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275:. It plays a major role in the global overturning circulation. Coastal polynyas (latent heat polynyas) are a source of AABW as brine rejection during the formation of sea ice at these polynyas increases the salinity of the seawater, which then sinks down to the ocean bottom as AABW. Antarctic polynyas form when ice masses diverge from the coast and move away in the direction of the wind, creating an exposed area of sea water which subsequently freezes over, with brine rejection, to form another mass of ice.
49:
414:, the largest and most biologically productive Arctic polynya, serves as a critical source of food in an otherwise barren region, enabling the existence of high-latitude human communities in the region for thousands of years. It may have served as a stepping stone for the original settlers of Greenland as they traversed through what is now northern Canada 4500 years ago. There are also indications that the North Water Polynya has aided
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Syväranta, Jari; Henderson, Andrew C. G.; Mackay, Helen; Taipale, Sami; Jeppesen, Erik; Larsen, Nicolaj K.; Crosta, Xavier; Giraudeau, Jacques; Wengrat, Simone; Nuttall, Mark; Grønnow, Bjarne; Mosbech, Anders; Davidson, Thomas A. (2021-07-22). "Vulnerability of the North Water ecosystem to climate change".
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coasts and are mainly created by strong winds pushing the ice away from the coast, and mid-sea or open-ocean polynyas, which may be found more sporadically in the middle of ice pack in certain locations, especially around
Antarctica. These locations are generally preconditioned by certain oceanic
1247:
Ribeiro, Sofia; Limoges, Audrey; Massé, Guillaume; Johansen, Kasper L.; Colgan, William; Weckström, Kaarina; Jackson, Rebecca; Georgiadis, Eleanor; Mikkelsen, Naja; Kuijpers, Antoon; Olsen, Jesper; Olsen, Steffen M.; Nissen, Martin; Andersen, Thorbjørn J.; Strunk, Astrid; Wetterich, Sebastian;
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is driven away from the coast, which leaves an area of open water within which new ice is formed. This new ice is then also herded downwind toward the first-year pack ice. When it reaches the pack ice, the new ice is consolidated onto the pack ice. This process continues over time. Latent heat
1111:
Labrousse, Sara; Williams, Guy; Tamura, Takeshi; Bestley, Sophie; Sallée, Jean-Baptiste; Fraser, Alexander D.; Sumner, Michael; Roquet, Fabien; Heerah, Karine; Picard, Baptiste; Guinet, Christophe; Harcourt, Robert; McMahon, Clive; Hindell, Mark A.; Charrassin, Jean-Benoit (2018-02-16).
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are a typical atmospheric trigger for the occurrence of mid-sea polynyas as the cyclonic winds push the ice in opposite directions away from the cyclone center. Also, cold fronts, where two opposite flows in direction are found, are ideal for creating a mid-sea polynya.
863:
Ohshima, Kay I.; Fukamachi, Yasushi; Williams, Guy D.; Nihashi, Sohey; Roquet, Fabien; Kitade, Yujiro; Tamura, Takeshi; Hirano, Daisuke; Herraiz-Borreguero, Laura (2013). "Antarctic Bottom Water production by intense sea-ice formation in the Cape
Darnley polynya".
827:
Ohshima, Kay I.; Fukamachi, Yasushi; Williams, Guy D.; Nihashi, Sohey; Roquet, Fabien; Kitade, Yujiro; Tamura, Takeshi; Hirano, Daisuke; Herraiz-Borreguero, Laura (2013). "Antarctic Bottom Water production by intense sea-ice formation in the Cape
Darnley polynya".
331:, the rate of phytoplankton growth is substantially higher in the open water of a polynya. The primary drivers of polynya blooms are sunlight and nutrients. Specifically, the lack of sea ice allows light, a necessary component for
228:
into the surface waters; this salty water then sinks. It is an open question as to whether the polynyas of the Arctic can produce enough dense water to form a major portion of the dense water required to drive the
295:, occur seasonally at the same time and place each year. Because animals can adapt their life strategies to this regularity, these types of polynyas are of special ecological research significance. In winter,
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Mid-sea polynyas are formed when specific atmospheric conditions occur over preconditioned oceanographic areas. Such atmospheric conditions should favor ice drift in opposite directions to open the ice pack.
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In general, polynyas tend to be more biologically productive as a result of containing more phytoplankton than the surrounding water. Therefore, due to the role of primary producers as the foundation of the
360:, polynyas are a critical food source for a variety of organisms such as fish, birds, and marine mammals. Listed below are several examples of the importance of polynyas to polar communities.
