734:): The actual passages from the Rigveda cited in Edgerton's two large articles in 1934 and 1943 as examples of the effects of his theory in action seriously misrepresent the facts in all but a handful of cases. No more than three Rigvedic passages cited in the 1934 article, and none at all in 1943, actually support the claims of Edgerton's law regarding word-initial sequences. This lies well within the operation of pure chance. And it has been shown also that the apparent success of Lindeman's more modest claims are not without troubling problems, too, such as the limitation of the reliable examples to semivowels (the glides
36:
104:
547:
The evidence for alternation presented by
Edgerton was of two sorts. He cited several hundred passages from the Rigveda, which he claimed should be rescanned to reveal hitherto unnoticed expressions of the syllable structure called for by his theory. But most forms show no such direct expressions;
804:
Within the context of Indo-European, Sievers's law is generally held to be one-way. That is, it applied only to create syllabic resonants from nonsyllabics after heavy syllables, but not the other way around after light syllables. In Proto-Germanic, however, the law came to be applied in both
1238:
is not valid. That is, Sievers's law was not a sound change that took place at some particular time, but rather a phonological law that remained in the grammar of the language over time and operated on the output of various phonological processes. When PIE
612:
in which they would have (correctly) occurred inevitably became obsolete at the same time as the loss of the form itself. And he was able to present a sizeable body of evidence in the form of these skewed distributions in both the 1934 and 1943 articles.
795:
in the
Rigveda always and only, with one exception, occurs in line-initial position, i.e., in only one of the four environments calling for syllabification of the resonant. Nothing in Lindeman's theory accounts for this striking distribution.)
931:, so that the alternation is indirectly preserved. There is also some evidence that the alternation was preserved and adapted to the new syllable structure that resulted from the gemination. In the oldest attested languages, medial syllabic
662:) proposing a significant modification of Edgerton's theory. Disregarding Edgerton's evidence (on the grounds that he was not prepared to judge the niceties of Rigvedic scansion) he took instead as the data to be analyzed the scansions in
1002:
It has been argued that
Sievers's law is actually an innovation of Germanic. The reasons for this are two distinct innovations pertaining to Sievers's law outcomes. The first is that the law works in both directions, not only yielding
1326:
Sievers's law in
Germanic was clearly conditioned on morphological grounds as well as phonological, since suffixes were treated as separate words if they were recognised as separate morphological segments. For example, the suffix
1295:
after a light syllable – was indeed a
Germanic innovation that did not apply to PIE. Essentially, Proto-Germanic inherited Sievers's law from PIE and then extended it to apply in both directions. This answers the concern about
769:) are very much rarer than they should be: they account for only fifteen to twenty percent of the total: they should account for at least eighty percent, since the monosyllabic form would have originally occurred, like
833:
came to be in complementary distribution in Proto-Germanic, and were perceived as allophonic variants of the same suffix with the former following light syllables and the latter, heavy. Following the loss of
1028:
The imposed conditions for the
Sievers's law reversal are specifically Germanic, not Proto-Indo-European. Thus the following two verb forms show normal Germanic distributions in good order: Proto-Germanic
756:"forth, away" should have been very much more frequent than the monosyllable, which would have occurred only after a word ending in a short vowel; but there is no evidence for such a disyllabic form as **
2039:
375:
consonants, though the evidence is extremely poor for these, despite the fact that such alternations would have left permanent, indeed irreversible, traces. For example, the
Sanskrit "tool-suffix"
1764:
1839:
695:
Edgerton's claims, once very generally hailed, have not fared well. Regarding the skewed distributions in the
Rigveda, Edgerton neglected to test his observations against
548:
for them, Edgerton noted sharply skewed distributions that he interpreted as evidence for a lost alternation between syllabic and nonsyllabic consonants (commonly called "
595:, especially in tricky and demanding literary forms like sacred Vedic versification, he reasoned that this was direct evidence for the previous existence of an alternant
723:"100", and dozens of other forms with no bearing on Edgerton's law, have exactly the same strong preference for not following a word ending with a short vowel that e.g.
65:
633:, the syllabicity of the resonant resulting from the fact that it was followed by a consonant in Proto-Indo-European; there never was, nor could have been, a form
715:"well-heroed" do occur in line-initial position or follow a heavy syllable (as if in accord with Edgerton's converse), but exactly the same thing is true of e.g.
2023:
904:) following a long stem. Word-finally, the distribution is reversed. For example, following the loss of final -ą, this left neuter ja-stem nouns with syllabic
467:"sky" would have been pronounced like this only when it happened to follow a word ending with a short vowel. Everywhere else it would have had two syllables,
2219:
1757:
1383:
would have been preceded by two syllables. Examples of the opposite - that is, multiple-syllable stems that were not segmentable - can also be found. *
853:
The alternation is preserved in many of the older languages. In addition to the Gothic nouns cited above, Gothic strong adjectives show a light suffix
719:"having beautiful wings" (which can have nothing to do with Edgerton's law). And indeed such skewing in distribution is pervasive in Vedic vocabulary:
2184:
2055:
1750:
2756:
367:, though the evidence is poor for all of these. Through time, evidence was announced regarding similar alternations of syllabicity in the
2031:
674:). From these he concluded that Edgerton had been right, but only up to a point: the alternations he postulated did indeed apply to all
4164:
2047:
1025:
is found not only after heavy syllables, as in Vedic, but also after some polysyllabic stems. This is quite unlike anything in Indic.
