3315:
2762:
3818:(Wenzhou and Suzhou) occupied an intermediate position, closer to the Northern/New Xiang/Gan group in lexical similarity and strongly closer in subjective intelligibility but closer to Min/Hakka/Yue in phonological regularity and subjective similarity, except that Wenzhou was farthest from all other dialects in phonological regularity. The two Wu dialects were close to each other in lexical similarity and subjective similarity but not in mutual intelligibility, where Suzhou was closer to Northern/Xiang/Gan than to Wenzhou.
1865:
184:
8004:
3271:
3097:, by around 5 million people. It is identified as a top-level group by the Language Atlas, though some linguists believe in other theories, such as it being a Gan-influenced Wu variety, due to an identifiable basis of Old Wu features. Hui varieties are phonologically diverse, and some features are shared with Wu, such as the simplification of diphthongs. Hui can be divided into Jishe, Xiuyi, Qiwu, Jingzhan and Yanzhou branches, with Tunxinese and Jixinese being representatives.
10023:
2021:
3942:; 'water') of Xuanzhounese, which both show syllables which do not follow the (single) consonant-glide-vowel-consonant syllable structure of more well-known lects. Tone sandhi is also a feature which not all lects share. Cantonese, for instance, only has a very weak system, whereas Wu varieties not only have complex, intricate systems, which affect almost all syllables, but also uses it to mark for grammatical
3855:
10673:
2441:
456:
1653:
1394:
4213:, though it is largely breaking down in Shanghainese due to Mandarin influence. Sinitic languages generally also have no case marking, though lects such as Linxianese and Hengshannese do possess case particles, with the latter expressing it through tone change. Sinitic languages generally have SVO word order and possess classifiers.
269:
Over 91% of the
Chinese population speaks a Sinitic language. Approximately 1.52 billion people are speakers of the Chinese macrolanguage, of whom about three-quarters speak a Mandarin variety. Estimates of the number of global speakers of Sinitic branches as of 2018–2019, both native and non-native,
3330:. Little comparative work has been done (the usual way of reconstructing the relationships between languages), and little is known about mutual intelligibility. Even within the dialectological classification, details are disputed, such as the establishment in the 1980s of three new top-level groups:
3290:
by an estimated 37 million people. Due to migrations, Xiang can be split into New and Old Xiang groups, with Old Xiang having fewer
Mandarin-influenced features. Xiang varieties have universally lost their checked codas, but the majority of them still have a unique preserved checked tone contour.
2068:
in their vowels, which is reflected in their almost universally split dark-checked and often split light-checked tones. They generally also tend to preserve all three checked plosive finals and three nasal finals. The status of
Pinghua is uncertain, and some believe its two groups, Northern and
5437:
Many
Sinitic languages have three-way systems, but the three distances are not always the same ones. For instance, whereas Guangshan Mandarin has a person-oriented proximal, medial, and distal system, Xinyu Gan has a distance-oriented close, proximal, and distal system. Gan especially has many
1635:
Subdivision of
Central Plains Mandarin is not fully agreed upon, though one possible subdivision sees 13 divisions, namely Xuhuai, Zhengkai, Luosong, Nanlu, Yanhe, Shangfu, Xinbeng, Luoxiang, Fenhe, Guanzhong, Qinlong, Longzhong and Nanjiang. Lanyin Mandarin, on the other hand, is divided as
476:
in which differences generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though there are also some sharp boundaries. The
Sinitic languages can be divided into Macro-Bai languages and Chinese languages, and the following is one of many potential ways of subdividing these languages. Some
1903:
The
Language Atlas divides Huai into Tongtai, Huangxiao, and Hongchao areas, with the latter further split into Ninglu and Huaiyang. Tongtai, being geographically located furthest west, has the most significant Wu influence, such as in its distribution of historical voiced plosive series.
3720:
classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three larger groups: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang), and
Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min). He argued that the Southern Group is derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the
1333:
is also a
Northeastern Mandarin language. Beijing is sometimes included in Northeastern Mandarin due to its distribution of the historical dark checked tone, though is listed as its own group by others, often due to its more regular light checked tones.
