipped the dead, and the dead blessed the living." In modern terms, this ancient
Chinese
1334:
The fourth opinion refutes the first three condemnations of personators as mere representatives or tablet-holders for the dead, and contends that a personator was temporarily the seat of a dead ancestor's soul. Two leading
1327:集說詮真 "Collected Sayings Explaining Truth" says, "The filial son chooses a personator to carry the tablet, but not to be the resting place of the soul of the dead person. His intention is therefore manifest." The
933:
may have originally involved trance and possession, the surviving source materials—none earlier than the
Western Zhou period—show them as staid and passive, acting with the utmost demeanor and dignity.
1983:
The
Chinese Classics, Vol. IV - Part II: The second, third and fourth parts of the She-king, or the minor Odes of the Kingdom, the greater Odes of the Kingdom, the sacrificial Odes and Praise-songs
887:, such as Waley's "the Dead One," Eberhard's "death boy," or Wilhelm's "corpse boy," but the sense of such a coinage is not always clear. Therefore, in the absence of a better English word,
883:
in meaning and are part of
Chinese traditions; however, the descriptions of a dignified personator are unlike the spirit-possession of either. Another translational tactic would be to coin a
753:尸 "to spread out; lie down flat (in order to sleep); motionless; to set forth (sacrificial dishes)", to "personator of a dead ancestor", to "corpse". He rejects Karlgren's assumption that
1119:
go on, "But where is the respect due, as you said, to your uncle?" He will reply to this, "I show the respect to my younger brother because of the position which he occupies." (6)
1040:鳧鷖 "Wild Ducks") describes another feast, which commentators say was held on the following day to reward the personator, and details sacrificial offerings and ancestral blessings.
1312:
which he breaks the bowls, quite rejoiced, as if his own father had eaten plenty. The personator, drinking abundantly, imparts the illusion that it is the soul which is satiated.
476:匛 "long; enduring" phonetic) "coffined corpse": "(The corpse) on the couch is called (the laid out); when it is put into the coffin, that is called (being in the long home)." A
447:, "In bed, he did not lie like a corpse." Commentators disagree whether this means "sleep with the arms and legs sprawled out" or "sleep facing the north (the land of the dead)".
75:
ceremony, the ancestral spirit supposedly would enter the descendant "corpse" personator, who would eat and drink sacrificial offerings and convey messages from the spirit.
1459:
have the character of an impersonator. It is likely the masks were used to impersonate and identify with certain supernatural beings in order to effect some communal good.
959:: "Perchance the army carries corpses in the wagon. Misfortune ... Let the eldest lead the army. The younger transports corpses. Then perseverance brings misfortune."
457:"lay out; set forth, array; arrange; display". Examples in classic texts range from specifically "lay out (a corpse)" to generally "lay out; set out; arrange". The
1091:, with an estimated alcohol content from 5% to 8%, and volume measurements of Zhou bronze sacrificial cups, Paper calculates a "conservative estimate is that the
976:
Marshall concludes this hexagram refers to carrying a corpse, and compares the "Israelites carrying the Ark of the
Covenant into battle against the Philistines".
2429:
2373:
Alcohol and Altered States of Consciousness in Ancestor Veneration Rituals of Zhou Dynasty China and Iron Age Palestine; A New Approach to Ancestor Rituals
1033:既醉 "Already Drunk") describes a sacrificial feast for ancestral spirits, and says "the representative of the (dead) princes makes a happy announcement".
1207:
they sat. Under , when the cup went round among all, there were six personators. said, "The usages of might be compared to a subscription club." (10)
1438:
wore bronze masks "symbolizing the spirit of the dead to whom the sacrifices were offered". Liu believes the phantasmagoric bronze masks discovered at
990:("Classic of Poetry", c. 11th – 6th centuries BCE) contains early and detailed descriptions of personation ceremonies, in the following themes.