1211:). Hence, not only are Proto-Indo-European structures not needed to account for the facts of Germanic, they actually get in the way.
1734:
1716:
1642:
1611:
1568:
1550:
791:
shapes show no sensitivity to phonetic environment at all. (And even that disyllabic "distribution" can be inexplicable: disyllabic
87:
646:. How it might be that a form that is irrelevant to Edgerton's theory might seem to "behave" in accord with it is explained below.
429:). He argued that not only was the syllabicity of prevocalic consonants by context applicable to all six Indo-European sonorants (
2212:
752:) even though such alternations in the other four consonants should have left robust outcomes (for example, a disyllabic form of
3141:
1217:, in his book "From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic", characterizes the origins of the different features as follows:
4035:
2168:
1984:
1781:
115:
4065:
3235:
3197:
3182:
2509:
2078:
1989:
1979:
1973:
1773:
215:
111:
48:
4045:
3905:
3255:
3214:
3204:
2205:
2173:
1927:
1015:
following short stems. The second is an enlarged environment for the transformation. In
Germanic, the syllabic shape
711:, but whose work actually dates from ten years earlier). Horowitz noted that for example all 65 occurrences of Vedic
58:
52:
44:
314:
in medial position. He also noted, almost as an aside, that something similar seemed to be going on in the earliest
2421:
1794:
1789:
696:
3762:
2150:
1994:
275:
followed a heavy syllable (a syllable with a diphthong or long vowel, or ending in more than one consonant), but
69:
4040:
3994:
3989:
3913:
3523:
3507:
3386:
3245:
2073:
2006:
1947:
1814:
1344:
920:
125:
3821:
3979:
3923:
3918:
3838:
3511:
3461:
3219:
2761:
2579:
2263:
2251:
228:
121:
3984:
3466:
3432:
3050:
2866:
2726:
2566:
2461:
1809:
1041:
259:
1894:
522:). According to Edgerton, the word should have had two forms, depending on what immediately preceded it:
4142:
4106:
3374:
3367:
3319:
3089:
3060:
3029:
2992:
2917:
2766:
2674:
2587:
2448:
2410:
2178:
699:, namely forms not susceptible to his theory but sharing other properties with the "test" forms such as
655:
145:
3607:
2482:
2099:
1827:
919:
The West
Germanic languages such as English largely lost the alternation because of the effects of the
383:"drinking cup, vessel") almost always follows a consonant or long vowel and should have therefore been
4111:
4091:
4060:
3933:
3793:
3767:
3668:
3539:
3357:
2949:
2776:
2738:
2733:
2607:
2554:
2312:
2132:
2105:
1999:
1917:
1849:
727:"head" does, presumably by reason of beginning with a single consonant followed by a light syllable.
621:
582:
occurred 100% of the time in the environments where his theory called for the syllabification of the
392:
263:
616:
Parenthetically, many of Edgerton's data on this point are inappropriate: current scholarship takes
266:
in that the alternation has no morphological relevance but is phonologically context-sensitive: PIE
4169:
4050:
3597:
3442:
3286:
3240:
3174:
2927:
2689:
2574:
2487:
2285:
2137:
2127:
1854:
20:
4096:
3948:
3938:
3893:
3655:
3582:
3479:
3324:
3299:
3294:
3187:
3015:
2900:
2721:
2499:
2494:
2473:
2434:
2238:
2228:
1696:
1668:
1530:
1502:
1485:
1130:
417:
302:
4020:
1859:
888:
is lost like all other medial-syllable vowels. This is seen in class 1 weak verbs, which end in
2939:
4070:
3869:
3785:
3778:
3733:
3677:
3437:
3427:
3410:
3405:
3309:
3071:
2871:
2832:
2812:
2650:
2542:
2524:
2376:
2122:
1844:
1730:
1712:
1638:
1607:
1564:
1546:
1179:
because the light syllable created the environment for a light suffix. So, a Proto-Germanic *
1100:
respectively. Without Sievers's influence these would pass etymologically into Germanic as **
707:
configuration, and so on. The first scholar to look at controls was Franklin Eugene Horowitz (
663:
412:
149:
24:
3816:
3750:
3706:
3701:
3650:
3642:
3447:
3415:
3362:
3351:
3264:
3136:
3131:
2973:
2912:
2702:
2684:
2519:
2280:
2272:
1869:
1864:
1819:
1804:
1799:
1688:
1660:
1596:
1522:
1494:
372:
1399:
since there was no such suffix in Proto-Germanic. This is evidenced by the Old High German
391:, either written as such or scanned thus, is actually attested in the Rigveda or any other
4055:
3848:
3755:
3738:
3723:
3718:
3711:
3420:
3329:
3314:
3269:
3121:
3084:
3076:
3055:
3042:
3022:
3008:
2771:
2748:
2679:
2669:
2661:
2441:
540:. This corollary he called the "converse" to Sievers's law, and is usually referred to as
236:
211:
4015:
1620:
Lindeman, Frederik Otto (1965), "Le loi de Sievers et le début du mot en indo-européen",
4136:
4030:
4010:
3962:
3854:
3728:
3398:
3165:
3104:
2883:
2840:
2797:
2714:
2709:
2598:
2548:
2399:
2350:
2305:
2298:
2145:
2083:
1952:
1937:
1899:
1889:
1874:
1222:
704:
700:
342:
298:
4158:
4101:
4086:
3928:
3684:
3635:
3452:
3391:
3304:
3250:
3209:
3147:
3094:
2978:
2905:
2335:
1922:
3955:
3379:
3343:
3276:
3099:
2922:
2895:
2878:
2822:
2781:
2363:
2342:
1606:, Trends in linguistics: Studies and monographs, vol. 127, Mouton de Gruyter,
1214:
1048:(Gothic makes no distinction between -ij- and -j- in writing); and Proto-Germanic *
133:
3602:
760:, in Vedic or any other form of Indic); and that the syllabified alternants (e.g.
