Siege of Godesberg - Knowledge (XXG)

891:—would be ineffective. The distance between the curtain wall and the valley floor and the angle of the hill placed the Godesburg out of range. The besiegers had no choice but to use expensive artillery, although the angle would decrease its effectiveness. Ferdinand initially placed three cannons at the foot of the mountain, in Godesberg village. Daily, cannonballs and mortar shells smashed against the castle's walls. Nightly, the defenders repaired the damage. At the following sunrise, the assault began anew. Ferdinand's cannons were ineffective against the fortification, as were his mortars; in the course of the cannonade, return fire even managed to destroy a few of his own pieces. From his place of safety in the north, Gebhard understood well the potential of the loss of the Godesburg, yet he was relatively helpless to help his garrison. In an effort to garner financial support from the Protestant states, in November 1583 he wrote to the Archbishop of Canterbury, in London: "Verily, the Roman Antichrist moves every stone to oppress us and our churches ..." 962:

maintain that the Abbot of Heisterbach, one of the prisoners, had been treated decently by Buchner throughout his imprisonment in the castle and himself asked for Buchner's life to be spared. The prisoners were released. With much difficulty, given the state of mind of the besiegers, Ferdinand and Arenberg brought the Buchners and Sudermann out of the castle alive. Once the Buchners, Sudermann, and the hostages were clear of the fortress, Ferdinand released his troops, who were in an ugly mood and hungry for blood and plunder. All those who remained in the keep—soldiers, men, women and children—were killed, some inside the keep, some in the courtyard below; the slaughter lasted well into the night. The castle's 178 dead were buried in two mass graves whose locations remain unknown. Among those who perished in the destruction and storming of the castle was also one of the prisoners, a vicar from Hildesheim. The Hildesheim suffragan, too, was not among the rescued prisoners; he had died during his incarceration, a short while before the castle was stormed.

899:. Within a few hours, his cannonade had breached them. Ferdinand sent three Italian experts to examine the breach and to advise him on the next step; the Italians, having come under fire during their examination, concluded that storming the castle would incur many casualties. The defenders still had the advantage of height and would be able to shoot at attackers from multiple towers and defensive positions inside the walls. Ferdinand decided not to pursue this tactic. Unable to storm the castle, Ferdinand considered two options: abandon the siege, which he could not do, or blow up the fortress. This option of last resort usually made a fortress unusable. Furthermore, while he considered his options, the defenders repaired the breaches caused by the cannonade and reinforced the walls, making them even stronger than they had been. The defenders also removed the roof of the St. Michael's Chapel in the castle's outer ward, filled the chapel with dirt to reinforce its walls, and placed some of their artillery pieces within the walls. 870: 50: 621: 752: 837:(mayor) Dr. Heinrich Sudermann (1520–1591), a jurist and ambassador, and one of the most influential men in the imperial city and throughout the merchant capitals of the northern German states. According to contemporary sources, around 180 people lived in the facility, including peasants, the Dutch soldiers defending it, and an unknown number of women and children. The fortress was also home to several of Gebhard's prisoners. The Abbot of Heisterbach, Johann von St. Vith, had been taken prisoner in July 1583 when Sudermann's troops sacked several villages in the region and plundered the Heisterbach monastery. Other prisoners held in the Godesburg included Gebhard von Bothmer, the suffragan (auxiliary bishop) of Hildesheim, and 990: 477: 929: 744:, the Archbishop of Cologne, who was himself in disputed possession of the Electorate and fighting to keep his position. Although his competitors deposed Dietrich in 1212, his successors finished and enlarged the fortress; it featured in chronicles of the subsequent centuries as both a symbolic and physical embodiment of the power of the archbishop of Cologne in his many struggles for regional authority in secular and ecclesiastical matters. Furthermore, by the late 14th century, the fortress had become the repository of the Elector's valuables and archives. By the mid-16th century, with the inclusion of residential facilities, the castle was popularly considered the 821: 1115: 1062:, a collection of important scenes and locales, they included Hogenberg's engraving of its destruction as not only an important sight, but an important event. Hogenberg lived in Bonn and Cologne in 1583, and likely saw the site himself. After overwhelming the Godesburg, the Bavarians found a large marble slab in the ruins: the castle's foundation stone, which had been displaced by the explosion. The stone is a block of black marble with a Latin inscription commemorating the construction of the fortress by Dietrich I von Hengebach in 1210: 1035: 612: 1027:

enemy artillery fortresses. These could be protected with relatively small garrisons, but taking them required both expensive artillery and enough men to storm the battlements. Furthermore, the victor had to maintain and defend all his possessions as they were acquired. Even the ruin of the Godesburg required a garrison and a defensive strategy; as a strategic point on the north–south road from Bonn to Koblenz, it came under siege in 1586 and again in 1588. The Cologne War, similar to the

796:; nevertheless, the Godesburg's cordons of thick, rounded walls and massive iron-studded gates made its defenders formidable adversaries. Its height, some 120 meters (400 ft) above the Rhine on the peak of a steep hill, made artillery assault difficult. The approach road, with its hairpin turns, made battering rams impractical. The turns, overlooked by the castle wall, made foot assault dangerous and slow. Defenders could fire down on attackers from many angles. 224: 215: 203: 192: 173: 150: 958:(latrines) that emptied on the hillside, thus gaining access to the interior of the castle. There they killed around 20 of the defenders in fierce fighting; the remaining defenders, approximately 70 men, among them Buchner and Sudermann, the garrison commander and his lieutenant, sought refuge in the castle's keep. In this way, Ferdinand's infantry at last gained unopposed access to the fortress. Storming the castle had taken about two hours. 800:

one fortified and armed city to another and investing time and money in one of two outcomes. Ideally, a show of extraordinary force convinced city leaders to surrender. If the show of force did not intimidate a city, the alternative was an expensive siege that reduced the city to rubble and ended with storming the ruins. In the case of the former, when a city capitulated, it would have to quarter troops at its own expense, called

