405:), who pursued a careful diplomatic approach, even entering into discussions with Manfred concerning the acknowledgment of Hohenstaufen dominion in Sicily. The attempted peace failed, and by March Henry III was again urged to make haste for Italy. New talks confirmed Edmund's enfeoffment, but elucidated the conditions of the grant on 9 April 1255. As part of the concession of Sicily by the papacy, several conditions were to be met. The liege kingdom was to be held at the price of 2000 ounces of gold per annum, as well as an appended supply of 300 knights for three months when needed. Because of Edmund's minority, Henry III was to pay homage for Sicily on behalf of his son until he reached the age of fifteen. Additionally, the papacy demanded a payment of 135,541 marks as compensation for the efforts being made to supplant Manfred. Edmund was also forbidden from ever seeking election as Holy Roman Emperor. Henry III agreed to these terms, and speaking about these conditions, Weiler reasons that "By making Edmund's exercise of regal rights dependent upon his arrival in Sicily, the pope may have hoped that this would provide the necessary incentive for the English court to speed up its preparations"; the urgency was caused by the increasingly precarious situation in Sicily, where Manfred still remained at large. By spring 1255, Manfred had attained several victories and posed a direct threat to the Papal States; Alexander IV was desperate for assistance and attempted to financially support Henry III for a Sicilian expedition, and also called on the courts of Europe for aid.
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installed in accordance with the terms of the
Provisions of Oxford, requested changes to the conditions of the Sicilian offer; on 18 December 1258, Alexander IV revoked the offer unless the previously discussed conditions were met. By this point, Alexander IV found it increasingly difficult to pay for the project, and facing military pressure, he dispatched an envoy to the English court and, with the threat of excommunication, demanded an army to be sent to Sicily and the payment of £90,000 from Henry III as financial compensation for the efforts to install Edmund. Requesting assistance from Parliament was again futile; seeing that he could not force the hands of his lay magnates, the King instead resorted to extorting money from the senior clergy of England, who were coerced into signing blank charters, promising to finance effectively unlimited sums of money in support of the "Sicilian business". In this manner, Henry III raised around £40,000. The English Church was displeased, feeling that the money was being wasted on a vain effort. Weiler argues that "...the baronial rebellion put an end to the Sicilian Business, but its demise was accidental rather than intentional. The problem his barons had with the king was not that he sought to get the Sicilian throne for his son, but how he went about getting it".
17:
522:, who specialises in the life and reign of Henry III, points to the "Sicilian business" as one of the key factors that inspired the revolution of 1258. Runciman wrote that "The whole affair was chiefly important for its effect on the internal history of England; for it ushered in the Baron's War and the constitutional quarrels and developments that filled the latter part of King Henry III's reign". In a retrospective analysis, Runciman reasoned that Edmund's installation as King of Sicily might have been possible if the English populace was willing to finance the project, and if the papacy was less brash about its financial demands.
509:) formally rescinded the grant of Sicily and sent the archbishop of Cosenza to England to absolve Edmund and his father of the terms of the Sicilian concession. Instead, Urban sent Albert to the court of Louis IX to again offer the throne of Sicily to Charles. The French prince was designated as King of Sicily and soon found himself beset by the same problems that had burdened Henry III, but he was eventually able to expel the Hohenstaufen. In 1266, French forces defeated Manfred and subdued Conradin two years later, securing Charles' rule in Sicily.
335:) and his hereditary rights. After Charles had formally declined the throne on 30 October 1253 and Henry of Hohenstaufen's death a short time afterward, Henry III again expressed interest in the Sicilian throne, entering into discussions with Albert of Parma. After a brief attempt to reconcile with Manfred that came to nothing, Innocent IV again resumed correspondence with the court of England in which he accepted Edmund as monarch of Sicily, but also ambiguously mentioned the rights of Conradin.