485:
3862:
3772:
3745:
3617:
3563:
3471:
3153:
3114:
2697:
2392:
2356:
2291:
1942:
1604:
Analogy, levelling, markedness: Principles of change in phonology and morphology
1322:
to polysyllabic as well as heavy-syllable stems was another Germanic innovation.
687:"sky", as cited above – that is, words where the "short" form was monosyllabic.
609:
592:
477:
1957:
1742:
1679:
Sihler, Andrew L. (1971), "Word-Initial Semivowel Alternation in the Rigveda",
1590:, Janua Linguarum, Series Practica, vol. 216, The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter
3612:
3592:
2957:
2627:
2328:
1007:
following long stems, but instigating the reverse, decrementing etymological *
368:
284:
would follow a light syllable (a short vowel followed by a single consonant).
3798:
3661:
3546:
3192:
3109:
2890:
2845:
2817:
2643:
549:
3622:
1651:
Sihler, Andrew L. (1969), "Sievers–Edgerton Phenomena and Rigvedic Meter",
1635:
A History of English, Volume I: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic
678:; but in word-initial position, the alternation was limited to forms like
3587:
2935:
675:
481:
315:
171:
1483:
Edgerton, Franklin (1934), "Sievers's Law and IE. weak grade vocalism",
1187:
by Sievers's reversal, which in turn was simplified prehistorically to *
3628:
3224:
3126:
319:
129:
1700:
1672:
1534:
1506:
170:) before a vowel as it was affected by the phonetics of the preceding
2931:
2197:
1252:
in Proto-Germanic, Sievers's law automatically changed forms such as
301:(1859–1932), and his aim was to account for certain phenomena in the
935:
tends to be lost in the same way as in Old Norse, while nonsyllabic
458:), it was applicable in all positions in the word. Thus a form like
1692:
1664:
1526:
1498:
857:
following a light stem, yielding the nominative singular masculine
2849:
516:
346:
1597:"Analogy as optimization: 'exceptions' to Sievers' law in Gothic"
399:
would have been, or even could have been, uniformly replaced by
3891:
3505:
2249:
2201:
1746:
1375:
instead. This happened even though in fully formed words these
773:, only after a word ending in a short vowel. Further, only the
943:, which was not geminated) is preserved. Compare for example:
411:
The most ambitious extension of Sievers's law was proposed by
29:
297:
This situation was first noticed by the Germanic philologist
110:
This article contains characters used to write reconstructed
1395:
in its entirety was analysed as the stem, rather than just *
2040:
Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme
1513:
Edgerton, Franklin (1943), "The Indo-European Semivowels",
341:
After Sievers, scholars would find similar alternations in
983:
Originally light syllable with no gemination: Old English
604:, on the assumption that when (for whatever reason) this *
1064:. But the forms in their Proto-Indo-European shape were
608:
and other forms like it came to be shunned, the typical
965:
Originally light syllable with gemination: Old English
1438:
1436:
1141:
created a triggering environment for a heavy suffix, *
480:
rules in question applied to sequences arising across
174:. Specifically, it refers to the alternation between
1928:
1829:
1313:
1301:
1287:
1278:
1262:
1253:
1240:
1226:
1166:
1121:
1092:
1083:
1074:
1065:
1016:
923:, but the gemination itself was conditioned only by
816:
806:
783:
774:
761:
744:
735:
730:
A second difficulty has emerged much more recently (
679:
634:
625:
596:
583:
570:
557:
532:
523:
507:
498:
489:
468:
459:
430:
359:
350:
306:
276:
267:
243:
219:
202:
193:
184:
175:
162:
153:
4079:
4003:
3972:
3904:
3836:
3694:
3575:
3531:
3522:
3342:
3285:
3173:
3164:
3069:
3041:
3000:
2991:
2966:
2948:
2859:
2831:
2805:
2796:
2747:
2660:
2635:
2626:
2565:
2460:
2409:
2384:
2375:
2271:
2262:
2161:
2115:
2092:
2066:
2015:
1966:
1910:
1780:
325:"divine" actually had three syllables in scansion (
825:after light syllables. As a consequence, suffixal
415:(1885–1963) in a pair of articles in the journal
148:linguistics accounts for the pronunciation of a
57:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
114:words (for an explanation of the notation, see
2213:
1758:
8:
1588:Sievers' Law and the Evidence of the Rigveda
1407:would be expected if the original form had
1312:The extension of the Sievers's-law variant
3901:
3888:
3528:
3519:
3502:
3170:
2997:
2802:
2632:
2381:
2268:
2259:
2246:
2220:
2206:
2198:
2024:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
1765:
1751:
1743:
1709:New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin
1225:"; therefore the objection concerning PIE
214:of the preceding syllable. For instance,
884:is preserved word-medially, but syllabic
671:
591:. Appealing to the "formulaic" nature of
88:Learn how and when to remove this message
912:) after long stems but no ending (from *
708:
659:
426:
422:
1420:
947:Originally heavy syllable: Old English
126:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
782:alternants have a "distribution": the
731:
497:occurred before a noun beginning with
395:text. How a nearly universal suffix **
16:Proto-Indo-European language sound law
2185:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
2056:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary
1466:
1454:
1442:
1427:
1116:. The regular Germanic evolution of *
7:
1727:Edgerton's Law: The Phantom Evidence
476:. Edgerton also maintained that the
2782:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
2032:Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben
1622:Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap
4141:Languages between parentheses are
2048:Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon
1586:Horowitz, Franklin Eugene (1974),
1561:Indo-European Language and Culture
1153:. The opposite occurred regarding
14:
1277:of Sievers's law – which changes
896:) following a short stem, but in
620:, for example, to be the regular
565:) has no monosyllabic partner **
102:
34:
861:"middle", while a heavy suffix
799:
552:" in the literature). Thus say
333:"true" was scanned as written.