1229:
simultaneously to several ancestors each of whom was represented, the ceremony was found indeed to assume a displeasing likeness to a picnic."
1389:, began evolving around 1000 BCE. Prior to that, ancient people had "bicameral mentality" in which one part of the brain "spoke" (often in an
1454:
was generally a close, young relative who wore a costume (possibly including a mask) reproducing the features of the dead person. The
1253:
contains three passages where Zengzi questions his teacher about whether personators were needed for ancestral rituals. For instance:
925:
At ancestral sacrifices, the ancestral spirits descend into individuals designated from among their descendants, the "Impersonators" (
1079:酒 "alcoholic beverage; liquor", which Paper interprets as a ritual means to induce hallucinations of ancestral spirits. Based upon a
2424:
1721:
1291:
from them. Some half-baked literati of our days would fain re-establish this ceremony of the personator. This is quite absurd.
597:
1295:
The second opinion is that the personator was not the agent of the departed, but merely its metaphorical representative or
2439:
1583:
960:
162:
68:
1618:
The Chinese Classics, Vol. IV - Part I: The first part of the She-king, or the Lessons from the States; the Prolegomena
1095:
consumed between 2.4 and 3.9 ounces of pure alcohol (equivalent to between 5 and 8 bar shots of eighty-proof liquor)."
428:
to "corpse-like", which can contextually mean either "motionless; calm; quiescent" or "inactive; negligent; remiss". A
1108:
than their elders, created an exception to traditional Chinese culture. The earliest textual reference comes from the
1074:
231:
2444:
1596:
1216:
Later sources repeat this legendary history of personation. For example, He Xiu 何休's 2nd-century commentary to the
1348:
stock, the soul of the departed person is requested to come and establish its seat in one of them as in an agent.
1156:
wrote that "young and simple persons" make the most suitable mediums. Stephen Bokenkamp mentions examples besides
294:
1554:
1529:
1218:
1144:; the grandfather is the closest of the uterine relatives, and thus closer to his grandson than the father is.
273:) than to write the original word "corpse". Many characters written with this radical involve the body (e.g.,
835:
Obviously, rendering this into English is problematic because there is no Western analogy for the ceremonial
2078:
1707:
1567:
1542:
1271:
personation originated. Henri Doré summarizes the four principal opinions, which are worth quoting in full.
270:
1148:
explained that a child makes the best personator owing to the ancient Chinese belief that a soul is small.
2434:
1340:
550:
was a wooden ancestral tablet shaped in the image of the deceased. Karlgren disagreed and argued that the
1898:
von Falkenhausen, Lothar. 1995. "Reflections on the Political Role of Spirit Mediums in Early China: The
1136:
Scholars have differing hypotheses explaining why a grandchild would make the most suitable personator.
482:
poem (185) refers to men called off to war, "There are mothers who set forth the (sacrificial) dishes."
375:
Meaning (1) is the core sense of "corpse; dead body; cadaver; carcass". Early ritual texts, notably the
1114:("Book of Mencius") questioning the status shown to a younger brother during the personation ceremony.
1316:
Carr notes, "This passage sounds as though Ban had personally observed a personation ceremony."
1007:
sacrificial wine and food, "he presents them to our representative of the dead and to our guests."
2449:
1700:
The Chinese Classics, Vol. I - Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean
1374:
1323:
scholars held a third opinion, namely, that the personator was bearer of the ancestral tablet. The
1013:
odes 247 and 248, which portray ancestral feasts to the Zhou royal house, exclusively use the term
421:
meaning (2) "personator; sacrificial representative of a dead person's spirit" is discussed below.
389:
2399:
2082:
1998:
1711:
1633:
855:
is too general in meaning, and does not usually have a sense of spirituality, unless modified by
847:
would be possible, but this word implies falsehood, which was not originally associated with the
730:
266:
202:
112:
1402:
If the original personators were bicameral, they could have directly hallucinated voices from a
1133:
spirit, it reversed the normal family hierarchy and a father would have to worship his own son.