652:. After 1579, she maintained a lengthy liaison with the Archbishop of Cologne, Gebhard of Waldburg-Trauchburg, Truchsess of Waldburg. In defense of her honor, two of her brothers convinced Gebhard to marry her, and Gebhard considered converting to Calvinism for her. Rumors spread throughout the Electorate of his possible conversion, and that he might refuse to relinquish his position. The Electorate had overcome similar problems. 2695: 2123: 1362: 161: 2760: 660:, Gebhard's immediate predecessor, had resigned upon his marriage. In December 1582, Gebhard announced his conversion and extended equal religious rights to Protestants in the Electorate. In February, he married Agnes. At the end of March 1583, the Pope excommunicated him. The Cathedral chapter promptly elected a new archbishop, Ernest of Bavaria. 790:. By the 1580s, the Godesburg was not only the favorite residence of the Elector, but also an elaborate stone fortress. Although it retained some of its medieval character, it had been enhanced partially in the style made popular by Italian military architects. The physical location on the mountain did not permit the star-shaped 1031:, was not a war of assembled armies facing each other on a field, but a war of artillery sieges. It required men who could operate the machinery of war, which meant extensive economic resources for soldiers to build and operate the siege works, and a political and military will to keep the machinery of war operating. 1026:

Advances in military architecture over the previous century had led to the construction or enhancement of fortresses that could withstand the pounding of cannonballs and mortar shells. For both Gebhard and Ernest, winning the war required mobilizing enough men to encircle a seemingly endless array of

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argued that these sources are mistaken, and that the explosion clearly occurred in the morning. All sources agree that the explosion, with a dreadful crack, propelled chunks of the towers and walls high into the air. Almost half the Godesburg collapsed instantly. According to a newspaper report dated

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On 6 December, the sappers reached the south-eastern side of the fortress's outermost wall and then spent another ten days undermining the basalt on which the castle stood; they completed their work on 16 December and placed 680 kilograms (1,500 lb) of powder into the mine. Ferdinand reported on

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The Godesburg before its destruction, as depicted on a church stained-glass window circa 1500. This drawing is believed to be the only surviving detailed picture of the castle as it looked before its destruction. The image shows the structure as seen from the north; St. Michael's Chapel is visible on

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education. Once his position was secured, he invited Jesuits into the territory to help re-establish Catholicism, a task which the order approached zealously. They ejected Protestant pastors from parishes, sometimes by force, and re-established catechism education and pastoral visitations. Even when

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were also either heavily damaged or destroyed before, during and after the siege. In addition to damage to the towns and cities, Ernest's supporters managed to restrict imports and exports to and from the Electorate, not only crippling Gebhard's financial resources but resulting in economic hardship

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Amidst the flames and rubble, Arenberg's and Ferdinand's troops tried to storm the castle, but found their way blocked by masses of debris created by their own explosives. Furthermore, although close to half of the garrison had perished in the explosion and subsequent collapse of the fortifications,

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On 13–14 November, Ferdinand of Bavaria (Ernest's brother) and the Count of Arenberg took the Elector's castle at Poppelsdorf; on 18 November, they moved to attack the Godesburg. This fortress was considerably stronger than the one at Poppelsdorf and of supreme strategic importance for the projected

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Fortifications such as this, and the star-shaped fortresses more commonly found in the flatter lands of the Dutch Provinces, increasingly made 16th-century warfare both difficult and expensive; victory was not simply a matter of winning a battle over the enemy's army. Victory required traveling from

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one another by assisting, promoting or undermining local and regional competition among the German princes, as they did in the feud between Gebhard and Ernest. Conversely, German princes, dukes, and counts realized that they could acquire an edge over their competitors by promoting the interests of

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to hold the position. Wittelsbach authority in northwestern German territories endured until the mid-18th century, with the election of a succession of Bavarian princes to the archbishop's throne and to the prince-elector's seat. This gave the family two voices in the choice of imperial candidates,

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Finally, the German tradition of local and regional autonomy created structural and cultural differences in the Holy Roman Empire, compared to the increasingly centralized authority of such other European states as France, England, and Spain. The unabashed intervention of Spanish, French, Italian,

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The secular possessions of the Elector of Cologne stretched for about 60 kilometers (37 mi) along the Rhine River. The gray lines show the modern boundaries of Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands; the rivers are also shown on their modern course. Cologne, the imperial city, was not a part of

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On 17 December, Ferdinand again asked the castle's defenders to surrender. They replied that they did not know the meaning of the word and would hold the Godesburg to the last man. A report dated 23 December 1583 relates that, having given Ferdinand a rude reply, the defenders went back to lunch.

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to be dug into the side of the mountain. The sapping was difficult and dangerous and the sappers worked under continuous attack from the castle's defenders, who fired on them with small arms and the castle's artillery and dropped rocks and debris on their heads. The forced labor of local peasants

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Gebhard's defeat also changed the religious balance in the northwestern states. Although the Peace of Augsburg (1555) had addressed earlier the problem of religious pluralism, the solution potentially converted simple, and usually local, legal disputes into dynastic and religious warfare, as the

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Ferdinand ordered 400 men to enter the saps; these men would storm the castle once the mine had been detonated. The remainder of his cavalry and foot soldiers were to wait in the fields below. Some sources assert that the fuse was lit at around 1:00 pm, although the 19th-century local historian

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Although financial help from the English was not forthcoming, Ferdinand could not break the defenses. On 28 November, ten days after the beginning of the siege, artillery fire had wasted several thousand pounds of powder in the ineffectual bombardment. Ferdinand moved his cannons to an elevated

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Out of options, Buchner opened negotiations, using those interned in the castle as hostages. Presenting them at the keep's door, he made clear that they would be killed unless Ferdinand promised to spare his, his wife's and Sudermann's lives. Ferdinand acceded to Buchner's demand; some sources

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core of the mountain, placed 680 kilograms (1,500 lb) of powder into the tunnel and blew up a significant part of the fortifications. The explosion killed many of the defending troops, but the resulting rubble impeded the attackers' progress, and the remaining defenders continued to offer

1066:. A gold inscription was added to the back of the stone, noting that it had been found "on the very top of the blasted wall". Ferdinand took the stone to Munich, where it was kept in a museum beside a fresco painting in an arcade commemorating the siege. Today, the foundation stone is in the 997:

The siege of the Godesburg and its subsequent destruction were a mere taste of things to come. It was the first of many sieges in the Cologne War, and the castle's fall eventually led to the fall not just of Bonn, but of several other principal towns and cities in the Electorate of Cologne:

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Dutch, English and Scots mercenaries in the war, as well as the influence of papal gold, changed the dynamic of internal German confessional and dynastic disputes. The great "players" of the early modern European political stage realized that they could enhance their own positions

689:, Gebhard secured some of the northern and eastern portions of the Electorate, where he held a geographical advantage in his proximity to the rebellious Dutch provinces. In the south, however, Ferdinand's troops hunted the soldiers Gebhard had left in possession of such 462:; using prisoners held in the dungeons as hostages, the commander negotiated safe passage for himself, his wife and his lieutenant. The others who were left in the keep—men, women and children—were killed. Nearby Bonn fell to the Bavarians the following month. 861:, murder and rape. On 18 November, the first day of the siege, Ferdinand sent a trumpeter and formally asked the fortress to surrender; the defending garrison replied that they had sworn their allegiance to Gebhard and would fight to the death for him. 2139:

refers to the day of the Moorish martyrs, the patron saints of nearby Bonn; Potthoff gives 5 October as the date for the day of the Moorish martyrs, while Untermann, Glaser and other authors give 15 October. For an image of the foundation stone, see

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communities appeared to be reconverted, the Jesuits maintained strict supervision to identify recalcitrant Protestants or backsliders. The Jesuit reintroduction of Catholicism postponed the solution of Germany's religious problems for another

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those who remained offered staunch resistance by throwing rocks on the approaching attackers, causing a large number of casualties. In frustration, 40 or 50 of the attackers tied together two ladders and crawled through the sluice-ways of the

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Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg (right) converted to Protestantism and married a Protestant canoness, Agnes von Mansfeld-Eisleben (left); when he refused to resign from his ecclesiastical dignities, the Cathedral chapter elected another

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The Godesburg was defended by Lieutenant Colonel Felix Buchner, Captain of the Guard Eduard Sudermann, a garrison of soldiers from the Netherlands, and a few cannons. Sudermann was a patrician from Cologne, and the son of Cologne's

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In response, Ferdinand took control of the village at the foot of the mountain and encircled the site. He surveyed the locale for two days to identify the most promising angle of attack. The customary equipage of siege warfare—the

598:. In an ecclesiastical territory, if the prelate changed his religion, his subjects did not have to do so. Instead, the prelate was expected to resign from his post. Problematically, the 1555 agreement did not specify this detail. 1148:

The scale of involvement of such external mercenary armies as Spain's Army of Flanders set a precedent that internationalized contests of local autonomy and religious issues in the German states, a problem not settled until the

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The first cannonade took place from the south-east; the cannons were located in Godesberg village at the foot of the mountain. The second cannonade was from a vineyard to the west; it temporarily breached the walls of the outer

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on the Protestant side, and the Duchy of Bavaria on the Catholic side. Italian mercenaries hired with papal gold augmented the Catholic force. In 1586, the conflict expanded further, with direct involvement of the

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had fallen to Ferdinand's army and many of Gebhard's erstwhile supporters—including his own brother—had returned home. In some cases, they honored parole agreements made after their capture. A strong supporter,

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With two competing archbishops, both claiming the see and the Electorate, the contenders and their supporters gathered the troops. In numbers, Ernest had the advantage. The Pope hired 5,000 mercenaries from the

594:: the subjects of a secular prince followed the religion of their sovereign. Ecclesiastical reservation excluded the territories of the imperial prelates (bishops, archbishops, abbots or abbesses) from 422:

or keep) developed as a stronghold of the Electoral archives and valuables. By the mid-16th century, the Godesburg was considered nearly impregnable and had become a symbol of the dual power of the

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Poppelsdorf, Gebhard's country home where he first brought his bride in February, was taken by Ernest's supporters in mid-November, 1583. After they finished at Poppelsdorf, they moved to Godesberg

973:. Ernest's troops, under his brother's command, saturated the region, and the 7.3 kilometers (4.5 mi) between Godesberg and Bonn bore a greater resemblance to a military camp than to a road. 977:

riders and squadrons of Italian cavalry, paid for by the pope, galloped back and forth. Forty companies of infantry trudged toward Bonn, including Walloons and Bavarians. They looked forward to

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and Ernest's forces had acquired a ruin. The residence was unusable, and the fortifications were mere rubble. The keep had survived the blast and various armies used it as a watch tower in the

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Gebhard's eventual defeat changed the balance of power in the Electoral College of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1589, Ernest of Bavaria became uncontested Prince-elector of Cologne, the first

920:, dated 15 December 1583: "The fortress stands on solid rock. ...esterday we had reached the outer wall of the castle, and in a day or two we hope to send the fortress into the sky." 778:. In addition to the construction of the small residence, these archbishops also expanded the inner works to include dungeons and a chapel; they fortified the walls with towers and 49: 2805: 385:(1583–1589). Seeking to wrest control of an important fortification, Bavarian and mercenary soldiers surrounded the Godesberg, and the village then of the same name, now 674: 283: 2591:

The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries' Wars (Cambridge Studies in Early Modern History)

412:, the region's economic powerhouse. Over time, the Electors strengthened its walls and heightened its towers. They added a small residence in the 14th century and the 722:

had fallen, although he still held the Godesburg, located near the villages of Godesberg and Friesdorf, the formidable fortress at Bonn, and the fortified village of

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and the dukes of the House of Wittelsbach—that acquired religious overtones. The dispute had broad implications in the political, social, and dynastic balance of the

2795: 2395:"Eroberung des Schlosses Poppelsdorf, Sprengung und Erstürmung der Burg Godesberg und Einnahme der kurfürstlichen Residenzstadt Bonn. November 1583 – Februar 1584." 1579:"Eroberung des Schlosses Poppelsdorf, Sprengung und Erstürmung der Burg Godesberg und Einnahme der kurfürstlichen Residenzstadt Bonn. November 1583 – Februar 1584." 895:

position in a hillside vineyard to the west of the Godesburg. The height offered a more advantageous trajectory with which to fire on the walls of the Godesburg's

714:, returned to the Palatine when his brother died. Other supporters were frustrated by Gebhard's chronic inability to pay his troops, or intimidated by threats of 2031:

English observers noted that the export of wine from the Palatinate through the Electorate was restricted early in the war. Sophie Crawford Lomas (editor).