305:. He originally discussed only
4145:of the language on their left.
1711:, Oxford University Press US,
1637:, Oxford University Press US,
1203:which does not re-insert the -
805:directions, with PIE syllabic
658:(1936–) published an article (
1:
4036:Germanic substrate hypothesis
2169:Proto-Indo-European mythology
1883:
1729:, Universitätsverlag Winter,
1559:Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004),
1339:was light, as in Old English
1221:Sievers's law operates as a "
484:boundaries, such as when the
116:Proto-Indo-European phonology
4066:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
2757:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
2079:Proto-Indo-European homeland
1774:Proto-Indo-European language
1387:("shirt") clearly contained
1371:if the suffix had contained
846:) was also complementary to
262:"shepherd". It differs from
4046:High German consonant shift
2174:Proto-Indo-European society
1577:Grassmann, Hermann (1873),
1207:- therefore not yielding **
578:), but Edgerton noted that
337:Extension to other branches
4186:
2584:Westlauwers–Terschellings
2237:According to contemporary
1929:
1830:
1725:Sihler, Andrew L. (2006),
1707:Sihler, Andrew L. (1995),
1602:, in Lahiri, Aditi (ed.),
1543:Linguistics and Literature
1314:
1302:
1288:
1279:
1263:
1254:
1241:
1227:
1191:. Gothic re-inserts the -
1167:
1157:, where the etymological *
1133:syllable heavy, and thus *
1122:
1093:
1084:
1075:
1066:
1037:"they work" become Gothic
1017:
880:In Old Norse, nonsyllabic
817:
807:
784:
775:
762:
745:
736:
680:
635:
626:
597:
584:
571:
558:
533:
524:
508:
499:
490:
469:
460:
431:
360:
351:
349:, and alternation between
307:
277:
268:
244:
220:
203:
194:
185:
176:
163:
154:
18:
4165:Indo-European linguistics
4128:
3900:
3887:
3809:
3763:Southern Schleswig Danish
3518:
3501:
2258:
2245:
2235:
2151:North European hypothesis
1367:, which would have been *
1056:"they set" become Gothic
800:Sievers's law in Germanic
132:combining characters and
4041:West Germanic gemination
3995:Ancient Belgian language
3990:Germanic parent language
3934:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
3056:Austrian Standard German
2074:Indo-European migrations
1563:, Blackwell Publishing,
1545:, Blackwell Publishing,
1363:was heavy, as in Gothic
1195:- via analogy, yielding
921:West Germanic gemination
387:; but no such form as **
43:This article includes a
2093:Artificial compositions
1595:Kiparsky, Paul (2000),
1579:Wörterbuch zum Rig-Veda
873:) follows a long stem:
668:Wörterbuch zum Rig-Veda
251:became Proto-Germanic *
72:more precise citations.
4102:Preterite-present verb
3985:Proto-Germanic grammar
3939:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
3051:German Standard German
2727:East Frisian Low Saxon
1976:(nouns and adjectives)
1840:Glossary of sound laws
1633:Ringe, Donald (2006),
1351:. On the other hand, *
1335:because the preceding
1199:(contrast Old English
1175:) was decremented to *
939:(occurring only after
210:as conditioned by the
4107:Grammatischer Wechsel
3090:Namibian Black German
3061:Swiss Standard German
3030:Early New High German
2588:Mainland West Frisian
2449:Harlingerland Frisian
2179:Indo-European studies
1359:because the syllable
995:< Proto-Germanic *
977:< Proto-Germanic *
959:< Proto-Germanic *
916:) after short stems.
815:becoming nonsyllabic
656:Fredrik Otto Lindeman
19:For the principle in
4112:Indo-European ablaut
4092:Germanic strong verb
4061:Germanic spirant law
3198:Southeast Limburgish
2694:Gelders-Overijssels
2323:Irish Middle English
2313:Early Modern English
2133:Anatolian hypothesis
2106:The king and the god
1581:, Leipzig: Brockhaus
1541:Fabb, Nigel (1997),
1234:vs. Proto-Germanic *
850:in inflected forms.