2270:
2229:
2213:
2045:
1737:
1717:
1674:
956:
663:
158:
157:尸 "corpse; personator; inactive; lay out; manage; spirit tablet" can be discussed in terms of
97:
2184:
2115:
2099:
1572:
1547:
2139:
1390:
1336:
1145:
624:
511:
329:
26:
2403:
507:
1476:
Reflections on the Dawn of Consciousness: Julian Jaynes's Bicameral Mind Theory Revisited
46:
1483:
Erkes, Eduard (1931). "Some Remarks on Karlgren's 'Fecundity symbols in Ancient China".
1415:
815:
368:(2) "personator" with the metaphorical replacement "ancestral tablet". Meaning (6) uses
1382:
1224:
1110:
631:
251:
2418:
2408:
1559:
1534:
1508:
1496:
1378:
1370:
1149:
1141:
1137:
1105:
238:(c. 1045 BCE – c. 256 BCE), had a more curved back and legs. The graphically reduced
223:
198:
127:
1320:
1275:
809:
601:
535:
235:
194:
2013:
2074:
1986:
1703:
1621:
1563:
1538:
1427:
1300:
1192:
913:
702:
635:
247:
239:
142:
76:
64:
908:尸 hundreds of times. Lothar von Falkenhausen contrasts the frequently recorded
123:
108:
1439:
1419:
1153:
884:
821:
803:
262:
186:
93:
89:
1990:
1625:
1523:. Translated by Karlgren, Bernhard. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. 1950.
1386:
1242:
863:, which has a parallel 'one who embodies' etymology, but the derivate words
444:
166:
138:
1442:, dating from c. 12th–11th centuries BCE, might have been ritually worn by
317:屍 'dead-corpse' graphically distinguishes the original 'corpse' meaning of
1202:
chapters describe how personation rituals changed during the Zhou period.
189:
showing a person with a bent back and dangling legs. The first records of
563:
Erkes countered Karlgren by citing other texts describing a human-shaped
414:
were the same for a ruler, a great officer, and an ordinary officer. (22)
398:
309:
1474:'Corpse/Personator' Ceremony in Early China". In Marcel Kuijsten (ed.).
986:
726:
478:
402:
313:僵屍 "stiff corpse") Michael Carr explains, "This semantically redundant
1241:
description of Zhou "subscription club" personation ceremonies quotes
1021:
952:
918:
608:
493:
469:
454:
304:
297:
284:
277:
213:
178:
1994:
1629:
1353:
1304:
1279:
1274:
The first opinion is that personation was a bygone superstition. The
1246:
944:
827:
383:
218:
34:
1411:
Dynasty when personators were no longer able to speak for the dead.
904:
Zhou dynasty classic texts (c. 11th–3rd centuries BCE) use the word
630:
pronunciation of 尸 phonologically descends from (c. 6th century CE)
1513:
The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind
1414:
593:
569:
498:
435:
2378:
Carr, Michael. 1985. "Personation of the Dead in Ancient China,"
1580:
The Spirits Are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion
1140:
said the basic reason was a predominance of uterine over agnatic
646:夷 "barbarian" (which anciently had interchangeable characters):
496:"master; manage, preside; spirit tablet, ancestral tablet". The
377:
2169:
Ancestors and Anxiety: Daoism and the Birth of Rebirth in China
1864:, ed. J.A. Matisoff. Cambridge University Press. Nos. 268, 232.
1002:"personator" occurs fourteen times in two pairs of consecutive
745:"die". Schuessler hypothesizes a semantic development from *
364:"manage; direct; ancestral tablet" links the representative
185:"corpse; personator" is a graphic simplification of ancient
584:
Meaning (6) includes some semantically unrelated usages of
638:. Compare these Middle and Old Chinese reconstructions of
2357:
Masks of Mystery: Ancient Chinese Bronzes from Sanxingdui
2019:. Translated by Waley, Arthur. Grove. 1960 . p. 215.