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peninsula continued to devolve, as Henry III's sluggishness continued and allowed
Manfred to expand his influence in the area. Conradin affirmed Manfred as his representative in Sicily, a show of Hohenstaufen solidarity. Alexander IV requested support from his allies in England, but Henry III was not in a position to meet his requests. His government had rejected his request to raise more funds, and in correspondence with the Pope in 1256, the English king asked for more lenient terms.
104:, who had succeeded Innocent IV in 1254, was no longer in a position to effectively finance the project, demanding monetary payment from Henry III as compensation. Finding only minimal support from Parliament and faced with the threat of excommunication from Rome, Henry III resorted to extorting money from his domestic clergy in an attempt to pay the debts. The "Sicilian business" became entangled with broader political troubles in England, and the project ultimately collapsed.
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dressed in
Sicilian robes. At this point, Henry III may have developed hesitations; in April, he cancelled payments to the Pope, citing uncertainty as to whether he wished to continue with Edmund's bid for the throne. More lenient terms were offered to the English, but Henry III was commanded to reconcile with France and travel to Sicily by March 1259 with an army numbering no fewer than 8,500.
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royal regalia, before the
English magnates at a parliament in 1257, but to no avail. Manfred's continued presence in the administration of Sicily proved to be a recurring issue as well; by 1257, he had taken control of the entire island of Sicily, and amidst rumours of Conradin's death, the 26-year-old Manfred was, in spite of the papacy's wishes, crowned King of Sicily on 10 August 1258 at
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sons. Through these efforts, the
Plantagenet regime in the Kingdom of Sicily was constituted by experienced men who had served under the administration of Conrad IV. On a state visit to the court of Louis IX in December 1254, the French king agreed to not contest Edmund's nomination as King of Sicily.
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for Edmund in his capacity as nominal monarch. Innocent IV appears to have expected Henry III to act rapidly, insisting that same month that Edmund be delivered to the
Continent at once with the incentive of monetary support. In spite of several complications, including a failure to raise substantial
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and attempts by the
English barons to assert control over the monarchy. These magnates were discontent with many of the unpopular policies of Henry III's reign, including the alarming amount of money being allotted for Edmund's bid for the Sicilian throne, and the baronial government, which has been
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Despite the large sums forwarded to Rome thus far, Henry III still owed quite an amount. Rostand, who had returned to the
Continent, returned to England in March 1257 with the archbishop of Messina to request further payments. The two were received by the King and the twelve-year-old Edmund, who was
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Edmund with the throne of Sicily in
October 1255 on behalf of the Pope. Henry III styled his son as king and presented him with a ring. Accompanying the bishop was the papal nuncio Rostand Masson, who was tasked with collecting the sum of money owed to Rome by Henry III. The situation in the Italian
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and sundering the union of the Empire and Sicily; indeed, the establishment of a new monarch in Sicily would ensure that the Pope's domains would not suffer the strain they had endured under
Frederick II. By January 1254, the discord between the papacy and the Hohenstaufen king had escalated: Conrad
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Weiler argued that the impact of the "Sicilian business" on English history was "momentous", citing the contemporary baronial government' complaints about the wasteful nature of the project. He claims that the ultimate failure of the ambitious plan was not the fault of Henry III, who had sought to
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The failure of the project has historically been a source of ignominy for Henry III, with contemporary barons in England citing the incident as justification for restricting the monarch's powers. Historians have likewise singled out the incident as one of the motivations for the political upheaval
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was raised to the station of Prince of Capua. Innocent IV likewise took steps to consolidate Plantagenet dominion in Sicily by recruiting allies, among them Berthold of Hohenberg, who had been named as regent of Sicily by the late Conrad IV, and Frederick of Antioch, one of Frederick II's natural
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Henry III faced difficulties financing his son's accession to the Sicilian throne. The English were not enthusiastic about having to finance the endeavor and could not be persuaded otherwise, in spite of Henry III's pleads to be granted a subsidy. The King even paraded Edmund, donned in Sicilian
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Albert of Parma was authorised to convey to Henry III the terms under which Sicily would be transferred. These terms remain unknown, but they would have been similar to those offered to Charles: payment of 1000 ounces of gold, a further 10,000 for the restoration of a papal enclave in Sicily, an
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principally used silver pennies; larger sums of silver pennies were typically expressed in financial accounts as pounds (240 pennies) or marks (160 pennies). It is impossible to accurately estimate the modern equivalent value of thirteenth-century money; for comparison, in the early part of the
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Albert formally offered the Kingdom of Sicily to the ten-year-old Edmund on 6 March 1254; the grant was affirmed by Innocent IV on 14 May. Henry III accepted the offer of the wealthy kingdom on behalf of his son. The "Sicilian business" would come to dominate English political affairs, despite
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that would occur in England in the years following, but some recent scholarship has questioned this point of view, instead arguing that the mission's lack of success was not entirely the fault of Henry III but rather a consequence of the intricate political situation in Europe.