4080:Synchronic features
4051:Germanic a-mutation
4004:Diachronic features
3354:in the broad sense
3287:East Central German
3241:Lorraine Franconian
3215:Transylvanian Saxon
3175:West Central German
2950:East Low Franconian
2860:West Low Franconian
2142:Outdated theories:
2138:Armenian hypothesis
2128:Schleicher theories
1884:Edgerton's converse
542:Edgerton's converse
318:texts. Thus in the
216:Proto-Indo-European
112:Proto-Indo-European
21:physical metallurgy
4097:Germanic weak verb
3906:Language subgroups
3256:Pennsylvania Dutch
3205:Moselle Franconian
3183:Central Franconian
3016:Middle High German
2767:Central Pomeranian
2722:Northern Low Saxon
2435:Wangerooge Frisian
2229:Germanic languages
2100:Schleicher's fable
1331:had a nonsyllabic
1149:, yielding Gothic
987:, Old High German
969:, Old High German
951:, Old High German
838:intervocalically,
691:Newer developments
303:Germanic languages
45:list of references
4152:
4151:
4137:extinct languages
4124:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4071:Great Vowel Shift
3883:
3882:
3879:
3878:
3832:
3831:
3678:Greenlandic Norse
3497:
3496:
3493:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3428:Southern Bavarian
3411:Northern Bavarian
3387:Highest Alemannic
3338:
3337:
3072:standard variants
2987:
2986:
2833:Standard variants
2792:
2791:
2651:Middle Low German
2622:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2422:Saterland Frisian
2195:
2194:
2123:Kurgan hypothesis
1430:, pp. 16–17.
877:/wilþīs/ "wild".
664:Hermann Grassmann
642:to yield Indic **
413:Franklin Edgerton
150:consonant cluster
122:rendering support
98:
97:
90:
4177:
3929:Elbe (Irminonic)
3902:
3889:
3817:Mainland Gutnish
3707:Swedish dialects
3669:Middle Icelandic
3643:Middle Norwegian
3532:Historical forms
3529:
3520:
3503:
3462:South Franconian
3448:Hutterite German
3416:Central Bavarian
3236:Rhine Franconian
3171:
3001:Historical forms
2998:
2913:Surinamese Dutch
2806:Historical forms
2803:
2636:Historical forms
2633:
2385:Historical forms
2382:
2269:
2260:
2247:
2222:
2215:
2208:
2199:
1932:
1931:
1833:
1832:
1805:Laryngeal theory
1800:Glottalic theory
1795:Centum and satem
1767:
1760:
1753:
1744:
1739:
1721:
1703:
1675:
1647:
1629:
1616:
1601:
1591:
1582:
1573:
1555:
1537:
1509:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1431:
1425:
1391:, showing that *
1347:is evidence for
1321:
1320:
1308:
1307:
1294:
1293:
1285:
1284:
1269:
1268:
1260:
1259:
1247:
1246:
1233:
1232:
1174:
1173:
1128:
1127:
1099:
1098:
1090:
1089:
1081:
1080:
1072:
1071:
1043:
1033:"(s)he works", *
1024:
1023:
900:(from Germanic *
892:(from Germanic *
824:
823:
814:
813:
790:
789:
781:
780:
768:
767:
751:
750:
742:
741:
686:
685:
641:
640:
632:
631:
603:
602:
590:
589:
577:
576:
564:
563:
539:
538:
530:
529:
514:
513:
505:
504:
496:
495:
475:
474:
466:
465:
457:
456:
366:
365:
357:
356:
313:
312:
283:
282:
274:
273:
261:
250:
249:
242:"army", but PIE
226:
225:
209:
208:
200:
199:
191:
190:
182:
181:
169:
168:
160:
159:
128: instead of
106:
105:
93:
86:
82:
79:
73:
68:this article by
59:inline citations
38:
37:
30:
4185:
4184:
4180:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4116:
4075:
4056:Germanic umlaut
4021:Holtzmann's law
3999:
3968:
3896:
3875:
3828:
3805:
3739:South Jutlandic
3724:Danish dialects
3690:
3571:
3514:
3485:
3467:East Franconian
3421:Viennese German
3334:
3315:Silesian German
3281:
3270:Central Hessian
3160:
3085:Namibian German
3074:
3065:
3043:Standard German
3037:
3023:New High German
3009:Old High German
2983:
2962:
2944:
2855:
2827:
2788:
2772:East Pomeranian
2762:Brandenburgisch
2749:East Low German
2743:
2670:Dutch Low Saxon
2662:West Low German
2656:
2614:
2580:Schiermonnikoog
2561:
2456:
2442:Wursten Frisian
2405:
2371:
2254:
2241:
2231:
2226:
2196:
2191:
2157:
2111:
2088:
2062:
2011:
1967:Parts of speech
1962:
1906:
1776:
1771:
1737:
1724:
1719:
1706:
1678:
1650:
1645:
1632:
1619:
1614:
1599:
1594:
1585:
1576:
1571:
1558:
1553:
1540:
1512:
1482:
1479:
1474:
1473:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1441:
1434:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1183:was turned to *
1052:"(s)he sets", *
802:
693:
652:
515:"well-heroed",
409:
339:
295:
290:
192:, and possibly
139:
138:
137:
120:Without proper
107:
103:
94:
83:
77:
74:
63:
49:related reading
39:
35:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4183:
4181:
4173:
4172:
4167:
4157:
4156:
4150:
4149:
4147:
4146:
4139:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4122:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4007:
4005:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3980:Proto-Germanic
3976:
3974:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3959:
3952:
3944:
3943:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3921:
3916:
3910:
3908:
3898:
3897:
3892:
3885:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3877:
3876:
3874:
3873:
3866:
3859:
3855:Crimean Gothic
3844:
3842:
3834:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3819:
3810:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3803:
3802:
3801:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3782:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3759:
3758:
3753:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3731:
3729:Insular Danish
3726:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3712:Rinkebysvenska
3709:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3688:
3681:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3665:
3653:
3648:
3647:
3646:
3639:
3632:
3626:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3579:
3577:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3567:
3560:
3558:Old East Norse
3555:
3553:Old West Norse
3543:
3535:
3533:
3526:
3516:
3515:
3506:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3476:
3475:
3474:
3464:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3433:South Tyrolean
3425:
3424:
3423:
3413:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3375:High Alemannic
3372:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3348:
3346:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3291:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3279:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3253:
3243:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3217:
3212:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3179:
3177:
3168:
3166:Central German
3162:
3161:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3124:
3119:
3118:
3117:
3107:
3105:Barossa German
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3081:
3079:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3047:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3019:
3012:
3004:
3002:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2960:
2954:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2942:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2884:French Flemish
2876:
2875:
2874:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2843:
2837:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2809:
2807:
2800:
2798:Low Franconian
2794:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2666:
2664:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2654:
2647:
2639:
2637:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2599:Westereendersk
2593:
2582:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2545:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2530:
2522:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2485:
2477:
2466:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2415:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2400:Middle Frisian
2396:
2388:
2386:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2360:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2339:
2332:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2306:Modern English
2302:
2299:Middle English
2295:
2288:
2277:
2275:
2266:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2243:
2242:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2227:
2225:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2202:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2146:Beech argument
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2102:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2084:Salmon problem
2081:
2076:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2052:
2044:
2036:
2028:
2019:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2009:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1955:
1953:Thematic vowel
1950:
1945:
1940:
1938:Narten present
1935:
1925:
1920:
1914:
1912:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1825:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1762:
1755:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1722:
1717:
1704:
1693:10.2307/412188
1676:
1665:10.2307/411659
1648:
1643:
1630:
1617:
1612:
1592:
1583:
1574:
1569:
1556:
1551:
1538:
1527:10.2307/409841
1510:
1499:10.2307/409474
1493:(3): 235–265,
1478:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1469:, p. 130.
1459:
1457:, p. 121.
1447:
1445:, p. 120.
1432:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1324:
1323:
1310:
1271:
1223:surface filter
1000:
999:
981:
963:
842:(from earlier
801:
798:
701:part of speech
692:
689:
672:Grassmann 1873
651:
648:
408:
405:
403:is unobvious.
338:
335:
299:Eduard Sievers
294:
291:
289:
286:
229:Proto-Germanic
152:with a glide (
124:, you may see
108:
101:
100:
99:
96:
95:
53:external links
42:
40:
33:
25:Sieverts's law
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4182:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4144:
4140:
4138:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4087:Germanic verb
4085:
4084:
4082:
4078:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4026:Sievers's law
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4002:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3973:Reconstructed
3971:
3965:
3964:
3960:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3951:
3950:
3946:
3945:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3890:
3886:
3872:
3871:
3867:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3851:
3850:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3841:
3840:
3835:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3814:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3795:
3792:
3788:
3787:
3786:Middle Danish
3783:
3781:
3780:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3747:
3744:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3721:
3720:
3717:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3703:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3687:
3686:
3682:
3680:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3670:
3666:
3664:
3663:
3662:Old Icelandic
3659:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3636:Old Norwegian
3633:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3574:
3566:
3565:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3548:
3544:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3504:
3500:
3482:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3454:
3453:Gottscheerish
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3426:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3407:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3392:Walser German
3390:
3389:
3388:
3385:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3376:
3373:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3359:
3358:Low Alemannic
3356:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3320:High Prussian
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3305:Erzgebirgisch
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3288:
3284:
3278:
3275:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3234:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3210:Luxembourgish
3208:
3207:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3148:Klezmer-loshn
3145:
3143:
3142:Scots Yiddish
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3018:
3017:
3013:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3005:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2980:
2979:Meuse-Rhenish
2977:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2965:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2910:
2907:
2906:Kleverlandish
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2867:Central Dutch