1417:, as well as several prefectures along the China-Korea border. Like Jilu Mandarin, its light checked tone is merged into light level or departing based on the manner of articulation of the initial, though its dark checked is merged into the rising. Its
3806:
or Shanxi) and Hankou (Wuhan, Hubei) were subjectively perceived as relatively different from other
Northern dialects but were very close in mutual intelligibility. Objectively, Taiyuan had substantial phonological divergence but little lexical
1833:, Southwestern Mandarin speakers take up the most area and population of all Mandarinic language groups, and would be the eighth most spoken language in the world if separated from the rest of Mandarin. Southwestern Mandarinic tends to not have
729:
in the Southwest, tended to involve Mandarin speakers. Classification of Mandarin lects has undergone several significant changes, though nowadays it is commonly divided as such, based on the distribution of the historical checked tone:
1688:, where it was proposed as lects in and around Shanxi with a checked tone, though this stance is not without disagreement. Jin varieties also often has disyllabic words derived from syllable splitting (分音詞), through the infixation of
1631:
Lanyin Mandarin, spoken in northern Ningxia, parts of Gansu, and northern Xinjiang, is sometimes grouped with Central Plains Mandarin due to its merged lesser light and dark checked tones, though it is realised as a departing tone.
2319:, by an estimated total of 44 million people. Some believe that Hakka is closely related to other groups, such as Gan, Yue, or Tongtai. Hakka varieties generally have no voiced plosive initials and preserve the historical
4208:
Disregarding phonology, grammar is the feature of Sinitic languages which differ the most. The majority of Sinitic languages do not possess tenses, though exceptions include Northern Wu lects such as Shanghainese and
5406:
can be translated as both 'this' and 'that'. Though Wuhannese has this system of a one-term neutral system, it also has a two-way proximal-distal system. This is the same for most other lects with a one-term system.
8416:
8407:
5230:
are the most common generic classifiers cross-linguistically. As previously mentioned, Mandarinic languages tend to have fewer classifiers whereas the Southern non-Mandarinic varieties tend to have more.
3821:
In the Southern subgroup, Hakka and Yue grouped closely together on the three lexical and subjective measures but not in phonological regularity. The Min dialects showed high divergence, with Min Fuzhou
807:
rimes, though the amount of its use may vary between lects. Loss of checked tone is an often cited criterion for Mandarin languages, though lects such as Yangzhounese and Taiyuannese show otherwise.
3258:, whereas the Southern group was developed based on Northern Gan. The Language Atlas sees Gan divided into Changdu, Yiliu, Jicha, Fuguang, Yingyi, Datong, Dongsui, Huaiyue, and Leizi branches.
3322:
in 2019 to identify sound correspondences and establish cognates, phylogenetic methods are used to infer relationships among these languages and estimate the age of their origin and homeland.
4396:
Mandarinic, Xiang, Hui, and Min languages often place the indirect object (IO) before the direct object (DO). Some lects have switched to IO-DO structure due to Mandarin influence, such as
7703:
Thurgood, Graham (2003), "The subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman languages: The interaction between language contact, change, and inheritance", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),
3846:
The following section will be dedicated to comparing non-Bai and non-Cai–Long Sinitic languages. Though all stem from Old Chinese, they have all developed differences with each other.
10148:
2546:
3391:
are not considered Mandarin. However, linguists such as Richard VanNess Simmons and Zhou Zhenhe have observed that these two varieties possess more qualifying features of
7402:; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019), "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan",
5273:
has a neutral demonstrative, which can be used regardless of the distance to the deictic center. Similar systems are found in Northern Wu lects such as Suzhounese and
2511:
Since Min descended from Old Chinese rather than Middle Chinese, it has some features that would be out of place in other varieties. For instance, some words with the
7801:
1856:
Southwestern Mandarin tends to be split into Chuanqian, Xishu, Chuanxi, Yunnan, Huguang and Guiliu branches. Minchi is sometimes separated as a remnant of Old Shu.
1366:. Characteristically Jilu Mandarin features include merging the dark checked into the dark level tone, the light checked into light level or departing based on the
3760:
and regularity of sound correspondences, and subjective criteria of intelligibility and similarity. Most of these criteria show a top-level split with Northern,
1888:. Due to its preservation of a checked tone, some linguists believe that Huai ought to be treated as a top-level group, like Jin. Representative lects tend to be
3729:, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined.