321:尸 from its various other meanings such as 'personator'."
79:, an early translator of the Chinese classics, described
1267:
Chinese scholars have long disagreed about when and how
2380:
Computational Analysis of Asian & African Languages
2286:. 15 vols., tr. M. Kennelly. Tusewei. vol. 1 p. 99–102.
942:
meanings are contextually ambiguous. For instance, the
1774:
Erkes, Eduard. 1928. “Idols in Pre-Buddhistic China.”
1434:. Paper suggested the possibility that Shang and Zhou
1024:"prince; duke; public; palace; effort". Compare these
573:("Record of History") records this King Wu story with
1997:: Lane, Crawford & Co. / Trübner & Co. 1871.
1632:: Lane, Crawford & Co. / Trübner & Co. 1871.
749:夷 "extend; expose; display; set out; spread out" to *
2071:
The Chinese Classics, Vol. II - The works of Mencius
1946:
The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching
1393:'s voice) while another part listened and obeyed.
359:Carr outlines the semantic connections among these
2012:
216:"barbarian; non-Chinese people (esp. eastern, see
1485:Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities
1174:Two ritual texts mention female personators. The
546:"corpse; spirit tablet". Erkes proposed that the
355:(6) "proper names (of a place, family, and bird)"
67:" who represented a dead relative during ancient
2359:. Sydney: Art Gallery of New South Wales. p. 37.
2198:The I-li: or Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial.
843:is chosen as the nearest English translation.
8:
955:尸 "carry corpses; corpse carrier" twice for
280:"urine" with 水 "water"), but not all (e.g.,
1365:Carr offers a contemporary explanation for
1152:mentions a Greek parallel: the philosopher
58:
2144:The Local Cultures of South and East China
1478:. Julian Jaynes Society. pp. 343–416.
300:that combines the "corpse radical" 尸 with
1875:An Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese
1849:Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese
725:尸 "the dead, corpse" were etymologically
2171:. University of California Press. p. 40.
1969:
1749:
1686:
1377:hypothesis. Jaynes proposed that human "
604:尸子, c. 390 – 330 BCE); and a variant of
209:尸 "corpse" was used interchangeably for
137:
122:
107:
1932:
1920:
1609:
797:English translations of the ceremonial
527:木主 "wooden spirit/ancestral tablet" or
51:
16:Practice in Chinese ancestor veneration
2355:Liu Yang and Edmund Capon, eds. 2000.
2319:
2266:
2254:
2225:
2209:
2180:
2155:
2146:. tr. A. Eberhard. E.J. Brill. p. 338.
2127:
2111:
2095:
2041:
1733:
1670:
729:. Paul K. Benedict suggested possible
393:"Etiquette and Rites", frequently use
2343:
2284:Researches into Chinese Superstitions
2057:
2029:
1809:
1796:
781:, except when they share an initial *
7:
2331:
2307:
2295:
2242:
1957:
1886:
1825:. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities.
1658:
1646:
63:'corpse') was a ceremonial "
1948:. Columbia University Press. p. 77.
1836:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology
1056:piled up (heavily =) amply on you.
912:"personator" with the rarely noted
761:"to die", "because the MC initial
538:and Bernhard Karlgren debated this
352:(5) "manage; direct; spirit tablet"
343:(2) "personator of a dead ancestor"
340:(1) "corpse; body of a dead person"
2430:Practices in Chinese folk religion
611:(which is used in bird names like
450:Meaning (4) is defined as Chinese
14:
1763:Ch’u Tz'u: The Songs of the South
1339:philosophers held this judgment.