2865:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2746:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2720:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2675:Stellingwarfs
2673:
2672:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2646:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2609:
2606:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2595:Wood Frisian
2594:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2462:North Frisian
2459:
2451:
2450:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2374:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2352:
2349:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2264:Anglo-Frisian
2261:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2230:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2211:
2209:
2204:
2203:
2200:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2008:
2005:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1926:
1924:
1923:Caland system
1921:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1850:Bartholomae's
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1763:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1749:
1748:
1745:
1738:
1736:3-8253-5167-X
1732:
1728:
1723:
1720:
1718:0-19-508345-8
1714:
1710:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1659:(2): 248–73,
1658:
1654:
1649:
1646:
1644:0-19-928413-X
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1618:
1615:
1613:3-11-017552-5
1609:
1605:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1572:
1570:1-4051-0316-7
1566:
1562:
1557:
1554:
1552:0-631-19242-5
1548:
1544:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1521:(2): 83–124,
1520:
1516:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1468:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1424:
1421:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1318:
1311:
1306:
1299:
1292:
1283:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1258:
1251:
1245:
1237:
1231:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1129:made a light
1126:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1097:
1088:
1079:
1070:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1021:
1014:
1010:
1006:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
945:
944:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
917:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
851:
849:
845:
841:
837:
832:
828:
821:
811:
797:
794:
788:
779:
772:
766:
759:
755:
749:
740:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
709:Horowitz 1974
706:
702:
698:
690:
688:
684:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
660:Lindeman 1965
657:
649:
647:
645:
639:
630:
623:
619:
614:
611:
607:
601:
594:
588:
581:
575:
568:
562:
556:"head" (from
555:
551:
545:
543:
537:
528:
521:
518:
512:
503:
494:
487:
483:
479:
473:
464:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
428:
427:Edgerton 1943
424:
423:Edgerton 1934
420:
419:
414:
406:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
364:
355:
348:
344:
336:
334:
332:
328:
324:
321:
317:
311:
304:
300:
292:
287:
285:
281:
272:
265:
258:
254:
248:
241:
238:
234:
230:
224:
217:
213:
207:
198:
189:
180:
173:
167:
158:
151:
147:
146:Indo-European
143:
142:Sievers's law
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
117:
113:
92:
89:
81:
71:
67:
61:
60:
54:
50:
46:
41:
32:
31:
26:
22:
4132:
4025:
4016:Verner's law
3961:
3956:Gotho-Nordic
3954:
3947:
3868:
3861:
3853:
3847:
3837:
3822:Fårö Gutnish
3784:
3777:
3683:
3676:
3667:
3660:
3641:
3634:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3545:
3538:
3478:
3380:Swiss German
3344:Upper German
3277:Amana German
3251:Volga German
3220:Hunsrückisch
3146:
3100:Unserdeutsch
3095:Berlinerisch
3028:
3021:
3014:
3007:
2967:Cover groups
2923:Mohawk Dutch
2918:Jersey Dutch
2896:East Flemish
2879:West Flemish
2823:Middle Dutch
2777:Low Prussian
2649:
2642:
2608:Terschelling
2592:Clay Frisian
2567:West Frisian
2555:Wiedingharde
2547:
2535:
2495:Heligolandic
2472:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2428:
2411:East Frisian
2398:
2391:
2364:Middle Scots
2362:
2355:
2341:
2334:
2327:
2322:
2311:
2304:
2297:
2290:
2183:
2104:
2054:
2046:
2038:
2030:
2022:
2016:Main sources
1933:-conjugation
1895:Szemerényi's
1879:
1855:Fortunatov's
1828:
1820:
1726:
1708:
1687:(1): 53–78,
1684:
1680:
1656:
1652:
1634:
1625:
1621:
1603:
1587:
1578:
1560:
1542:
1518:
1514:
1490:
1484:
1477:Bibliography
1462:
1450:
1423:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1343:, where the
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1316:
1304:
1297:
1290:
1281:
1274:
1265:
1256:
1249:
1248:changed to *
1243:
1235:
1229:
1215:Donald Ringe
1213:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1086:
1077:
1068:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1019:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1001:
996:
992:
991:, Old Norse
988:
984:
978:
974:
973:, Old Norse
970:
966:
960:
956:
955:, Old Norse
952:
948:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
879:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
852:
847:
843:
839:
835:
830:
826:
819:
809:
803:
792:
786:
777:
770:
764:
757:
753:
747:
738:
729:
724:
720:
716:
712:
694:
683:dyēws/diyēws
682:
667:
653:
643:
637:
628:
617:
615:
610:collocations
605:
599:
586:
579:
573:
566:
560:
553:
546:
541:
535:
526:
519:
510:
501:
492:
471:
462:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
416:
410:
400:
396:
388:
384:
380:
376:
362:
353:
340:
330:
326:
322:
309:
296:
279:
270:
256:
252:
246:
239:
232:
222:
205:
196:
187:
178:
165:
156:
141:
140:
109:
84:
75:
64:Please help
56:
4031:Kluge's law
4011:Grimm's law
3794:Dalecarlian
3773:Perkerdansk
3746:East Danish
3564:Old Gutnish
3540:Proto-Norse
3480:Langobardic
3472:Vogtlandian
3300:Upper Saxon
3154:Lachoudisch
3115:Lotegorisch
2993:High German
2739:Westphalian
2734:Eastphalian
2698:Achterhooks
2575:Hindeloopen
2510:Bökingharde
2479:Föhr–Amrum
2393:Old Frisian
2357:Early Scots
2292:Old English
1943:Nasal infix
1860:Grassmann's
1845:Brugmann's
1266:wurg-iyé-ti
1096:sod-éyo-nti
1078:wr̥g-yó-nti
927:and not by
732:Sihler 2006
593:oral poetry
544:for short.
478:phonotactic
136:characters.