3725:(206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central group was transitional between the Northern and Southern groups. Some
2809:, use a Wu variety. Wu varieties generally have a fricative initial in their negators, a three-way plosive distinction, as well as a checked coda preserved as a
4393:
Sinitic languages tend to vary greatly in how they mark indirect objects. The area which varies tends to be the placement of the indirect and direct objects.
705:, by around three-quarters of the Sinitic-speaking population. Historically, the prestige variety has always been Mandarin, which is still reflected today in
10031:
2267:
and the two Pinghua branches. Siyi is generally agreed to be the most divergent, and Goulou is believed to be the one which is closest related to Pinghua.
1036:
and seemingly random distribution of the dark checked tone, and generally having four tones with the contours of high flat, rising, dipping, and falling.
542:
The Chinese branch of the family is classified into at least seven main families. These families are classified based on five main evolutionary criteria:
8658:
5410:
Even within two-way systems, which is the most common system, terms could have developed to mean the opposite distance from the deitic center. Cantonese
8737:
1900:. The Huai of Nanjing has likely served as a national prestige during the Ming and Qing periods, though not all linguists support this viewpoint.
739:
3882:. Even between varieties which use Sinographs, characters are repurposed or invented to cover for the difference in vocabulary. Examples include
1385:
Jilu Mandarin can be classified into Baotang, Shiji, Canghui and Zhangli. Zhangli is of note due to its preservation of a separate checked tone.
10329:
5724:
Zhang, Menghan; Yan, Shi; Pan, Wuyun; Jin, Li (2019). "Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic".
3077:. Northern Wu is further divided into Piling, Suhujia, Tiaoxi, Linshao, Yongjiang, and Hangzhou, though Hangzhou's classification is unclear.
9568:
7771:
7714:
7674:
7653:
7631:
7556:
6210:
10379:
10221:
7794:
1781:
As per the Language Atlas by Li, Jin is divided into Dabao, Zhanghu, Wutai, Lüliang, Bingzhou, Shangdang, Hanxin, and Zhiyan branches.
3314:
5585:
for examples. The Chinese terms often translated as 'language' and 'dialect' do not correspond well to those translations. These are
7732:
7326:
7204:
7149:
7124:
7099:
6490:
6141:
8003:
10695:
10301:
8528:
6580:
3654:
lects. Recent research, however, has noted that these are both are more likely unclassified. Maihua, for example, may be a Yue-
9008:
3371:
Like many other language families, Sinitic languages have had problems with classification. The following are a few examples.
8651:
7787:
7500:
7482:
7366:
7229:
6682:
6639:
6403:
6378:
5438:
varieties with a three-way system, sometimes even marked with tone and vowel length rather than just changing the term used.
3043:
are usually used as representatives of Wu. Wu Chinese varieties generally have a massive number of vowels, which rivals even
208:
6768:
5169:. In Cantonese, for instance, they can be used to mark possession, which is rare in Sinitic while common in Southeast Asia.
3262:
is often chosen as the representative. Shaojiang Min is identified to be influenced or even closely related to Fuguang Gan.
10617:
10071:
3926:, which has ten. Sinitic languages also vary wildly in their phonological inventories and phonotactics. Take for instance
3906:; 'ill-tempered' in Mandarin. Note that both traditional and simplified characters can be used to write any lect.
3326:
The traditional, dialectological classification of Chinese languages is based on the evolution of the sound categories of
3294:
One way of dividing Xiang varieties sees five distinct families, namely Changyi, Hengzhou, Louzhao, Chenxu, and Yongzhou.
3122:
1841:, which has a standalone checked category, the checked tone is merged with another category. Representative lects include
1449:
714:
200:
8533:
8189:
10676:
10587:
10111:
8586:
3353:. The evidence for this split is that all Sinitic languages apart from the Min group can fit into the structure of the
450:
241:. It is frequently proposed that there is a primary split between the Sinitic languages and the rest of the family (the
238:
8234:
7872:
2275:
Hakka Chinese is a direct result of several migration waves from Northern China to the South, and is spoken in eastern
799:
Varieties of Mandarin can be defined by their universally lost -m final, low number of tones, and smaller inventory of
10592:
10464:
10389:
10046:
8579:
8156:
5441:
A small number of varieties possess even four- or five-term demonstrative systems. Take for instance the following:
10634:
10607:
10484:
10396:
10143:
10123:
4924:
4366:
10186:
8884:
8644:
8479:
7926:
7847:
7641:
7619:
3717:
469:
7976:
5568:
is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family rather than as a language.