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for Conradin, who was sent to Bavaria. The political situation in Europe was altered as a result of Conrad's death and the usurpation of power by Manfred. Louis IX personally disapproved of the regent's character, but regarded the throne of Sicily as rightfully Conradin's.
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as a monarch; whether the prince was himself interested is unknown. The prince's candidacy was likely proposed earlier, but did not materialise due to the candidacy of Charles of Anjou and Henry's personal regard for Frederick II's son Henry (his nephew through his sister
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neither Henry III nor Edmund having been there in person. The people of England were not eager to pay taxes to finance the Italian campaign, which lacked the religious justification that Henry III's crusading taxes did. On 15 May, Henry III ordered the production of a
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or a daughter of Manfred in order to resolve the dispute over the kingdom. Neither union came to fruition, and despite continued attempts to secure support and financing, Henry III's efforts to establish Edmund as the Sicilian monarch faced numerous setbacks.
356:". Situating Edmund on a foreign throne would have brought great prestige to the royal house of England, and with Plantagenet presence in the Mediterranean, Henry III could make use of the kingdom as a base from which he could initiate a future crusade.
457:. A second marriage alliance was also considered with one of the daughters of Manfred; the conditions of this marriage would see Manfred concede Sicily to Edmund after the marriage occurred. Ultimately, neither marriage came to fruition.
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yearly tribute of 2000 ounces to Rome, and the provision of fifty knights to the papacy. These conditions emphasised the vassal relationship of the kings of Sicily to the papacy; they also reflected Innocent IV's goal of safeguarding the
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leveled allegations of heresy and usurpation against the pontiff, which engendered his excommunication by Innocent IV the following month. Conrad died on 21 May; the only legitimate Hohenstaufen heir remaining was his two-year-old son
310:. On his deathbed, Conrad entrusted Conradin to the care of Innocent IV, who promptly assumed papal control over Sicily (claiming it had reverted to the Papacy) with the understanding that Conradin would assume power in the future.
289:, respectively. Richard rejected the offer, likening the difficulty of claiming the kingdom to removing the moon from the sky; Charles likewise turned down the proposal on the advice of Louis and their mother
153:; who was engaged in a power struggle over the papal throne) dispatched an emissary to enthrone Roger as king; the coronation ceremony occurred on 25 December 1130. The inaugural monarchs of the fledgling
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thirteenth century, £66 was close to the average annual income of a poorer baron; £6,666 in 1216 was almost 25 per cent of the Crown's revenue for the year; shortly after Henry III's death, his son
273:). Frederick's successor found himself in conflict with Innocent IV, who sought to undermine the personal union of the German and Sicilian kingdoms. In August 1252, Innocent IV sent letters to
80:, the papacy formally offered the throne to the English prince in 1254. For the project, Henry III was tasked with delivering Edmund and armed forces to Sicily to claim it from
1552:
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formally revoked the grant of the Kingdom of Sicily to Edmund in 1263 and instead consigned it to Charles of Anjou, who successfully assumed control of the kingdom in 1266.