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in 1648. Despite that settlement, German states remained vulnerable to both external intervention and religious division, as they were in the Cologne War.

1333: 1592:. Geschichte der Stadt Köln, meist aus den Quellen des Kölner Stadt-Archivs, Vol. 5. Köln/Neuß: L. Schwann'sche Verlagshandlung, 1863–1880, p. 156; 207: 751: 701:; Gebhard's troops were forced out of their strongholds, hunted through the countryside, and eventually captured. By the fall of 1583, most of the 2394: 1578: 2790: 2732: 2674: 2598: 2583: 2541: 2526: 2416: 2316: 2286: 2107: 1699: 1443: 1320: 276: 544:

fought for control of the Electorate; within a few months, the local feud between the two parties expanded to include supporters from the

857:. His soldiers, among them Spanish and Italian mercenaries, took up quarters in neighboring villages, a process accompanied by pillage, 2764: 445:

The Godesburg came under attack from Bavarian forces in November 1583. It resisted a lengthy cannonade by the attacking army; finally,

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system were the Bavarians able to overcome their opponents. The Godesburg's commander and some surviving defenders took refuge in the

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Anno · D(omi)ni · M·C·C·X · Gudensburg · Fundatum · E(st) · A · Teoderico · Ep(iscop)o · I(n) · Die · Mauror(um) · M(a)r(tyrum)

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family to support the new Elector. Ernest's brother, the Duke of Bavaria, provided an army and Ernest arranged for his brother

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of a medieval castle, and shows also the simple white shield with the black crusaders' cross of the Electorate of Cologne

981:, the Elector's capital city, to which they laid siege on 21 December 1583, and which they took on 28 January 1584. 783: 545: 305: 989: 98: 2696:"primus lapis in fundamentum deponitur" Kunsthistorische Überlegungen zur Funktion der Grundsteinlegung im Mittelalter 2571: 2124:"primus lapis in fundamentum deponitur" Kunsthistorische Überlegungen zur Funktion der Grundsteinlegung im Mittelalter 1431: 1363:"primus lapis in fundamentum deponitur" Kunsthistorische Überlegungen zur Funktion der Grundsteinlegung im Mittelalter 514: 1374:

6, 2003, issue 23. Potthoff gives 5 October as the date; Untermann, Glaser (1980) and other authors give 15 October.

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13 January 1584, debris raining on the valley below damaged several houses, and destroyed some of them completely.

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staunch resistance. Only when some of the attackers entered the castle's inner courtyard through the

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Calendar of State Papers Foreign, Elizabeth, Volume 18: July 1583 – July 1584 (1914), pp. 250–265.

1150: 1124: 1108: 554: 393:, built in the early 13th century during a contest over the election of two competing archbishops. 1095:, then the archbishop and prince-elector, cast his vote for Charles and personally crowned him at 476: 330: 2690: 2642: 2212: 2118: 1357: 1282: 682: 678:, the southern territory of the Electorate; his troops plundered many of its villages and towns. 2514:, University of London & History of Parliament Trust, 2009. Accessed 22 November 2009. 933: 912:

minimized losses among Ferdinand's own troops, but many of the peasants perished in the effort.

2728: 2670: 2632: 2631:. Beihefte zur Mediaevistik, Band 7, Peter Lang Europäischer Verlag der Wissenschaften, 2006, 2594: 2579: 2537: 2522: 2461: 2412: 2312: 2282: 2103: 1695: 1649: 1487: 1439: 1316: 1100: 585: 577: 573: 530: 526: 439: 431: 154: 2210:(9 December 1741) and elected 'King of the Romans' on 24 January 1742, and took the title of 2053:

University of London & History of Parliament Trust, 2009. Accessed 22 November 2009.

2609: 2500: 1678: 1486:

Beihefte zur Mediaevistik, Band 7, Peter Lang Europäischer Verlag der Wissenschaften, 2006,

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Sutherland, N.M. "Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics."

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Annalen des historischen Vereins für den Niederrhein, insbesondere die alte Erzdiözese Köln

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Annalen des historischen Vereins für den Niederrhein, insbesondere die alte Erzdiözese Köln

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N.M. Sutherland. "Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics."

820: 2511: 2048: 1340: 849:, across the Rhine from Cologne. To besiege the fortress, Ferdinand brought more than 400 792: 765: 653: 564:

At its most fundamental, it was a local feud between two competing dynastic interests—the

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The fortification originally had been constructed in the medieval style. In the reign of

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upon his coronation on 12 February 1742. See Benians. pp. 230–233; Holborn, pp. 191–247.

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This 18th-century depiction shows the effects the explosion had on the thick stone walls

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to the Wittelsbach family, albeit a brief event, was only resolved by the ascension of

846: 838: 637: 588:(1555). The 1555 agreement settled religious problems in the Empire with the principle 423: 1034: 928: 2774: 1589: 1043: 1011: 698: 649: 518: 386: 88: 2741: 2432: 1311:. Bonn: Hansteins Verlag, 1897, v. 3, pp. 128–224, p. 173 cited; Alfred Wiedemann. 1242: 1189: 1054:

The destruction of so prominent a fortress was also news. When Frans Hogenberg and

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valley, the Godesburg's strategic position commanded the roads leading to and from

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the Electorate's secular domains, although it was part of the episcopal diocese.