335:, to penetrate deeper into the water and enable elevated phytoplankton growth compared to the surrounding ice-covered waters. Furthermore, polynya formation is typically associated with
339:, a process that transports nutrient-rich water from the ocean bottom towards the surface. This influx of nutrients coupled with increased light levels often results in polynya blooms.
628:
Skogseth, R.; Haugan, P. M.; Haarpaintner, J. (2004-10-01). "Ice and brine production in
Storfjorden from four winters of satellite and in situ observations and modeling".
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over the Maud Rise seamount. It was first spotted in
September 1973 and persisted through multiple winters (1974–1976), and recently recurred in September 2017.
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that do not migrate south remain there. Polar bears are known to be able to swim as far as 65 kilometres (35 nautical miles) across open waters of a polynya.
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A depiction of an Arctic marine food web. The phytoplankton, the base of the food web, are able to grow due to the polynya in the sea ice above them.
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426:, and western explorers throughout history. Today, the North Water Polynya enables the existence of Greenland's northernmost towns, such as
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141:), which refers to a natural ice hole and was adopted in the 19th century by polar explorers to describe navigable portions of the sea.
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1184:"Introducing the North Water: Histories of exploration, ice dynamics, living resources, and human settlement in the Thule Region"
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Latent heat polynyas are regions of high ice production and therefore are possible sites of dense water production in both
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397:) from the surface to the seafloor associated with polynya blooms provides the nutrients necessary to sustain rich
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Polar cyclones at the origin of the reoccurrence of the Maud Rise
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673:"Polar Cyclones at the Origin of the Reoccurrence of the Maud Rise Polynya in Austral Winter 2017"
563:"Polar Cyclones at the Origin of the Reoccurrence of the Maud Rise Polynya in Austral Winter 2017"
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There are two main types of polynyas: coastal polynyas, which can be found year-round near the
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colonies are linked to a coastal polynya, where polynya size often correlates to colony size.
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in the 1950s and 1960s, there was significant concern about surfacing through the thick
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The presence of open water in an otherwise ice-covered area can result in a localized
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Polynyas have also supported human populations throughout history. For example, the
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Tremblay, J.-E.; Smith, W. O. (2007-01-01). Smith, W. O.; Barber, D. G. (eds.).
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is the dense water with high salinity that exists in the abyssal layer of the
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polynyas are therefore a major source of sea ice production in the
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A frosty Arctic condensation plume marks this polynya near the west shore of
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Francis, Diana; Eayrs, Clare; Cuesta, Juan; Holland, David (24 April 2019).
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1052:"Phytoplankton dynamics within 37 Antarctic coastal polynya systems"
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Francis, Diana; Eayrs, Clare; Cuesta, Juan; Holland, David (2019).
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Increased seal mortality rates were observed during years when the
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is thermodynamically driven, and typically occurs when warm water
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Hastrup, Kirsten; Mosbech, Anders; Grønnow, Bjarne (2018-03-01).
955:"Chapter 8 Primary Production and Nutrient Dynamics in Polynyas"
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Tamura, Takeshi; Ohshima, Kay I.; Nihashi, Sohey (2008-04-01).
772:"Mapping of sea ice production for Antarctic coastal polynyas"
199:, which act to drive ice away from a fixed boundary such as a
160:, also known as the Maud Rise Polynya, which occurs in the
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When submarines of the U.S. Navy made expeditions to the
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Coastal polynyas are formed through two main processes:
1000:
Jena, Babula; Narayana Pillai, Anilkumar (2019-12-11).
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Sherard Osborn, Peter Wells and A. Petermann. 1866.
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keeps the surface water temperature at or above the
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928:Earth Science Data Systems, NASA (15 March 1995).
41:Coastal polynyas are produced in the Antarctic by
521:Extent of Polynyas in the Bering and Chukchi Seas
393:The downward transport of carbon (in the form of
386:can feed, directly effecting the survival of the
478:surfaced within the same large polynya near the
156:One of the most famous mid-sea polynyas is the
211:. The polynya forms initially when first-year
1313:International North Water Polynya Study (NOW)
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680:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
567:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
538:On the Exploration of the North Polar Region
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107:) is an area of open water surrounded by
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727:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
630:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
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464:of the Arctic Ocean. In 1962, both the
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903:, Globaltwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg
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518:W.J. Stringer and J.E. Groves. 1991.
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961:. Polynyas: Windows to the World.
721:Johnson, Gregory C. (2008-05-01).