218:) embarked on a search for a new king who would be agreeable to the papacy and be able to contend with the Emperor. Offers were forwarded to the courts of the kingdoms of
207:, the struggle between the parties had intensified to extreme proportions, the Emperor having Sicily confiscated from him in 1245. After Frederick's purported deposition,
542:, which conquered and settled the area that would become the Kingdom of Sicily with the assistance of a military force that was composed of, among other groups, Normans.
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plans, and indicative of a diplomatic approach increasingly focused on the Mediterranean, but it was also driven by competition with and feat of the
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In January of the following year, Henry III conveyed his gratitude to the Pope for the offer of Sicily, and by December, the papal
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now sought to install an agreeable sovereign to succeed his longtime adversary. After failed negotiations with Edmund's uncles
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Domestically, the "Sicilian business" was part of a wider array of political troubles that eventually gave rise to the 1258
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Richard remained unenthused about the prospect of the Sicilian throne, instead focusing his energies on his election as
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Henry III entered into negotiations in 1256 to organize Edmund's marriage. One potential bride for the young king was
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The territorial extent of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1190, a few decades following the events of the "Sicilian business"
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Frederick II died on 13 December 1250, and his death only revitalised the efforts of the papacy to displace the
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were engaged in recurrent conflict with the papacy's ostensible, universal temporal authority. By the time of
1406:"Edmund [called Edmund Crouchback], first earl of Lancaster and first earl of Leicester (1245–1296)"
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spent approximately £80,000 on his castle-building programme in North Wales, an immense outlay for the time.
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The historian Björn Weiler argues that "...the Sicilian Business was a logical continuation of the king's
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The Italian Crusades: The Papal-Angevin Alliance and the Crusades against Christian Lay Powers, 1254–1343
165:. Authorization for the establishment of the kingdom, as well as royal authority, were received from the
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The coronation of Charles of Anjou as King of Sicily in Rome (1266), illustration from the next century.
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expand Plantagenet influence in the face of a challenging political situation in Europe. The historian
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In March 1261, Edmund ordered the Sicilians to make preparations for his arrival, but on 28 July 1263,
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during the "Sicilian business", produced in 1254 by order of Henry III on behalf of the child-king.
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A thirteenth-century family tree depicting Henry III and his five children. From left to right:
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from their domains. In his will, the late Emperor bequeathed the Kingdom of Sicily to his son
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depicting Louis IX kneeling before Pope Innocent IV, recognisable by his three-tiered
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326:. His brother Henry III was interested in the prospect of installing his younger son
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449:(and now regent of that kingdom); this possibility mandated that the Cypriot king
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The First English Revolution: Simon de Montfort, Henry III and the Barons' War
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money from the English, unrest in Gascony, the upcoming wedding of his heir
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The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a Social and Political History
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A strategic marriage was planned for Edmund; potential brides were
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The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284
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had successfully consolidated power in the southern areas of the
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Innocent IV had died on 7 December and was succeeded by
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Henry III of England and the Staufen Empire, 1216–1272
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Henry III of England and the Staufen Empire, 1216–1272
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The Bishop of Bologna arrived in England and formally
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A thirteenth-century depiction of Edmund of England
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1551:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
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173:to refer to the Sicilian sovereigns as "papal
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48:term used to describe the failed attempt by
1609:. Royal Historical Society: Boydell Press.
1590:. Royal Historical Society: Boydell Press.
1533:. Archived from the original on 3 July 2023
161:, possessed a unique relationship with the
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551:This was equivalent to £90,360.
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1571:. Cambridge University Press.
1462:. Cambridge University Press.
339:Selection of Edmund of England
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1518:The English Historical Review
196:) and the Kingdom of Sicily (
32:, in his capacity as nominal
1432:UK public library membership
88:for Frederick II's grandson
1605:Weiler, Björn K.U. (2012).
1586:Weiler, Björn K.U. (2006).
1513:"Edmund, Earl of Lancaster"
1458:Pounds, Nigel J.G. (1994).
1412:. Oxford University Press.
97:the dowager queen of Cyprus
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1511:Rhodes, Walter E. (1895).
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1366:Howell, Margaret (2001).
1370:. Blackwell Publishers.