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were also not in the Electorate, but were important locations in the Cologne War

471: 442:, was yet another schismatic episode in the Electoral and archdiocesan history. 382: 293: 41: 611: 896: 805: 2705:

Cistercienser. Brandenburgische Zeitschrift rund um das cisterciensische Erbe

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Cistercienser. Brandenburgische Zeitschrift rund um das cisterciensische Erbe

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Cistercienser. Brandenburgische Zeitschrift rund um das cisterciensische Erbe

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would be given to the defenders and the victorious soldiers were released to

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The Godesburg foundation stone was laid on 15 October 1210 upon the order of

113: 100: 1114: 1096: 955: 884: 809: 735: 694: 565: 510: 390: 2401:. Sechsunddreißigstes Heft, pp. 110–178. Köln: DuMont-Schauberg. 1881. 2759: 2458:

The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages

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The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages

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Hennes, p. 120; Hennes maintains the Italian captain's name was Ranuccini.

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Geschichte der Stadt Köln, meist aus den Quellen des Kölner Stadt-Archivs

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Brodek, Theodor V. "Socio-Political Realities of the Holy Roman Empire,"

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Theodor V. Brodek. "Socio-Political Realities of the Holy Roman Empire."

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Cologne War itself demonstrated. The result of the Cologne War gave the

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The Cologne War, 1583–1589, was triggered by the 1582 conversion of the

2568:(ADB). Band 12, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1880, pp. 650–652. 2484:(ADB). Band 37, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1894, pp. 121–127. 908: 641: 522: 455: 409: 2610:

Die Godesburg – Archäologie und Baugeschichte einer kurkölnischen Burg

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Die Godesburg – Archäologie und Baugeschichte einer kurkölnischen Burg

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Die Godesburg – Archäologie und Baugeschichte einer kurkölnischen Burg

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Engraving by Frans Hogenberg (1535–1590). Hogenberg and Georg Braun,

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of Cologne, one of the wealthiest ecclesiastical territories in the

1522:(ADB). Band 37, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1894, pp. 121–127; 936:(1593–1650) depicts a view of the fortress prior to its destruction 381:, 18 November – 17 December 1583, was the first major siege of the 2667:

Die Stadt Bonn und ihr Umland: ein geographischer Exkursionsführer

2561: 2338: 2079: 1585:. Sechsunddreißigstes Heft. Köln: DuMont-Schauberg. 1881, p. 128; 1113: 1033: 1015: 1003: 988: 927: 868: 858: 819: 750: 686: 482: 475: 397: 2501:

Gebhard to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishop of London

2342: 2148: 2086:(ADB). Band 12, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1880, pp. 650–652. 1679:

Gebhard to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishop of London

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Untermann states 2033:Calendar of State Papers Foreign, Elizabeth 1923: 1921: 1829: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1518:Herman Keussen. "Sudermann, Heinrich". In: 517:in 1583. When he refused to relinquish the 2806:Military history of North Rhine-Westphalia 2627:. In Wagener, Olaf and Laß, Heiko (eds.). 1343:2002–2008. Accessed 31 October 2009. 1296: 1294: 1099:. The shift of the emperor's orb from the 1010:. Several smaller fortified towns such as 284: 270: 262: 31: 2725:Geschichte Godesbergs und seiner Umgebung 2717:, v. 3 (1907), Kempten. Kösel, 1888–1907. 2447:Max III Joseph und die europaische Macht. 2368:Dumont, Karl Theodor & Robert Haass. 2227:Max III Joseph und die europaische Macht. 2225:Charles Ingrao. "Review of Alois Schmid, 1313:Geschichte Godesbergs und seiner Umgebung 1238: 1236: 672:army to take possession of the so-called 2519:Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603 2131:archive, p. 6. Originally published in: 1809:Karl Theodor Dumont & Robert Haass. 1692:Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603 1482:In Wagener, Olaf and Laß, Heiko (eds.). 1370:archive, p. 6. Originally published in: 1230:Köln: DuMont-Schauberg, 1878, pp. 5–10. 1196:. Bonn: T. Habicht Verlag, 1864, p. 43. 1166: 2796:Sieges involving the Holy Roman Empire 1436:The Flanders Army and the Spanish Road 1398:Weyden, pp. 36–42, specifically p. 42. 1046:depicts the 21st-century ruins of the 2233:Vol. 93, No. 5 (Dec., 1988), p. 1351. 1111:, eschewed any imperial pretensions. 7: 2360:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2266:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 903:Sapping (completed 16 December 1583) 718:. By late October 1583, most of the 503:Archbishop-Prince Elector of Cologne 2345:, 2002–2010. Accessed 20 July 2010. 2151:, 2002–2010. Accessed 20 July 2010. 1091:to the imperial title; his brother 932:This engraving by the Swiss artist 540:Initially, troops of the competing 25: 2487:Lomas, Sophie Crawford (editor). 513:, and his subsequent marriage to 27:1583 siege during the Cologne War 2758: 2748:. Bonn: T. Habicht Verlag, 1864. 1577:Prof. Dr. Heinrich Joseph Floß. 619: 610: 256:178 killed, wounded and captured 222: 213: 201: 190: 171: 159: 148: 48: 2451:The American Historical Review, 2392:Floß, Heinrich Joseph Prof. Dr. 2362:, 1971, 1(3), pp. 395–405. 2231:The American Historical Review, 1813:. Köln: Bachem, 1883–, p. 229; 1760:Heimatbuch des Landkreises Bonn 1085:Charles Albert, Duke of Bavaria 865:Cannonade (18–28 November 1583) 2566:Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 2481:Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 2084:Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 1520:Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 907:Ferdinand reluctantly ordered 507:Gebhard, Truchsess of Waldburg 436:Gebhard, Truchsess of Waldburg 1: 2791:1583 in the Holy Roman Empire 2682:The English Historical Review 2649:, 49(1976): pp. 217–241. 2617:, University of Munich, 2009. 2429:Köln: DuMont-Schauberg. 1878. 1332:Tourism & Congress GmbH, 1279:The English Historical Review 716:Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor 584:established in the religious 580:. It tested the principle of 2657:Rheinische Geschichtsblätter 2453:Vol. 93, No. 5 (Dec., 1988). 2355:. New York: MacMillan, 1905. 2353:The Cambridge Modern History 1946:Potthoff 2006, pp. 202–203; 1930:Potthoff 2006, pp. 202–203; 1309:Rheinische Geschichtsblätter 845:, the captured commander of 756:the right, in the foreground 658:Salentin of Isenburg-Grenzau 546:Electorate of the Palatinate 529:elected another archbishop, 438:, and the Catholic Elector, 55:Capture of Godesberg in 1583 2536:. New York: Viking, 2004, 2445:. "Review of Alois Schmid, 2184:Potthoff 2009, pp. 10, 24; 1714:Potthoff 2006, pp. 199–200. 1635:Potthoff 2006, pp. 198–200. 816:Investment of the Godesburg 2827: 2311:. New York: Viking, 2004, 1251:Princeton University Press 762:Siegfried II of Westerburg 733: 712:Louis VI, Elector Palatine 710:, brother of the powerful 582:ecclesiastical reservation 515:Agnes of Mansfeld-Eisleben 469: 253:Unknown killed and wounded 71:17 December 1583 2786:European wars of religion 2781:Battles involving Bavaria 2765:Siege of Godesberg (1583) 2669:. Ferd. Dümmlers Verlag. 2425:Hennes, Johann Heinrich. 2411:, München: Hirmer, 1980, 2102:, München: Hirmer, 1980, 1093:Klemens August of Bavaria 934:Matthäus Merian the Elder 708:Johann Casimir of Simmern 602:Controversy of conversion 596:cuius regio, eius religio 591:Cuius regio, eius religio 301: 247: 232: 183: 141: 61: 47: 39: 18:Siege of Godesberg (1583) 2801:1583 in military history 2246:, 49(1976): pp. 217–241. 1226:Johann Heinrich Hennes. 1175:Civitates orbis terrarum 1068:Rheinisches Landesmuseum 1060:Civitates Orbis Terrarum 561:on the Protestant side. 2517:MacCaffrey, Wallace T. 2456:Kaufmann, J. E. et al. 1990:Potthoff 2006, p. 203; 1871:Potthoff 2006, p. 202; 1793:Potthoff 2006, p. 201; 1690:Wallace T. MacCaffrey, 1644:J. E. Kaufmann, et al. 1573:Potthoff 2006, p. 202; 57:, Inname van Godesberg 2615:Inaugural dissertation 2532:MacCulloch, Diarmaid. 2505:British History Online 2495:, October 8–18, 1583. 2372:. Köln: Bachem, 1883–. 2349:Benians, Ernest Alfred 2172:Weyden, pp. 39, 43–44. 2114:Potthoff 2009, p. 10; 2042:British History Online 1899:Potthoff 2006, p. 201. 1762:, Vol. 2, 1959, p. 17. 1731:Potthoff 2006, p. 200. 1623:Potthoff 2006, p. 197. 1561:Potthoff 2006, p. 196. 1549:Potthoff 2006, p. 198. 1119: 1074:Long-term consequences 1051: 994: 937: 875: 825: 757: 648:, today a district of 559:Elizabeth I of England 542:Archbishops of Cologne 498: 240:5 squadrons of cavalry 184:Commanders and leaders 2701:Heidelberg University 2476:"Sudermann, Heinrich" 2341:, 2010, a subpage of 2335:"800 Jahre Godesburg" 2307:Diarmaid MacCulloch. 2279:The Thirty Years Wars 2255:Holborn, pp. 201–247. 2145:"800 Jahre Godesburg" 2129:Heidelberg University 1978:Potthoff 2009, p. 15. 