621:
636:
202:
to grow but kill off any forest seedlings. Others have suggested that the grassland may have been created and maintained by early pastoralists and point out that fire has a major role in the maintenance of the grassland. There is evidence for both and several features of the forest trees and the grasslands that have been considered and debated. Pollen analysis from bogs in the
Nilgiris suggest that the complex of grassland and forest existed 35,000 years ago, long before human impact began. Long-term studies on the dynamic processes of vegetation change continue.
652:
41:
108:
664:
353:
341:
29:
201:
The origin of the shola forest and grassland complex has been the subject of scientific debate. Some early researchers suggested that the floristic composition represents a stable final state or climax vegetation. This stability is maintained by climatic conditions such as frost which allow the grass
75:. The shola and grassland together form the shola-grassland complex or mosaic. Not all such high-elevation grasslands have sholas in their valleys, especially if they are isolated from other such meadows, such as the meadows found in the Idamalayar Reserve Forest in
98:
with forest regeneration and expansion restricted by climatic conditions such as frost or soil characteristics while others have suggested that it may have anthropogenic origins in the burning and removal of forests by early herders and shifting agriculturists.
503:, is a well known shrub endemic to Western Ghats that blossoms only once in 12 years. There is a thick concentration of mosses growing on the under story and many ferns in the sunlit narrow transition to grassland. Shola forests are interspersed with
620:
608:
The shola biome has a high water retention capacity and exists as the primary source of the water for the high elevation organisms is the origin of many streams and rivers in the
Western Ghats.
312:) are some of the 300+ species of birds that inhabit this area. The area shows high endemicity and is rivaled only by the forests in northeast India; 35 percent of the plants, 42 percent of the
635:
1079:
875:
Jose, Shibu; Sreepathy, A.; Mohan Kumar, B.; Venugopal, V.K. (1994). "Structural, floristic and edaphic attributes of the grassland-shola forests of
Eravikulam in peninsular India".
284:, which includes gazelles, antelopes, and wild buffaloes) is endemic to the shola-grassland, and its range is now restricted to a 400-km stretch of shola-grassland mosaic, from the
260:, it is found at high elevations and subtropical climate. However, this is the only one found in South India. Among the many larger animals inhabiting a shola-grassland mosaic are
1074:
1069:
601:
Periodic fires have been considered to help maintain the grassland, however, excessive burning has led to a shrinkage of forest patches and the growth of
1064:
651:
194:. Although generally said to occur above 2000 meters above sea level, shola forests can be found at 1600 meters elevation in many hill ranges (e.g.
835:
955:
52:
1054:
709:
903:
71:. These patches of shola forest are found mainly in the valleys and are usually separated from one another by undulating
1049:
911:
Sahyadri : The Great
Escarpment of the Indian Subcontinent (Patterns of Landscape Development in the Western Ghats)
1006:
643:
305:
800:"Etude palynologique d'un nouveau sondage dans les marai de Sandynallah (Massif des Nilgiri, Sud-ouest de L'Inde)"
471:
1059:
760:
Ranganathan, C. R. (1938). "Studies in the ecology of the shola grass-land vegetation of the
Nilgiri Plateau".
513:
250:
is a species of butterfly endemic to shola grasslands above 2000m, sometimes being considered a subspecies of
927:
Premalatha S.; Sanil R.; Franklin
Charles Jose (2009). "Shola trees in the upper Nilgiris of Western Ghats".
537:
627:
531:
487:
345:
453:
425:
419:
383:
20:
525:
436:
858:
459:
589:
543:
519:
447:
246:
241:
549:
573:
465:
371:
289:
195:
171:
972:
742:
562:
377:
309:
297:
76:
221:. Some of the species found here have close relatives only in the distant evergreen forests of
951:
578:
504:
357:
215:
112:
95:
72:
987:
884:
850:
814:
734:
602:
477:
413:
407:
301:
40:
904:"Andisols of the Nilgiri highlands: new insight into their classification, age and genesis"
799:
210:
Due to their isolation, elevation, and evergreen character, shola forests are home to many
567:
401:
222:
167:
577:
are the consequence of commercial plantation and afforestation drives, especially in the
973:"The montane grasslands of the Western Ghats, India: Community ecology and conservation"
836:"The montane grasslands of the Western Ghats, India: Community ecology and conservation"
583:
500:
293:
269:
230:
155:
88:
84:
1043:
888:
389:
366:
285:
237:
139:
33:
277:
252:
1007:"Shola grasslands of the Western Ghats: conservation status and management needs"
187:
131:
56:
211:
191:
135:
107:
991:
854:
1021:
683:
329:
321:
226:
175:
159:
123:
111:
Shola forest interspersed in valleys among high elevation grasslands on the
68:
64:
725:
Meher-Homji VM (1997). "Phytogeography of the South Indian Hill
Stations".
