307:. A charge distribution occurs across the electrode, which creates a potential which can be measured against a reference electrode. The method of neuronal potential recording is dependent on the type of electrode used. Non-polarizable electrodes are reversible (ions in the solution are charged and discharged). This creates a current flowing through the electrode, allowing for voltage measurement through the electrode with respect to time. Typically, non-polarizable electrodes are glass micropipettes filled with an ionic solution or metal. Alternatively, ideal polarized electrodes do not have the transformation of ions; these are typically metal electrodes. Instead, the ions and electrons at the surface of the metal become polarized with respect to the potential of the solution. The charges orient at the interface to create an electric double layer; the metal then acts like a capacitor. The change in capacitance with respect to time can be measured and converted to voltage using a bridge circuit. Using this technique, when neurons fire an action potential they create changes in potential fields that can be recorded using microelectrodes. Single unit recordings from the cortical regions of rodent models have been shown to dependent on the depth at which the microelectrode sites were located. When comparing anestheized vs. awake states, single unit activity in rodent models under 2% isoflurane has shown to lower the noise level in the neurological recordings; eventhough the awake state recordings showed an 14% increase in peak-to-peak voltage magnitude.
382:(KCl) solution. With Ag-AgCl electrodes, ions react with it to produce electrical gradients at the interface, creating a voltage change with respect to time. Electrically, glass microelectrode tips have high resistance and high capacitance. They have a tip size of approximately 0.5-1.5 μm with a resistance of about 10-50 MΩ. The small tips make it easy to penetrate the cell membrane with minimal damage for intracellular recordings. Micropipettes are ideal for measurement of resting membrane potentials and with some adjustments can record action potentials. There are some issues to consider when using glass micropipettes. To offset high resistance in glass micropipettes, a
118:, postsynaptic potentials and spikes through the soma (or axon). Alternatively, when the microelectrode is close to the cell surface extracellular recordings measure the voltage change (with respect to time) outside the cell, giving only spike information. Different types of microelectrodes can be used for single-unit recordings; they are typically high-impedance, fine-tipped and conductive. Fine tips allow for easy penetration without extensive damage to the cell, but they also correlate with high impedance. Additionally, electrical and/or ionic conductivity allow for recordings from both non-polarizable and
105:(fMRI)—but these do not allow for single-neuron resolution. Neurons are the basic functional units in the brain; they transmit information through the body using electrical signals called action potentials. Currently, single-unit recordings provide the most precise recordings from a single neuron. A single unit is defined as a single, firing neuron whose spike potentials are distinctly isolated by a recording microelectrode.
434:
for information assessing the relationship between brain structure, function, and behavior. By looking at brain activity at the neuron level, researchers can link brain activity to behavior and create neuronal maps describing flow of information through the brain. For example, Boraud et al. report the use of single unit recordings to determine the structural organization of the basal ganglia in patients with
415:
electrodes are very rugged and provide very stable recordings. This allows manufacturing of tungsten electrodes with very small tips to isolate high-frequencies. Tungsten, however, is very noisy at low frequencies. In mammalian nervous system where there are fast signals, noise can be removed with
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pilot clinical trial was initiated to "test the safety and feasibility of a neural interface system based on an intracortical 100-electrode silicon recording array". This initiative has been successful in advancement of BCIs and in 2011, published data showing long term computer control in a patient
360:
There are two main types of microelectrodes used for single-unit recordings: glass micropipettes and metal electrodes. Both are high-impedance electrodes, but glass micropipettes are highly resistive and metal electrodes have frequency-dependent impedance. Glass micropipettes are ideal for resting-
310:
Intracellularly, the electrodes directly record the firing of action, resting and postsynaptic potentials. When a neuron fires, current flows in and out through excitable regions in the axons and cell body of the neuron. This creates potential fields around the neuron. An electrode near a neuron can
433:
Noninvasive tools to study the CNS have been developed to provide structural and functional information, but they do not provide very high resolution. To offset this problem invasive recording methods have been used. Single unit recording methods give high spatial and temporal resolution to allow
331:
of microelectrode used will depend on the application. The high resistance of these electrodes creates a problem during signal amplification. If it were connected to a conventional amplifier with low input resistance, there would be a large potential drop across the microelectrode and the amplifier
122:
electrodes. The two primary classes of electrodes are glass micropipettes and metal electrodes. Electrolyte-filled glass micropipettes are mainly used for intracellular single-unit recordings; metal electrodes (commonly made of stainless steel, platinum, tungsten or iridium) and used for both types
395:
Metal electrodes are made of various types of metals, typically silicon, platinum, and tungsten. They "resemble a leaky electrolytic capacitor, having a very high low-frequency impedance and low high-frequency impedance". They are more suitable for measurement of extracellular action potentials,
462:
or neurological disease. This technology has potential to reach a wide variety of patients but is not yet available clinically due to lack of reliability in recording signals over time. The primary hypothesis regarding this failure is that the chronic inflammatory response around the electrode
131:
patients to determine the position of epileptic foci. More recently, single-unit recordings have been used in brain machine interfaces (BMI). BMIs record brain signals and decode an intended response, which then controls the movement of an external device (such as a computer cursor or prosthetic
377:
characteristics of the different ions within the electrode should be similar. The ion must also be able to "provide current carrying capacity adequate for the needs of the experiment". And importantly, it must not cause biological changes in the cell it is recording from. Ag-AgCl electrodes are
113:
regions. This current creates a measurable, changing voltage potential within (and outside) the cell. This allows for two basic types of single-unit recordings. Intracellular single-unit recordings occur within the neuron and measure the voltage change (with respect to time) across the membrane
144:
has electrical properties. Since then, single unit recordings have become an important method for understanding mechanisms and functions of the nervous system. Over the years, single unit recording continued to provide insight on topographical mapping of the cortex. Eventual development of
126:
Single-unit recordings have provided tools to explore the brain and apply this knowledge to current technologies. Cognitive scientists have used single-unit recordings in the brains of animals and humans to study behaviors and functions. Electrodes can also be inserted into the brain of
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Single-unit recordings have allowed the ability to monitor single-neuron activity. This has allowed researchers to discover the role of different parts of the brain in function and behavior. More recently, recording from single neurons can be used to engineer "mind-controlled" devices.
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provide a method to couple behavior to brain function. By stimulating different responses, one can visualize what portion of the brain is activated. This method has been used to explore cognitive functions such as perception, memory, language, emotions, and motor control.
373:(Ag-AgCl) electrode is dipped into the filling solution as an electrical terminal. Ideally, the ionic solutions should have ions similar to ionic species around the electrode; the concentration inside the electrode and surrounding fluid should be the same. Additionally, the
405:
electrodes are platinum black plated and insulated with glass. "They normally give stable recordings, a high signal-to-noise ratio, good isolation, and they are quite rugged in the usual tip sizes". The only limitation is that the tips are very fine and fragile.
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1978: Schmidt et al. implanted chronic recording micro-cortical electrodes into the cortex of monkeys and showed that they could teach them to control neuronal firing rates, a key step to the possibility of recording neuronal signals and using them for
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must be used as the first-stage amplifier. Additionally, high capacitance develops across the glass and conducting solution which can attenuate high-frequency responses. There is also electrical interference inherent in these electrodes and amplifiers.
336:
device to collect the voltage and feed it to a conventional amplifier. To record from a single neuron, micromanipulators must be used to precisely insert an electrode into the brain. This is especially important for intracellular single-unit recording.
160:, a Spanish neuroscientist, revolutionized neuroscience with his neuron theory, describing the structure of the nervous system and presence of basic functional units— neurons. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this work in 1906.
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due to lower impedance for the frequency range of spike signals. They also have better mechanical stiffness for puncturing through brain tissue. Lastly, they are more easily fabricated into different tip shapes and sizes at large quantities.