1186:Historical changes in personation
1087:personator drinking nine cups of
709:"corpse". Karlgren proposed that
567:"wooden lord". For instance, the
424:Meaning (3) figuratively expands
1073:frequently drinking sacrificial
1716:Cosimo Classics reprint, 2009,
891:will translate this meaning of
701:There are several hypothetical
592:尸 is an ancient place name (in
472:(with the "wood radical" and a
287:"house; room" with 至 "go to").
261:尸 is more commonly used as the
88:practice would be described as
1877:. University of Hawai’i Press.
1595:. Translated by C. F. Baynes.
1593:The I Ching or Book of Changes
1299:神象 "image of the spirit". The
871:commonly have other meanings.
619:Pronunciations and etymologies
349:(4) "lay out; arrange; expose"
39:
1:
2387:The Religious System of China
1851:. University of Hawaii Press.
1562:), Chs. 11–46. Translated by
1430:is a recent hypothesis about
1222:("Spring and Autumn Annals")
405:contexts. Here is an example
250:(221–207 BCE), resembles the
201:(c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE). The
2167:Bokenkamp, Stephen R. 2007.
1537:), Chs. 1–10. Translated by
831:. Carr reviews the choices.
439:("Confucian Analects") uses
372:to transcribe proper names.
169:, and English translations.
69:Chinese ancestral sacrifices
1470:Carr, Michael (2007). "The
232:Chinese bronze inscriptions
2466:
2371:Armstrong, David E. 1998.
1862:Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus
1821:Karlgren, Bernhard. 1957.
1597:Princeton University Press
921:"shaman; spirit medium".
615:鳲鳩 "cuckoo; turtledove").
465:尸 "uncoffined corpse" and
346:(3) "motionless; inactive"
293:尸 "corpse; cadaver" has a
246:, standardized during the
234:dating from the Shang and
2385:de Groot, J. J. M. 1910.
2200:Probsthain, 1917. p. 119.
1834:Baxter, William H. 1992.
1761:Tr. Hawkes, David, 1959.
1591:Wilhelm, Richard (1967).
1578:Paper, Jordan D. (1995).
1503:. Routledge / Kegan Paul.
948:("Book of Changes") uses
777:) never derives from an *
634:and (c. 6th century BCE)
295:variant Chinese character
30:
2425:Anthropology of religion
2077:(2nd revised ed.).
1873:Schuessler, Axel. 2007.
1860:Benedict, Paul K. 1972.
1847:Schuessler, Axel. 2009.
1706:(2nd revised ed.).
1558:. Volume 28: The Li Ki (
1555:Sacred Books of the East
1533:. Volume 27: The Li Ki (
1530:Sacred Books of the East
1245:'s student and compiler
1233:Doubts about personation
861:Incorporator of the Dead
596:); a surname (e.g., the
222:); at ease; level". The
1823:Grammata Serica Recensa
1568:Oxford University Press
1543:Oxford University Press
1361:the sacrifice offered.
1069:, other texts refer to
757:"corpse" is cognate to
271:List of Kangxi radicals
2411:, Chinese Text Project
2389:. 6 vols. E. J. Brill.
1944:Marshall, S. J. 2002.
1461:
1423:
1413:
1400:
1369:"corpse" personation:
1363:
1350:
1314:
1293:
1260:
1214:
1209:
1167:
1121:
1083:ceremony describing a
1063:
997:
974:
936:
897:
741:"corpse; carcass" or *
561:
461:distinguishes between
416:
150:
135:
120:
2375:. Edwin Mellen Press.
1448:
1418:
1408:
1395:
1358:
1345:
1309:
1288:
1255:
1210:
1204:
1162:
1116:
1042:
1029:or ruler"). Ode 247 (
1017:公尸 with the modifier
992:
969:
923:
833:
556:
411:
387:"Rites of Zhou", and
263:"corpse/body radical"
197:dating from the late
177:The modern character
141:
126:
111:
2196:Tr. Steele, John C.
1838:. Mouton de Gruyter.