663:
352:
431:
119:
55:
found in valleys amid rolling grassland in the higher montane regions of
94:
The shola-forest and grassland complex has been described as a climatic
746:
688:
395:
340:
317:
281:
265:
218:
147:
127:
819:
678:
325:
257:
179:
143:
80:
60:
738:
714:(4th ed.), Evangelical Lutheran Mission Pub. House, p. 457
118:
Shola forests are found in the higher elevation hill regions of the
913:. No. 47. Bangalore: Geological Society of India. pp. 905–918.
565:
are a serious threat to this high elevation ecosystem. Some, like
508:
482:
411:
spp. Shola forests have an upper storey of small trees, generally
365:
At least 25 types of trees are present in the major sholas of the
351:
339:
261:
151:
39:
27:
313:
273:
28:
183:
163:
657:
Shola forest & grasslands on way to the
Tadiandamol peak
481:. Below the upper story is a low under story and a dense
1014:
ENVIS Bulletin on
Grassland Ecosystems and Agroforestry
16:
Patch of stunted tropical montane forest in South India
779:
Bor, N. L. (1938). "The vegetation of the
Nilgiris".
922:
920:
1005:Rawat, G.S; Karunakaran, P.V.; Uniyal, V.K (2003).
798:Sutra, J-P; R Bonnefille & M. Fontugne (1997).
233:. Some others are found nowhere else in the world.
641:Shola, grass and mountain en route to Grass Hills,
332:, that live in these forests are endemic species.
405:(atti or cluster fig tree or gular fig tree) and
1080:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
909:. In Y. Gunnell & B.P. Radhakrishna (eds.).
834:Thomas, S. M. Thomas & M. W. Palmer (2007).
369:. The dominant trees in this type of forest are
83:. The word 'Shola' is probably derived from the
711:J. P. Fabricius's Tamil and English dictionary
507:, characterized by frost- and fire-resistant
8:
950:. London: Academic Press. pp. 138–139.
581:. Other threatening invasive species include
328:, about 25 percent not being found east of
51:are the local name for patches of stunted
818:
1075:South Western Ghats montane rain forests
1070:North Western Ghats montane rain forests
106:
700:
616:
304:, and some of the endemic flycatchers (
256:. Like most other species in the genus
929:Journal of Basic & Applied Biology
971:Thomas, S. M.; Palmer, M. W. (2007).
727:Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club
7:
240:are one of the globally recognized
902:Caner, L & Bourgeon G (2001).
807:Géographie Physique et Quaternaire
708:Fabricius, Johann Philipp (1972),
146:and associated ranges in parts of
14:
1065:Montane grasslands and shrublands
662:
650:
634:
626:Shola-Grasslands complex in the
619:
324:, and about 13 percent of the
1:
946:Burley; Styles, eds. (1976).
877:Forest Ecology and Management
615:
889:10.1016/0378-1127(94)90176-7
644:Indira Gandhi National Park
306:black-and-orange flycatcher
44:Shola forest and grassland
1096:
1020:(1): 57–64. Archived from
87:word cōlai (சோலை) meaning
18:
472:Actinodaphne bourdillonii
361:, a shola grassland plant
992:10.1556/ComEc.8.2007.1.9
855:10.1556/ComEc.8.2007.1.9
514:Chrysopogon nodulibarbis
320:, and 75 percent of the
1055:Indomalayan realm flora
628:Kudremukh National Park
538:Arundinella tuberculata
488:Strobilanthes kunthiana
103:Distribution and origin
53:tropical montane forest
532:Arundinella mesophylla
454:Elaeocarpus recurvatus
426:Chionanthus ramiflorus
420:Heptapleurum racemosum
384:Calophyllum tomentosum
362:
349:
115:
45:
37:
21:Shola (disambiguation)
438:Rhododendron arboreum
355:
344:A hillside with mass
343:
242:biodiversity hotspots
142:to the south and the
110:
43:
31:
883:(2&3): 279–291.