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electrodes are alloy electrodes doped with silicon and an insulating glass cover layer. Silicon technology provides better mechanical stiffness and is a good supporting carrier to allow for multiple recording sites on a single electrode.
454:(BMIs) have been developed within the last 20 years. By recording single unit potentials, these devices can decode signals through a computer and output this signal for control of an external device such as a computer cursor or
1844:
Boraud T.; Bezard E.; et al. (2002). "From single extracellular unit recording in experimental and human
Parkinsonism to the development of a functional concept of the role played by the basal ganglia in motor control".
108:
The ability to record signals from neurons is centered around the electric current flow through the neuron. As an action potential propagates through the cell, the electric current flows in and out of the soma and axons at
238:
1967: The first record of multi-electrode arrays for recording was published by Marg and Adams. They applied this method to record many units at a single time in a single patient for diagnostic and therapeutic brain
232:. They used single neuron recordings to map the visual cortex in unanesthesized, unrestrained cats using tungsten electrodes. This work won them the Nobel Prize in 1981 for information processing in the visual system.
361:
and action-potential measurement, while metal electrodes are best used for extracellular spike measurements. Each type has different properties and limitations, which can be beneficial in specific applications.
267:(ALS), a neurological condition affecting the ability to control voluntary movement, they were able to successfully record action potentials using microelectrode arrays to control a computer cursor.
62:
matching; they are primarily glass micro-pipettes, metal microelectrodes made of platinum, tungsten, iridium or even iridium oxide. Microelectrodes can be carefully placed close to the
256:
1994: The
Michigan array, a silicon planar electrode with multiple recording sites, was developed. NeuroNexus, a private neurotechnology company, is formed based on this technology.
2284:
886:
López-Muñoz F.; Boya J.; et al. (2006). "Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to
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58:. A microelectrode is inserted into the brain, where it can record the rate of change in voltage with respect to time. These microelectrodes must be fine-tipped,
246:
1981: Kruger and Bach assemble 30 individual microelectrodes in a 5x6 configuration and implant the electrodes for simultaneous recording of multiple units.
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Finally, the signals must be exported to a recording device. After amplification, signals are filtered with various techniques. They can be recorded by an
2005:
Baker S. N.; Philbin N.; et al. (1999). "Multiple single unit recording in the cortex of monkeys using independently moveable microelectrodes".
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in his 1928 publication "The Basis of
Sensation". In this, he describes his recordings of electrical discharges in single nerve fibers using a
1723:
Sturgill, Brandon; Radhakrishna, Rahul; Thai, Teresa Thuc Doan; Patnaik, Sourav S.; Capadona, Jeffrey R.; Pancrazio, Joseph J. (2022-03-20).
278:, which aims to develop ultra-high bandwidth BMIs. In 2019, he and Neuralink published their work followed by a live-stream press conference.
102:
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2122:
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668:
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50:, the signal propagates down the neuron as a current which flows in and out of the cell through excitable membrane regions in the
332:
would only measure a small portion of the true potential. To solve this problem, a cathode follower amplifier must be used as an
1316:
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in the 1790s with his studies on dissected frogs. He discovered that you can induce a dead frog leg to twitch with a spark.
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causes neurodegeneration that reduces the number of neurons it is able to record from (Nicolelis, 2001). In 2004, the
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to react with the electrode creating an electrode-electrolyte interface. The forming of this layer has been termed the
253:
which can access the columnar structure of the cerebral cortex for neurophysiological or neuroprosthetic applications".
345:
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a high-pass filter. Slow signals are lost if filtered so tungsten is not a good choice for recording these signals.
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although glass micropipettes can also be used. Metal electrodes are beneficial in some cases because they have high
493:
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The basis of single-unit recordings relies on the ability to record electrical signals from neurons.