344:Motivations of Henry III
136:Count Roger II of Sicily
1634:13th century in England
1385:Jobson, Adrian (2012).
445:, the dowager queen of
417:Efforts to claim Sicily
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1525:(37): 19–40, 209–237.
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1389:. London: Bloomsbury.
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1639:Henry III of England
1484:. English Monarchs.
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443:Plaisance of Antioch
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260:Hohenstaufen dynasty
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20:An engraving of the
1351:. Clarendon Press.
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1307:. Penguin Press.
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885:
877:
870:
862:
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843:
835:
831:
823:
819:
811:
807:
799:
795:
787:
783:
775:
768:
760:
753:
745:
741:
733:
720:
712:
705:
697:
693:
685:
678:
670:
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654:
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639:
631:
627:
619:
612:
604:
587:
583:
578:
573:
572:
559:
555:
550:
546:
537:
533:
528:
520:David Carpenter
515:
503:
488:
463:
439:
419:
399:
388:Thomas of Savoy
362:
346:
341:
267:
232:
212:
197:
190:
163:Catholic Church
147:
124:
118:
12:
11:
5:
1652:
1650:
1642:
1641:
1636:
1626:
1625:
1622:
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1615:
1602:
1596:
1583:
1577:
1557:
1508:
1494:
1474:
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1455:
1449:
1436:
1401:
1395:
1382:
1376:
1363:
1357:
1341:
1335:
1319:
1313:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1274:
1270:Prestwich 1997
1262:
1260:, p. 157.
1250:
1238:
1236:, p. 161.
1226:
1224:, p. 237.
1214:
1202:
1198:Carpenter 2004
1190:
1175:
1173:, p. 152.
1163:
1159:Prestwich 1997
1151:
1139:
1137:, p. 159.
1127:
1115:
1100:
1088:
1086:, p. 169.
1076:
1074:, p. 155.
1061:
1049:
1047:, p. 154.
1037:
1035:, p. 347.
1033:Carpenter 2004
1016:
1004:
1002:, p. 152.
987:
975:
958:
956:, p. 150.
946:
934:
932:, p. 149.
919:
917:, p. 346.
915:Carpenter 2004
907:
905:, p. 151.
895:
883:
868:
853:
841:
829:
817:
805:
793:
791:, p. 148.
781:
766:
751:
739:
737:, p. 147.
718:
703:
691:
676:
664:
652:
637:
625:
610:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
571:
570:
553:
544:
530:
529:
527:
524:
514:
511:
487:
484:
462:
459:
438:
435:
418:
415:
361:
358:
345:
342:
340:
337:
231:
228:
205:personal union
171:David Abulafia
117:
114:
34:King of Sicily
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1651:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1618:
1612:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1597:0-86193-280-3
1593:
1589:
1584:
1580:
1574:
1569:
1568:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1548:
1532:
1528:
1524:
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1514:
1509:
1505:
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1497:
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1471:
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1461:
1456:
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1446:
1442:
1437:
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1415:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1392:
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1379:
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1364:
1360:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1314:0-7139-9004-X
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1297:
1293:
1287:, p. 79.
1286:
1285:Runciman 1958
1281:
1279:
1275:
1272:, p. 67.
1271:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1251:
1248:, p. 18.
1247:
1242:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1203:
1200:, p. 40.
1199:
1194:
1191:
1188:, p. 13.
1187:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1164:
1161:, p. 24.
1160:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1123:Runciman 1958
1119:
1116:
1113:, p. 76.
1112:
1111:Runciman 1958
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1096:Runciman 1958
1092:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1059:, p. 27.
1058:
1053:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1005:
1001:
996:
994:
992:
988:
984:
983:Runciman 1958
979:
976:
973:, p. 75.
972:
971:Runciman 1958
967:
965:
963:
959:
955:
950:
947:
943:
938:
935:
931:
926:
924:
920:
916:
911:
908:
904:
899:
896:
892:
891:Runciman 1958
887:
884:
881:, p. 73.