590:Ageratina adenophora
520:Cymbopogon flexuosus
448:Berberis napaulensis
316:, 48 percent of the
247:Colias nilagiriensis
19:For other uses, see
1050:Ecoregions of India
574:Eucalyptus globulus
526:Arundinella ciliata
466:Magnolia nilagirica
393:(Indian mahogany),
372:Magnolia nilagirica
298:Nilgiri woodpigeons
290:Agasthyamalai Hills
196:Biligiriranga Hills
172:Sindhudurg district
32:Sholas in southern
563:introduced species
505:montane grasslands
378:Bischofia javanica
363:
350:
310:Nilgiri flycatcher
116:
77:Ernakulam district
46:
38:
980:Community Ecology
843:Community Ecology
579:Nilgiri Mountains
358:Exacum tetragonum
348:flowering in 2018
276:. The endangered
174:in the states of
162:up the north, to
96:climax vegetation
73:montane grassland
1087:
1029:
1028:
1027:on 2 March 2005.
1026:
1011:
1002:
996:
995:
977:
968:
962:
961:
943:
937:
936:
924:
915:
914:
908:
899:
893:
892:
872:
866:
865:
864:on 20 July 2011.
863:
857:. Archived from
840:
831:
825:
824:
822:
820:10.7202/033140ar
804:
795:
789:
788:
776:
770:
769:
757:
751:
750:
722:
716:
715:
705:
666:
654:
638:
623:
603:invasive species
478:Litsea wightiana
460:Ilex denticulata
414:Prunus ceylanica
294:Laughingthrushes
113:Brahmagiri Hills
1095:
1094:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1060:Montane forests
1040:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1032:
1024:
1009:
1004:
1003:
999:
975:
970:
969:
965:
958:
945:
944:
940:
926:
925:
918:
906:
901:
900:
896:
874:
873:
869:
861:
838:
833:
832:
828:
802:
797:
796:
792:
781:Indian Forester
778:
777:
773:
762:Indian Forester
759:
758:
754:
739:10.2307/2483901
724:
723:
719:
707:
706:
702:
697:
675:
670:
667:
658:
655:
646:
642:
639:
630:
624:
614:
599:
568:Acacia mearnsii
559:
544:Themeda tremula
402:Ficus glomerata
399:(myrtle) spp.,
381:(bishop wood),
338:
280:(of the family
223:Northeast India
208:
168:Satara district
105:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1093:
1091:
1083:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1036:External links
1034:
1031:
1030:
997:
963:
957:978-0121451509
956:
948:Tropical Trees
938:
935:(3–4): 97–102.
916:
894:
867:
826:
813:(3): 415–426.
790:
771:
752:
733:(4): 230–242.