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1725:"Characterization of Active Electrode Yield for Intracortical Arrays: Awake versus Anesthesia"
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1950: Woldring and Dirken report the ability to obtain spike activity from the surface of the
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1674:"Influence of Implantation Depth on the Performance of Intracortical Probe Recording Sites"
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When a microelectrode is inserted into an aqueous ionic solution, there is a tendency for
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1928: One of the earliest accounts of being able to record from the nervous system was by
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1998: A key breakthrough for BMIs was achieved by Kennedy and Bakay with development of
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1940: Renshaw, Forbes & Morrison performed original studies recording discharge of
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1790s: The first evidence of electrical activity in the nervous system was observed by
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2018:
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1034:"Microelectrode Studies of the Electrical Activity of the Cerebral Cortex in the Cat"
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Glass micropipettes are filled with an ionic solution to make them conductive; a
171:. He won the Nobel Prize in 1932 for his work revealing the function of neurons.
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The ability to record from single units started with the discovery that the
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1586:"An integrated brain-machine interface platform with thousands of channels"
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407:
249:
1992: Development of the "Utah Intracortical Electrode Array (UIEA), a
235:
1960: Glass-insulated platinum microelectrodes developed for recording.
204:
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microelectrode arrays allowed recording from multiple units at a time.
93:
There are many techniques available to record brain activity—including
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319:
The basic equipment needed to record single units is microelectrodes,
1914:
1889:
1199:
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344:
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300:
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595:"Sputtered iridium oxide films for neural stimulation electrodes"
458:. BMIs have the potential to restore function in patients with
55:
311:
detect these extracellular potential fields, creating a spike.
2280:
American College of Neuropsychopharmacology: Electrophysiology
655:
Neurophysiological techniques: applications to neural systems
2294:
2274:
803:
801:
716:"Human Intracranial Recordings and Cognitive Neuroscience"
85:(BMI) technologies for brain control of external devices.
2227:"How advances in neural recording affect data analysis"
77:, where it permits the analysis of human cognition and
200:
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1500:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
274:co-founded and invested $ 100 million for
81:. This information can then be applied to
73:Single-unit recordings are widely used in
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1978:
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291:Neuronal potentials and electrodes
25:
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356:Types of microelectrodes
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36:single-unit recordings
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2320:Neurology procedures
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509:Electrocorticography
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365:Glass micropipettes
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1691:10.3390/mi12101158
1426:10.1007/bf02368134
1383:10.1007/bf00236609
380:potassium chloride
334:impedance matching
315:Experimental setup
111:excitable membrane
2285:Neural Recordings
1900:(6818): 403–407.
1512:10.1109/10.335862
941:(4857): 287–290.
816:(11): 1856–1862.
519:Electrophysiology
440:Evoked potentials
429:Cognitive science
325:micromanipulators
283:Electrophysiology
224:1959: Studies by
116:resting potential
75:cognitive science
16:(Redirected from
2327:
2264:
2254:
2221:
2184:
2155:
2130:(1–2): 251–254.
2118:
2081:
2063:
2038:
1993:
1992:
1982:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1917:
1915:10.1038/35053191
1885:
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1581:
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1574:
1549:(8): 1707–1711.
1538:
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1002:
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958:
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920:
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894:(4–6): 391–405.
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796:
795:
787:
772:
771:
763:
754:
753:
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714:Cerf, M (2010).
711:
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699:
689:
665:
659:
658:
650:
633:
632:
622:
590:
584:
583:
555:
524:Intracranial EEG
384:cathode follower
198:squid giant axon
79:cortical mapping
48:action potential
21:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2310:Neurophysiology
2300:
2299:
2271:
2243:10.1038/nn.2731
2224:
2187:
2158:
2121:
2084:
2061:10.1068/p010371
2041:
2004:
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1996:
1944:
1943:
1939:
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1374:10.1.1.320.7615
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456:prosthetic limb
449:
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398:signal-to-noise
393:
367:
358:
350:Data-processing
317:
305:Helmholtz layer
293:
285:
219:Stainless steel
187:cerebral cortex
176:pyramidal cells
138:
123:of recordings.
91:
68:extracellularly
28:
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2270:
2269:External links
2267:
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2237:(2): 139–142.
2222:
2196:(6): 915–924.
2185:
2156:
2124:Brain Research
2119:
2093:(2): 230–241.