70:introducing
4170:Sound laws
4159:Categories
3863:Burgundian
3779:Old Danish
3768:Gøtudanskt
3751:Bornholmsk
3613:Vestlandsk
3593:Kebabnorsk
3330:Halcnovian
3295:Thuringian
2958:Limburgish
2928:Stadsfries
2901:Brabantian
2628:Low German
2474:Eiderstedt
2329:Fingallian
2007:Vocabulary
1911:Morphology
1831:*kʷetwóres
1815:Sound laws
1467:Ringe 2006
1455:Ringe 2006
1443:Ringe 2006
1428:Ringe 2006
1415:References
1345:gemination
1305:sod-éye-ti
1257:wurg-yé-ti
1230:wr̥g-yé-ti
1087:sod-éye-ti
1069:wr̥g-yé-ti
1035:wurkijanþi
550:semivowels
255:, Gothic
247:ḱerdh-yo-s
78:April 2009
4143:varieties
4135:indicate
3949:Northwest
3894:Philology
3799:Elfdalian
3734:Jutlandic
3656:Icelandic
3631:(written)
3625:(written)
3603:Trøndersk
3583:Norwegian
3547:Old Norse
3368:Coloniero
3352:Alemannic
3325:Wymysorys
3193:Colognian
3188:Ripuarian
3110:Rotwelsch
2940:Midslands
2891:Zeelandic
2872:Hollandic
2846:Afrikaans
2818:Old Dutch
2644:Old Saxon
2543:Karrharde
2525:Goesharde
2506:Mainland
2239:philology
1985:Particles
1880:Sievers's
1870:Pinault's
1865:Osthoff's
1782:Phonology
1403:, where *
1114:satijanþi
1106:wurkjanþi
1046:waurkjand
676:sonorants
654:In 1965,
511:su-wiHro-
486:bahuvrīhi
293:Discovery
260:/hɛrdiːs/
3870:Vandalic
3813:Gutnish
3618:Vikværsk
3598:Sognamål
3588:Bergensk
3438:Cimbrian
3406:Bavarian
3363:Alsatian
3310:Lusatian
3246:Palatine
2936:Amelands
2813:Frankish
2703:Sallaans
2685:Gronings
2536:Southern
2529:Northern
2520:Halligen
2469:Insular
2286:dialects
2162:See also
2116:Theories
1990:Pronouns
1980:Numerals
1974:Nominals
1821:boukólos
1810:s-mobile
1681:Language
1653:Language
1628:: 38–108
1515:Language
1486:Language
1385:hamiþiją
1275:converse
1181:satijiþi
1151:waurkeiþ
1054:satjanþi
1042:/workīþ/
1039:waurkeiþ
961:fōrijaną
717:supatrá-
705:metrical
697:controls
650:Lindeman
527:suwiHro-
482:morpheme
418:Language
407:Edgerton
316:Sanskrit
257:hairdeis
253:hirdijaz
223:kor-yo-s
172:syllable
4133:Italics
3756:Scanian
3702:Swedish
3651:Faroese
3629:Nynorsk
3608:Valdris
3443:Mòcheno
3399:Swabian
3265:Hessian
3225:Hunsrik
3137:Western
3132:Eastern
3127:Yiddish
3077:creoles
2974:Bergish
2690:Drèents
2680:Tweants
2532:Central
2514:Mooring
2377:Frisian
2336:Kildare
2281:English
2067:Origins
1900:Weise's
1890:Stang's
1875:Siebs's
1405:hemiddi
1353:-ārijaz
1329:-atjaną
1236:wurkīþi
1185:satjiþi
1102:wurkiþi
1062:satjand
1031:wurkīþi
997:warjaną
979:satjaną
908:(from *
875:wilþeis
713:suvīra-
624:of PIE
536:swiHro-
520:suvīra-
488:prefix
389:pōtira-
381:pā-tra-
327:dāivya-
323:dāivya-
320:Rigveda
288:History
227:became
130:Unicode
66:improve
3849:Gothic
3719:Danish
3623:Bokmål
3122:Yenish
2932:Bildts
2715:Veluws
2710:Urkers
2549:Strand
2273:Anglic
2058:(IEED)
2042:(LIPP)
2000:copula
1958:Vṛddhi
1918:Ablaut
1790:Accent
1733:
1715:
1701:412188
1699:
1673:411659
1671:
1641:
1610:
1567:
1549:
1535:409841
1533:
1507:409474
1505:
1401:hemidi
1393:hamiþ-
1369:-arjis
1365:-areis
1341:-ettan
1298:satiþi
1209:biddeð
1201:bideð,
1197:satjiþ
1189:satiþi
1155:satjiþ
1137:> *
1110:satīþi
1108:and **
1058:satjiþ
1050:satiþi
989:werien
985:werian
971:sezzen
967:settan
953:fuoren
902:-ijaną
865:(from
859:midjis
778:diyēws
765:diyēws
629:ḱr̥Hos
622:reflex
569:(from
561:śr̥ros
506:(e.g.
472:diyēws
397:-tira-
385:-tira-
379:(e.g.
373:liquid
331:satya-
329:) but
264:ablaut
240:harjis
237:Gothic
233:harjaz
218:(PIE)
212:weight
23:, see
3963:South
3914:North
3524:North
3508:North
2850:Kaaps
2841:Dutch
2488:Amrum
2429:Weser
2351:Scots
2187:(EIE)
2050:(NIL)
2034:(LIV)
2026:(IEW)
1995:Verbs
1697:JSTOR
1669:JSTOR
1600:(PDF)
1531:JSTOR
1503:JSTOR
1165:(PIE
1159:-iji-
1143:-iji-
1139:wurk-
1135:wr̥g-
1120:from
1009:-iya-
1005:-iya-
993:verja
975:setja
949:fēran
894:-janą
871:-ija-
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