1501:Chinese Civilization
1263:Hypothetical origins
857:of the dead/ancestor
554:was phallic shaped:
381:"Classic of Rites",
336:尸 in six meanings:
163:historical phonology
2440:Religious practices
2282:Doré, Henri. 1914.
1765:. Clarendon. p. 55.
1515:. Houghton Mifflin.
1375:bicameral mentality
1249:(505–436 BCE). The
1424:
1170:Female personators
900:Early descriptions
859:. Paper suggests
731:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
717:死 "die, dead" and
269:(number 44 in the
267:Chinese characters
203:oracle bone script
151:
136:
121:
113:Oracle bone script
2445:Spirit possession
2400:Unihan data for 尸
2310:, pp. 387–8.
2158:, pp. 344–5.
2140:Eberhard, Wilhelm
2130:, pp. 337–8.
2015:The Book of Songs
1972:, pp. 203–4.
1902:Officials in the
1889:, pp. 364–5.
1373:'s psychological
1099:Child personators
879:are similar with
664:Bernhard Karlgren
159:Chinese character
98:spirit possession
61:
2457:
2360:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2280:
2274:
2264:
2258:
2252:
2246:
2239:
2233:
2223:
2217:
2207:
2201:
2194:
2188:
2178:
2172:
2165:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2119:
2109:
2103:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2073:. Translated by
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2009:
2003:
2002:
1985:. Translated by
1979:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1924:
1923:, pp. 34–5.
1917:
1911:
1896:
1890:
1884:
1878:
1871:
1865:
1858:
1852:
1845:
1839:
1832:
1826:
1819:
1813:
1806:
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1794:
1788:
1785:
1779:
1772:
1766:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1731:
1725:
1715:
1702:. Translated by
1696:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1668:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1620:. Translated by
1614:
1600:
1587:
1573:Internet Archive
1571:
1548:Internet Archive
1546:
1524:
1521:The Book of Odes
1516:
1504:
1492:
1479:
1391:authority figure
1337:Neo-Confucianist
1146:Wolfram Eberhard
625:Standard Chinese
534:The sinologists
512:King Wen of Zhou
330:Chinese classics
62:
59:
55:
43:
32:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2456:
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2415:
2414:
2404:Unihan Database
2396:
2368:
2366:Further reading
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2326:
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2240:
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2166:
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2079:Clarendon Press
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1787:Karlgren, 1930.
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1325:Jishuo quanzhen
1282:criticizes the
1265:
1235:
1188:
1172:
1101:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1046:
982:
963:summarizes the
961:Richard Wilhelm
902:
795:
642:尸 "corpse" and
621:
523:, specifically
510:, whose father
508:King Wu of Zhou
485:Meaning (5) of
327:
175:
106:
17:
12:
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1509:Jaynes, Julian
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1225:Gongyang Zhuan
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967:commentaries.
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489:is defined as
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332:used the word
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307:"dead" (e.g.,
252:regular script
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1379:consciousness
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1371:Julian Jaynes
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1352:His follower
1349:
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1329:Yuzhou dayiyi
1326:
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230:尸, found in
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2409:All texts 尸
2320:Jaynes 1976
2267:Legge 1885a
2255:Granet 1930
2226:Legge 1885a
2210:Legge 1885a
2181:Legge 1885b
2156:Jaynes 1976
2128:Granet 1930
2112:Legge 1885a
2096:Legge 1885b
2042:Legge 1885b
1910:20:279–300.
1908:Early China
1734:Legge 1885a
1671:Legge 1885b
1422:bronze mask
1381:", meaning
1301:Han dynasty
1193:Xia dynasty
938:Some early
865:incorporate
703:etymologies
636:Old Chinese
577:instead of
248:Qin dynasty
240:seal script
187:pictographs
161:evolution,
143:Seal script
77:James Legge
2450:Necromancy
2419:Categories
2344:Paper 1995
2058:Paper 1995
2030:Paper 1995
1810:Erkes 1931
1797:Erkes 1931
1584:SUNY Press
1464:References
1440:Sanxingdui
1420:Sanxingdui
1307:explains:
1303:historian
1278:historian
1237:The above
1154:Iamblichus
957:Hexagram 7
889:personator
885:nonce word
841:Personator
839:'corpse.'