1774:Hennes, pp. 119–120; 1386:Potthoff 2009, p. 11. 1368:Heidelberg University 1303:Hennes, pp. 118–121; 1177:, Cologne, 1572–1617. 1117: 1105:Maximilian III Joseph 1037: 1023:for the inhabitants. 992: 931: 872: 823: 812:, plunder, and sack. 754: 742:Dietrich of Hengebach 479: 248:Casualties and losses 2767:at Wikimedia Commons 2576:The Thirty Years War 1145:powerful neighbors. 947:Heinrich Joseph Floß 681:With the support of 535:House of Wittelsbach 406:Elector of Cologne's 197:Ferdinand of Bavaria 178:Gebhard von Waldburg 166:House of Wittelsbach 114:50.68583°N 7.15167°E 2723:Wiedemann, Alfred. 2691:Untermann, Matthias 2643:Scribner, Robert W. 2589:Parker, Geoffrey. 2137:"Maurorum martyrum" 2006:Floß, pp. 128–129; 1950:Floß, pp. 127–128; 1681:, 22 November 1583. 1358:Untermann, Matthias 1162:Citations and notes 1151:Peace of Westphalia 1125:Counter Reformation 1118:The Godesburg today 555:Henry III of France 551:Spanish Netherlands 110: / 2713:Vochezer, Joseph. 2707:6, 2003, issue 23. 2510:2014-12-07 at the 2474:Keussen, Hermann. 2343:Bad Godesberg Info 2319:, pp. 266, 467–84. 2213:Holy Roman Emperor 2149:Bad Godesberg Info 2119:Matthias Untermann 2080:"Hogenberg, Franz" 2047:2014-12-07 at the 1994:Floß, pp. 128–129. 1887:Floß, pp. 127–128. 1422:Weyden, pp. 38–43. 1339:2009-12-15 at the 1334:Fortress Godesburg 1120: 1052: 995: 938: 876: 826: 758: 683:Adolf von Neuenahr 499: 449:tunneled into the 408:capital city, and 396:Towering over the 379:siege of Godesberg 35:Siege of Godesberg 2811:Conflicts in 1583 2763:Media related to 2733:978-3-8128-0025-9 2675:978-3-427-71661-7 2623:Potthoff, Tanja. 2607:Potthoff, Tanja. 2599:978-0-521-54392-7 2584:978-0-415-12883-4 2542:978-0-670-03296-9 2527:978-0-691-03651-9 2417:978-3-7774-3190-1 2317:978-0-670-03296-9 2287:978-0-415-12883-4 2277:Geoffrey Parker, 2108:978-3-7774-3190-1 1700:978-0-691-03651-9 1470:Joseph Vochezer. 1444:978-0-521-54392-7 1321:978-3-8128-0025-9 1101:House of Habsburg 1038:The contemporary 971:Thirty Years' War 586:Peace of Augsburg 578:Holy Roman Empire 574:House of Waldburg 531:Ernest of Bavaria 527:Cathedral chapter 440:Ernest of Bavaria 432:Holy Roman Empire 374: 373: 260: 259: 155:Ernest of Bavaria 137: 136: 119:50.68583; 7.15167 16:(Redirected from 2818: 2762: 2740: 2722: 2712: 2689: 2665:Stiehl, Eckart. 2664: 2654: 2622: 2606: 2572:Parker, Geoffrey 2562:Hogenberg, Franz 2559: 2549: 2493:Norreys to Herle 2473: 2424: 2407:Glaser, Hubert. 2406: 2390: 2377: 2367: 2333: 2320: 2305: 2299: 2296: 2290: 2275: 2269: 2262: 2256: 2253: 2247: 2240: 2234: 2223: 2217: 2204: 2198: 2197:Benians, p. 713. 2195: 2189: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2173: 2171: 2167: 2161: 2160:Untermann, p. 6. 2158: 2152: 2143: 2117: 2113: 2097: 2093: 2087: 2077: 2073: 2067: 2060: 2054: 2037:Norreys to Herle 2029: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1979: 1977: 1973: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1935: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1818: 1816: 1808: 1804: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1763: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1703: 1688: 1682: 1675: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1657: 1642: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1612: 1610: 1606: 1597: 1595: 1588: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1562: 1560: 1556: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1531: 1525: 1517: 1513: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1495: 1478:Tanja Potthoff. 1477: 1469: 1465: 1459: 1456: 1447: 1429: 1423: 1421: 1417: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1375: 1356: 1347:Tanja Potthoff. 1346: 1330: 1324: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1289: 1275: 1266: 1265:Hennes, pp. 6–7. 1264: 1260: 1254: 1249:. 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J. Merlo: 2072: 2069: 2065: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2028: 2025: 2016: 2013: 2000: 1997: 1984: 1981: 1972: 1969: 1966:Floß, p. 127. 1960: 1957: 1940: 1937: 1934:Floß, p. 127. 1924: 1922: 1918: 1915:Floß, p. 177. 1905: 1902: 1893: 1890: 1881: 1878: 1875:Floß, p. 126. 1865: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1842: 1839: 1836:Floß, p. 126. 1830: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1820: 1817:Floß, p. 176. 1812: 1803: 1800: 1797:Floß, p. 119. 1787: 1785: 1781: 1768: 1765: 1761: 1749: 1746: 1743:Floß, p. 176. 1737: 1734: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1717: 1708: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1684: 1680: 1674: 1671: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1654:0-306-81358-0 1651: 1647: 1641: 1638: 1629: 1626: 1617: 1614: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1591: 1590:Leonard Ennen 1584: 1580: 1567: 1564: 1555: 1552: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1521: 1512: 1509: 1500: 1497: 1493: 1492:3-631-55467-2 1489: 1485: 1481: 1473: 1464: 1461: 1455: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1428: 1425: 1416: 1413: 1404: 1401: 1392: 1389: 1380: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1365: 1364: 1359: 1352: 1351: 1342: 1338: 1335: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1259: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1212: 1202: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1183: 1180: 1176: 1170: 1167: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1152: 1146: 1143: 1137: 1135: 1130: 1126: 1116: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1081: 1073: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1049: 1045: 1044:Bad Godesberg 1042:(or Arms) of 1041: 1036: 1032: 1030: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1012:Gelsenkirchen 1009: 1005: 1001: 991: 984: 982: 980: 976: 972: 968: 963: 959: 957: 951: 948: 942: 935: 930: 923: 921: 919: 913: 910: 902: 900: 898: 892: 890: 886: 882: 871: 864: 862: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 835:Bürgermeister 830: 822: 815: 813: 811: 807: 803: 797: 795: 794: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 772: 767: 763: 753: 749: 747: 746:Lieblingssitz 