717:
699:
698:
696:
693:
692:
691:
686:
681:
674:
671:
669:
668:
661:
659:
656:
649:
647:
640:
633:
631:
625:
618:
613:
610:
598:
595:
584:Lantana camara
558:
555:
550:Sehima nervosa
337:
334:
231:Southeast Asia
207:
204:
156:Baba Budangiri
104:
101:
85:Tamil language
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1092:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1035:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1008:
1001:
998:
993:
989:
985:
981:
974:
967:
964:
959:
953:
949:
942:
939:
934:
930:
923:
921:
917:
912:
905:
898:
895:
890:
886:
882:
878:
871:
868:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
837:
830:
827:
821:
816:
812:
808:
801:
794:
791:
786:
782:
775:
772:
767:
763:
756:
753:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
721:
718:
713:
712:
704:
701:
694:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
676:
672:
665:
660:
653:
648:
645:
637:
632:
629:
622:
617:
611:
609:
606:
604:
596:
594:
592:
591:
586:
585:
580:
576:
575:
570:
569:
564:
556:
554:
552:
551:
546:
545:
540:
539:
534:
533:
528:
527:
522:
521:
516:
515:
511:species like
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
489:
484:
480:
479:
474:
473:
468:
467:
462:
461:
456:
455:
450:
449:
444:
443:
439:
434:
433:
428:
427:
422:
421:
416:
415:
410:
409:
404:
403:
398:
397:
392:
391:
390:Toona ciliata
386:
385:
380:
379:
374:
373:
368:
367:Nilgiri Hills
360:
359:
354:
347:
342:
335:
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
286:Nilgiri Hills
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
254:
249:
248:
243:
239:
238:Western Ghats
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
217:
213:
205:
203:
199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
140:Agasthyamalai
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
114:
109:
102:
100:
97:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
59:, largely in
58:
54:
50:
42:
35:
34:western ghats
30:
26:
22:
1022:the original
1017:
1013:
1000:
986:(1): 67–73.
983:
979:
966:
947:
941:
932:
928:
910:
897:
880:
876:
870:
859:the original
849:(1): 67–73.
846:
842:
829:
810:
806:
793:
784:
780:
774:
765:
761:
755:
730:
726:
720:
710:
703:
607:
600:
597:Conservation
588:
582:
572:
566:
560:
548:
542:
536:
530:
524:
518:
512:
497:Neelakurinji
496:
492:
486:
476:
470:
464:
458:
452:
446:
441:
437:
430:
424:
418:
412:
406:
400:
394:
388:
382:
376:
370:
364:
356:
278:Nilgiri tahr
253:Colias erate
251:
245:
235:
209:
200:
117:
93:
48:
47:
25:
491:, known as
442:nilagiricum
188:Maharashtra
132:Palni hills
57:South India
1044:Categories
787:: 600–609.
768:: 523–541.
695:References
322:amphibians
302:shortwings
212:threatened
192:Tamil Nadu
136:Meghamalai
684:Grassland
561:Invasive
330:Bangalore
270:elephants
227:Himalayas
176:Karnataka
160:Kudremukh
126:, around
124:Anaimalai
69:Tamilnadu
65:Karnataka
673:See also
432:Syzygium
408:Mallotus
318:reptiles
266:leopards
120:Nilgiris
747:2483901
689:Bugyals
612:Gallery
557:Threats
493:Kurinji
485:layer.
440:subsp.
396:Eugenia
346:Kurinji
326:insects
288:to the
282:Bovidae
219:species
216:endemic
148:Wayanad
128:Anamudi
954:
745:
679:Meadow
547:, and
475:, and
435:spp.,
262:tigers
258:Colias
225:, the
180:Kerala
144:Malnad
81:Kerala
61:Kerala
49:Sholas
1025:(PDF)
1010:(PDF)
976:(PDF)
907:(PDF)
862:(PDF)
839:(PDF)
803:(PDF)
743:JSTOR
509:grass
501:Tamil
483:shrub
336:Flora
206:Fauna
152:Coorg
89:grove
952:ISBN
587:and
314:fish
308:and
274:gaur
272:and
236:The
229:and
214:and
190:and
170:and
67:and
988:doi
885:doi
851:doi
815:doi
735:doi
571:and
499:in
495:or
198:).
184:Goa
164:Goa
79:of
1046::
1016:.
1012:.
982:.
978:.
931:.
919:^
881:65
879:.
845:.
841:.
811:51
809:.
805:.
785:64
783:.
766:64
764:.
741:.
731:94
729:.
605:.
593:.
553:.
541:,
535:,
529:,
523:,
517:,
469:,
463:,
457:,
451:,
445:,
429:,
423:,
417:,
387:,
375:,
300:,
296:,
292:.
268:,
264:,
244:.
186:,
182:,
178:,
166:,
158:,
154:,
150:,
138:,
134:,
130:,
122:,
91:.
63:,
1018:1
994:.
990::
984:8
960:.
933:3
891:.
887::
853::
847:8
823:.
817::
749:.
737::
36:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