804:personator
801:尸 include
737:: either *
733:roots for
598:Syncretist
443:to praise
173:Characters
94:mediumship
90:necromancy
65:personator
47:Wade–Giles
2332:Carr 2007
2308:Carr 2007
2296:Carr 2007
2271:pp. 337–8
2243:Carr 2007
2214:pp. 405–6
1991:Hong Kong
1958:Carr 2007
1887:Carr 2007
1659:Carr 2007
1647:Carr 2007
1626:Hong Kong
1605:Footnotes
1387:cognition
1356:concurs:
1343:writes:
1297:shenxiang
1243:Confucius
1160:rituals.
1036:Ode 248 (
542:usage of
445:Confucius
409:passage:
310:jiang shi
167:semantics
153:The word
2382:24:1–107
2185:pp. 74-5
2142:. 1968.
2081:. 1895.
1710:. 1893.
1511:(1976).
1499:(1930).
1491:: 63–68.
1426:Wearing
1341:Cheng Yi
399:mortuary
325:Meanings
1570:. 1885.
1545:. 1885.
1219:Chunqiu
1067:Shijing
1026:gongshi
1015:gongshi
1011:Shijing
1004:Shijing
987:Shijing
980:Shijing
765:(< *
739:(s-)raw
727:cognate
682:夷, and
479:Shijing
430:Shijing
403:funeral
257:Today,
193:are on
71:. In a
27:Chinese
2230:p. 446
2083:p. 400
2046:p. 246
1999:p. 477
1995:London
1904:Zhouli
1738:p. 117
1720:
1712:p. 235
1675:p. 181
1634:p. 135
1630:London
1354:Zhu Xi
1305:Ban Gu
1280:Du You
1247:Zengzi
1111:Mengzi
965:Yijing
950:yu shi
945:Yijing
877:shaman
873:Medium
828:shaman
825:, and
822:medium
721:< *
713:< *
694:< *
690:尸 and
686:< *
678:< *
670:< *
658:< *
650:< *
613:shijiu
519:means
384:Zhouli
219:Dongyi
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2116:p. 87
1778:5–12.
1319:Some
1031:Jizui
674:尸and
672:hljij
654:尸and
602:Shizi
594:Henan
575:muzhu
570:Shiji
565:muzhu
540:Chuci
525:muzhu
502:uses
499:Chuci
436:Lunyu
96:, or
53:sh'ih
2241:Tr.
2100:p.88
1919:Tr.
1808:Tr.
1718:ISBN
1450:The
1385:and
1251:Liji
1239:Liji
1200:Liji
1198:Two
1180:Yili
1176:Liji
1130:Liji
1125:Liji
1123:The
1081:Liji
1038:Fuyi
1019:gong
984:The
875:and
867:and
785:or *
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715:sjər
705:for
680:ljɨj
668:syij
660:djər
652:śjər
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459:Liji
452:chen
407:Liji
401:and
390:Yili
378:Liji
275:niao
242:for
226:for
205:for
181:for
145:for
130:for
115:for
104:Word
60:lit.
19:The
1906:,"
1472:Shi
1456:shi
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1432:shi
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1284:shi
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1089:jiu
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1071:shi
1000:Shi
940:shi
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789:."
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773:, *
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395:shi
370:shi
366:shi
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315:shi
291:Shi
265:in
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207:shi
191:shi
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117:shi
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73:shi
41:shī
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470:柩
455:陳
305:死
298:屍
285:屋
278:尿
214:夷
179:尸
149:尸
134:尸
119:尸
31:尸
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