2082:
2054:(4): 371–394.
2039:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1937:
1880:
1853:(4): 265–283.
1836:
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1786:
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1603:10.1101/703801
1596:(10): e16194.
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484:Brain implant
482:
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2315:Neuroimaging
2234:
2231:Nat Neurosci
2230:
2193:
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420:Applications
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342:oscilloscope
339:
318:
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294:
286:
165:Edgar Adrian
139:
125:
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92:
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32:neuroscience
29:
2013:(1): 5–17.
1543:NeuroReport
1463:(1): 1–15.
566:: 275–309.
534:Patch clamp
212:John Eccles
180:hippocampus
120:polarizable
101:(MEG), and
2304:Categories
2048:Perception
1999:References
1735:(3): 480.
321:amplifiers
2295:BrainGate
1751:2072-666X
1369:CiteSeerX
489:BrainGate
465:BrainGate
460:paralysis
375:diffusive
276:Neuralink
272:Elon Musk
129:epileptic
60:impedance
42:using a
2261:21270781
2218:18323877
2181:10221571
2152:20139805
2115:26878763
2078:17487970
2035:12846443
2027:10638811
1989:21436513
1924:11201755
1875:23389986
1867:11960681
1831:11414381
1769:35334770
1710:34683209
1632:31642810
1485:24981753
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1442:11214935
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1260:17753062
1209:13590200
1160:13076162
1117:12991237
1068:13085304
1019:14789543
965:13115699
916:11273256
908:17027775
873:23394494
830:51641398
750:20981100
696:31353822
629:18837458
580:18429704
472:See also
413:Tungsten
403:Platinum
239:surgery.
89:Overview
2252:3410539
2210:4631839
2144:9237542
2107:3957372
2070:4377168
1980:3715131
1959:Bibcode
1932:4386663
1902:Bibcode
1823:5431636
1760:8955818
1701:8539313
1623:6914248
1598:bioRxiv
1571:5681602
1563:9665587
1528:6694261
1520:7851915
1434:1510294
1391:7202614
1303:4167928
1240:Bibcode
1232:Science
1217:4256169
1187:Bibcode
1140:Bibcode
1132:Science
1108:1392413
1059:1366060
956:2093300
865:9347609
741:3010923
620:7442142
408:Silicon
297:cations
205:Iridium
178:in the
136:History
132:limb).
97:(EEG),
2259:
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1894:Nature
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301:anions
270:2016:
217:1958:
210:1957:
203:1953:
156:1888:
40:neuron
2214:S2CID
2148:S2CID
2111:S2CID
2074:S2CID
2031:S2CID
1928:S2CID
1871:S2CID
1827:S2CID
1799:(PDF)
1567:S2CID
1524:S2CID
1481:S2CID
1438:S2CID
1399:61329
1395:S2CID
1342:S2CID
1264:S2CID
1213:S2CID
912:S2CID
869:S2CID
826:S2CID
546:Notes
391:Metal
243:BMIs.
2257:PMID
2206:PMID
2177:PMID
2140:PMID
2103:PMID
2066:PMID
2023:PMID
1985:PMID
1920:PMID
1863:PMID
1819:PMID
1765:PMID
1747:ISSN
1706:PMID
1628:PMID
1559:PMID
1516:PMID
1473:PMID
1430:PMID
1387:PMID
1334:PMID
1299:PMID
1256:PMID
1205:PMID
1156:PMID
1113:PMID
1064:PMID
1015:PMID
961:PMID
904:PMID
861:PMID
746:PMID
692:PMID
625:PMID
576:PMID
329:type
299:and
228:and
56:axon
54:and
52:soma
2247:PMC
2239:doi
2198:doi
2169:doi
2132:doi
2128:760
2095:doi
2056:doi
2015:doi
1975:PMC
1967:doi
1910:doi
1898:409
1855:doi
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1755:PMC
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1103:PMC
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1054:PMC
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951:PMC
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818:doi
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728:doi
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2011:94
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1918:.
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