536:, Vol 12 no 2 1867–1868 pp 92–113
25:
1319: (archived 11 February 2009)
382:provides an ice-free area where
195:is formed through the action of
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1382:Geography of the Southern Ocean
1056:Journal of Geophysical Research
1286:Tales of a Cold War Submariner
371:In eastern Antarctica, 91% of
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1309: (archived 24 April 2019)
971:10.1016/S0422-9894(06)74008-9
262:Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW)
1307:(Error: unknown archive URL)
1098:"Penguins in high latitudes"
959:Elsevier Oceanography Series
776:Geophysical Research Letters
551:, Merriam Webster Dictionary
378:The presence of polynyas in
901:Polar Bear: Ursus maritimus
283:Some polynyas, such as the
1398:
1362:Polar regions of the Earth
1264:10.1038/s41467-021-24742-0
1138:10.1038/s41598-018-21388-9
1006:The Cryosphere Discussions
449:
26:
1208:10.1007/s13280-018-1030-2
1050:Arrigo, Kevin R. (2003).
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231:thermohaline circulation
29:Polynya (disambiguation)
1372:Geography of the Arctic
1323:Polynya north of Alaska
1034:10.5194/tc-14-1385-2020
898:C. Michael Hogan. 2008
1327:NASA Earth Observatory
1100:. NZETC. 12 June 2014.
452:Arctic sea ice decline
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268:Antarctic Bottom Water
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134:Russian pronunciation:
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1367:Geography terminology
1289:by Dan Summitt, 2004.
1251:Nature Communications
965:. Elsevier: 239–269.
450:Further information:
368:Polynya did not open.
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343:Biological production
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178:sensible heat polynya
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1194:(Suppl 2): 162–174.
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797:10.1029/2007gl032903
748:10.1029/2007jc004477
700:10.1029/2019JD030618
650:10.1029/2004jc002384
587:10.1029/2019JD030618
27:For other uses, see
1200:2018Ambio..47S.162H
1130:2018NatSR...8.3183L
1068:2003JGRC..108.3271A
1015:10.5194/tc-2019-282
878:2013NatGe...6..235O
842:2013NatGe...6..235O
788:2008GeoRL..35.7606T
739:2008JGRC..113.5027J
692:2019JGRD..124.5251F
642:2004JGRC..10910008S
579:2019JGRD..124.5251F
484:U.S. Atlantic Fleet
412:North Water Polynya
285:North Water Polynya
193:latent heat polynya
138:[pəɫɨˈnʲja]
1118:Scientific Reports
908:2008-12-24 at the
488:U.S. Pacific Fleet
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327:, as evidenced by
321:marine algal bloom
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830:Nature Geoscience
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1347:Glaciology
1336:Categories
986:2022-10-06
939:2022-10-06
506:References
480:North Pole
458:North Pole
440:Siorapaluk
436:Savissivik
388:Cape Royds
255:Baffin Bay
209:ice bridge
153:dynamics.
119:. It is a
62:Hudson Bay
1272:2041-1723
1216:0044-7447
1146:2045-2322
1084:0148-0227
1024:210145931
934:Earthdata
814:128716199
806:1944-8007
757:2156-2202
708:149497432
658:2156-2202
603:149497432
595:2169-8996
475:Seadragon
337:upwelling
329:ice algae
293:Greenland
201:coastline
182:upwelling
168:Formation
146:Antarctic
123:from the
1234:29516442
1164:29453356
906:Archived
494:See also
486:and the
462:pack ice
432:Qeqertat
384:penguins
366:Ross Sea
305:narwhals
301:walruses
299:such as
287:between
213:pack ice
207:, or an
205:fast ice
121:loanword
117:fast ice
113:pack ice
1377:Sea ice
1315:at the
1225:5963564
1196:Bibcode
1155:5816617
1126:Bibcode
1064:Bibcode
874:Bibcode
838:Bibcode
784:Bibcode
735:Bibcode
688:Bibcode
638:Bibcode
575:Bibcode
549:polynya
428:Qaanaaq
399:benthic
325:sea ice
309:belugas
279:Ecology
257:polynya
251:narwhal
129:полынья
125:Russian
109:sea ice
70:polynya
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307:, and
289:Canada
150:Arctic
1188:Ambio
1020:S2CID
810:S2CID
704:S2CID
676:(PDF)
599:S2CID
468:Skate
424:Norse
420:Inuit
416:Thule
253:in a
1268:ISSN
1230:PMID
1212:ISSN
1160:PMID
1142:ISSN
1080:ISSN
975:ISBN
802:ISSN
753:ISSN
654:ISSN
591:ISSN
473:USS
471:and
466:USS
438:and
291:and
148:and
1325:at
1260:doi
1220:PMC
1204:doi
1150:PMC
1134:doi
1072:doi
1060:108
1030:doi
1010:doi
967:doi
882:doi
846:doi
792:doi
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696:doi
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646:doi
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583:doi
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