880:
879:Runciman 1958
875:
873:
869:
866:, p. 74.
865:
864:Runciman 1958
860:
858:
854:
850:
849:Runciman 1958
845:
842:
838:
837:Runciman 1958
833:
830:
827:, p. 45.
826:
825:Runciman 1958
821:
818:
815:, p. 44.
814:
813:Runciman 1958
809:
806:
802:
797:
794:
790:
785:
782:
778:
777:Runciman 1958
773:
771:
767:
763:
758:
756:
752:
748:
747:Abulafia 1988
743:
740:
736:
731:
729:
727:
725:
723:
719:
716:, p. 72.
715:
714:Runciman 1958
710:
708:
704:
700:
695:
692:
689:, p. 71.
688:
687:Runciman 1958
683:
681:
677:
673:
668:
665:
662:, p. 13.
661:
660:Abulafia 1988
656:
653:
650:, p. 12.
649:
648:Abulafia 1988
644:
642:
638:
635:, p. 19.
634:
633:Abulafia 1988
629:
626:
623:, p. 30.
622:
621:Abulafia 1988
617:
615:
611:
607:
602:
600:
598:
596:
594:
592:
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586:
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567:
562:
557:
554:
548:
545:
541:
535:
532:
525:
523:
521:
512:
510:
501:
500:Pope Urban IV
492:
485:
483:
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471:
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460:
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113:
109:
107:
106:Pope Urban IV
103:
98:
93:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
52:to claim the
51:
47:
43:
35:
31:
27:
23:
18:
1606:
1587:
1566:
1547:cite journal
1535:. Retrieved
1522:
1516:
1481:
1459:
1440:
1421:. Retrieved
1409:
1386:
1367:
1348:
1326:
1304:
1265:
1253:
1246:Housley 1982
1241:
1229:
1222:McGlynn 2013
1217:
1205:
1193:
1166:
1154:
1142:
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1118:
1091:
1079:
1052:
1040:
1007:
978:
949:
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844:
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667:
655:
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534:
516:
497:
476:
472:
464:
440:
407:
396:Alexander IV
393:
371:
347:
321:
303:Papal States
295:
257:
183:Frederick II
144:Anacletus II
133:
110:
94:
56:for his son
41:
39:
1537:22 December
1423:21 December
1329:. Penguin.
1258:Weiler 2006
1234:Weiler 2006
1210:Pounds 1994
1186:Jobson 2012
1171:Weiler 2012
1147:Howell 2001
1135:Weiler 2006
1084:Weiler 2006
1072:Weiler 2006
1057:Rhodes 1895
1045:Weiler 2006
1012:Weiler 2006
1000:Weiler 2006
954:Weiler 2006
942:Weiler 2006
930:Weiler 2006
903:Weiler 2012
801:Weiler 2006
789:Weiler 2006
762:Weiler 2006
735:Weiler 2006
699:Weiler 2012
672:Weiler 2012
431:papal tiara
1628:Categories
606:Lloyd 2008
576:References
375:great seal
246:, Edmund,
116:Background
1434:required)
581:Citations
410:enfeoffed
354:Capetians
350:crusading
252:Katherine
134:By 1129,
28:, son of
1563:(1958).
1482:Edward I
1480:(1997).
1347:(1982).
1325:(2004).
1303:(1988).
566:Edward I
455:Beatrice
308:Conradin
248:Beatrice
244:Margaret
90:Conradin
1504:704063M
1294:Sources
451:Hugh II
316:regency
312:Manfred
224:England
175:vassals
159:Normans
82:Manfred
44:" is a
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380:Edward
328:Edmund
298:nuncio
250:, and
240:Edward
220:France
157:, the
86:regent
62:papacy
58:Edmund
26:Edmund
1527:JSTOR
526:Notes
203:) in
40:The "
1611:ISBN
1592:ISBN
1573:ISBN
1553:link
1539:2023
1490:ISBN
1464:ISBN
1445:ISBN
1425:2023
1391:ISBN
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277:and
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