743: 737: 729: 727: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 679: 677: 676: 671: 667: 661: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 622: 613: 601: 599: 597: 593: 592: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 562: 560: 556: 552: 547: 543: 538: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 496: 492: 488: 484: 478: 473: 465: 463: 461: 457: 452: 448: 443: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 416: 411: 407: 403: 399: 394: 392: 388: 387:Bad Godesberg 384: 380: 367: 366:2nd Rheinberg 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 326:Gelsenkirchen 324: 322: 321:1st Rheinberg 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 303: 300: 295: 287: 282: 280: 275: 273: 268: 267: 264: 255: 252: 251: 246: 243:~180 infantry 242: 237: 236: 231: 211: 209: 198: 188: 187: 182: 179: 169: 167: 156: 146: 145: 140: 132: 129: 128: 123: 94: 90: 86: 83: 82: 68: 65: 64: 60: 56: 51: 46: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 2745: 2724: 2714: 2704: 2694: 2681: 2666: 2656: 2646: 2628: 2624: 2608: 2590: 2575: 2565: 2560:Merlo, J.J. 2551: 2533: 2518: 2496: 2488: 2480: 2457: 2450: 2446: 2436: 2426: 2408: 2398: 2382: 2369: 2359: 2352: 2326:Bibliography 2308: 2303: 2294: 2278: 2273: 2265: 2260: 2251: 2243: 2238: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2211: 2202: 2193: 2177: 2165: 2156: 2136: 2132: 2122: 2099: 2091: 2083: 2071: 2066:, pp. 17–18. 2063: 2058: 2040: 2032: 2027: 2015: 1999: 1983: 1971: 1959: 1939: 1904: 1892: 1880: 1841: 1810: 1802: 1767: 1759: 1748: 1736: 1707: 1691: 1686: 1673: 1661: 1645: 1640: 1628: 1616: 1582: 1566: 1554: 1527: 1526:F. Oediger. 1519: 1511: 1499: 1483: 1479: 1471: 1463: 1446:, pp. 11–19. 1435: 1427: 1415: 1403: 1391: 1379: 1371: 1361: 1349: 1328: 1312: 1308: 1278: 1258: 1246: 1243:Hajo Holborn 1227: 1219: 1210: 1201: 1193: 1190:Ernst Weyden 1182: 1174: 1169: 1147: 1141: 1138: 1134:half century 1121: 1077: 1063: 1059: 1053: 1039: 1029:Dutch Revolt 1025: 996: 966: 964: 960: 952: 943: 939: 918:Duke Wilhelm 914: 906: 893: 877: 850: 834: 831: 827: 801: 798: 791: 784:curtain wall 780:crenelations 775: 769: 759: 745: 739: 719: 702: 693:villages as 690: 680: 673: 662: 635: 595: 589: 569: 563: 539: 500: 444: 419: 413: 395: 378: 376: 331:Cologne Riot 310: 142:Belligerents 54: 40:Part of the 29: 2739:(in German) 2721:(in German) 2711:(in German) 2688:(in German) 2663:(in German) 2653:(in German) 2621:(in German) 2605:(in German) 2558:(in German) 2548:(in German) 2472:(in German) 2423:(in German) 2405:(in German) 2389:(in German) 2376:(in German) 2366:(in German) 2332:(in German) 2186:(in German) 2182:(in German) 2170:(in German) 2142:(in German) 2116:(in German) 2112:(in German) 2096:(in German) 2076:(in German) 2020:(in German) 2008:(in German) 2004:(in German) 1992:(in German) 1988:(in German) 1976:(in German) 1964:(in German) 1952:(in German) 1948:(in German) 1944:(in German) 1932:(in German) 1928:(in German) 1913:(in German) 1909:(in German) 1897:(in German) 1885:(in German) 1873:(in German) 1869:(in German) 1846:(in German) 1834:(in German) 1815:(in German) 1807:(in German) 1795:(in German) 1791:(in German) 1776:(in German) 1772:(in German) 1757:(in German) 1753:(in German) 1741:(in German) 1729:(in German) 1712:(in German) 1666:(in German) 1633:(in German) 1621:(in German) 1609:(in German) 1594:(in German) 1587:(in German) 1575:(in German) 1571:(in German) 1559:(in German) 1547:(in German) 1524:(in German) 1516:(in German) 1504:(in German) 1476:(in German) 1468:(in German) 1420:(in German) 1408:(in German) 1396:(in German) 1384:(in German) 1355:(in German) 1345:(in German) 1305:(in German) 1301:(in German) 1263:(in German) 1224:(in German) 1206:(in German) 1187:(in German) 1080:Wittelsbach 1056:Georg Braun 881:siege tower 788:switchbacks 724:Poppelsdorf 670:Ferdinand's 630:archbishop. 472:Cologne War 428:Archbishops 383:Cologne War 346:Poppersdorf 294:Cologne War 117: / 69:November – 42:Cologne War 2775:Categories 897:outer ward 887:, and the 806:no quarter 782:, added a 650:Düsseldorf 646:Gerresheim 566:Seneschals 519:Electorate 470:See also: 466:Background 75:1583-12-17 2351:, et al. 2110:, p. 69; 1702:, p. 295. 1656:, p. 185. 1494:, p. 195. 1142:vis-a-vis 1097:Frankfurt 1070:in Bonn. 1000:Hülchrath 985:Aftermath 967:Oberstift 956:garderobe 885:trebuchet 855:culverins 802:execution 771:Bergfried 736:Godesburg 720:Oberstift 703:Oberstift 695:Ahrweiler 691:Oberstift 675:Oberstift 572:) of the 570:Truchsess 533:, of the 511:Calvinism 420:Bergfried 391:Godesburg 351:2nd Neuss 336:1st Neuss 311:Godesberg 306:Oberstift 102:50°41′9″N 89:Godesberg 2508:Archived 2064:Flanders 2062:Parker, 2045:Archived 1337:Archived 889:crossbow 851:Fussvolk 843:Florence 730:Fortress 638:canoness 495:Nijmegen 491:Dortmund 487:Duisburg 361:Nijmegen 356:2nd Bonn 316:1st Bonn 233:Strength 84:Location 2677:, 1997. 1323:p. 393. 1157:Sources 1087:, laid 975:Walloon 839:Captain 810:pillage 776:donjons 666:Farnese 642:convent 523:clerics 456:latrine 447:sappers 410:Cologne 105:7°9′6″E 93:Cologne 73: ( 2731: 2673: 2635: 2597: 2582: 2564:. 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In: 1698: 1652: 1490: 1442: 1319: 1287:575246 1285: 1129:Jesuit 1040:Wappen 883:, the 451:basalt 415:donjon 404:, the 130:Result 1283:JSTOR 1089:claim 1020:Brühl 1016:Unkel 1004:Neuss 874:ward. 859:arson 847:Deutz 687:Solms 509:, to 483:Venlo 398:Rhine 2729:ISBN 2671:ISBN 2633:ISBN 2595:ISBN 2580:ISBN 2538:ISBN 2523:ISBN 2462:ISBN 2413:ISBN 2397:In: 2313:ISBN 2283:ISBN 2104:ISBN 1696:ISBN 1650:ISBN 1581:In: 1488:ISBN 1440:ISBN 1317:ISBN 1048:keep 1018:and 1008:Werl 1006:and 909:saps 699:Linz 697:and 557:and 493:and 460:keep 426:and 402:Bonn 377:The 341:Werl 66:Date 2381:. 644:in 2777:: 2744:. 2699:, 2693:. 2613:, 2574:. 2449:" 2435:, 2337:. 2229:" 2127:, 2121:. 1920:^ 1853:^ 1822:^ 1783:^ 1719:^ 1601:^ 1535:^ 1451:^ 1434:. 1366:, 1360:. 1293:^ 1270:^ 1245:. 1235:^ 1192:. 1136:. 1014:, 1002:, 726:. 537:. 505:, 489:, 485:, 91:, 2735:. 2639:. 2601:. 2586:. 2544:. 2529:. 2468:. 2419:. 2051:, 568:( 285:e 278:t 271:v 77:) 20:)

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