3677:. Its classification has always been unclear, though the most common standpoint is that it is considered Hakka.
257:
unified by a shared historical background, and usage of the term "Sinitic" may reflect the linguistic view that
10560:
10545:
10535:
10249:
8560:
8163:
5162:
3875:
3044:
2761:
800:
8224:
5518:
These two lects use tone change and vowel length respectively to distinguish between the four demonstratives.
563:
The distribution of rimes across the four tone qualities, as conditioned by voicing and aspiration of initials
8901:
7510:
3318:
After applying the linguistic comparative method to the database of comparative linguistic data developed by
10572:
9446:
9408:
8811:
8554:
8340:
4216:
Verb usage may be different between Sinitic languages. Notice the double verb marking seen in lects such as
3702:
3698:
2312:
773:
757:
611:
242:
8307:
7685:"Predicting mutual intelligibility in chinese dialects from subjective and objective linguistic similarity"
1864:
10506:
10349:
8947:
8600:
8593:
8373:
7810:
5510:
5505:
5495:
5490:
5480:
5475:
5465:
5460:
5403:
3935:
3927:
3741:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1689:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1442:
1367:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
871:
866:
98:
493:, and was expanded to include Longjia and Luren. It likely split off from the rest of Sinitic during the
10501:
10424:
10138:
10116:
8871:
8704:
8543:
8493:
8049:
6294:
5979:
3405:) initial is often raised and backed in Wu and Xiang, while they are not in Hangzhounese and New Xiang.
1846:
1371:
779:
734:
9955:
9945:
6545:
Chinese Dialect Classification: A comparative approach to Harngjou, Old Jintarn, and Common Northern Wu
8930:
1897:
10269:
10237:
10066:
9950:
9709:
9257:
9191:
8686:
8355:
8201:
8147:
7662:
5733:
490:
254:
38:
9864:
9373:
5384:
5324:
3270:
3254:
Gan can also be divided into Northern and Southern groups. The Northern group was formed during the
497:
period. The languages included are all considered minority languages in China and are spoken in the
183:
10513:
10479:
10314:
10281:
10128:
10056:
9973:
9814:
9809:
9563:
8879:
8538:
8128:
7955:
7886:
3838:
on the two objective criteria and was slightly closer to Hakka and Yue on the subjective criteria.
3303:
1834:
1318:
246:
130:
10344:
9677:
7545:
Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"
3799:
Changsha (New Xiang) was always within the Mandarin group. No Old Xiang dialect was in the sample.
245:). This view is rejected by some researchers but has found phylogenetic support among others. The
10629:
10496:
10459:
10242:
10176:
10171:
10061:
10051:
9548:
9356:
9351:
8750:
8379:
7988:
7854:
7608:
7443:
5765:
3915:
3863:
3757:
3726:
3706:
3659:
3467:
3299:
2526:
1685:
1406:
1402:
785:
745:
510:
42:
9900:
9655:
7522:
Jiang, Huo 江荻; Ouyang, Jueya 欧阳觉亚; Zou, Heyan 邹嘉彦 (2007), "Hǎinán Shěng Sānyà Shì Màihuà yīnxì"
602:
The varieties within one family may not be mutually intelligible with each other. For instance,
9269:
7569:
3748:
valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.
2428:
Hakka can be divided into Yuetai, Hailu, Yuebei, Yuexi, Tingzhou, Ninglong, Yuxin and Tonggui.
10540:
10530:
10409:
10374:
10229:
10181:
10133:
10022:
9753:
9687:
9543:
9528:
9199:
9176:
9130:
9055:
8981:
8861:
8829:
8783:
8722:
8712:
8487:
8447:
8425:
8390:
8384:
8349:
8287:
8281:
8055:
8043:
8026:
7934:
7880:
7860:
7767:
7728:
7710:
7670:
7649:
7627:
7552:
7548:
7496:
7478:
7431:
7399:
7362:
7322:
7225:
7200:
7145:
7120:
7095:
6678:
6635:
6486:
6399:
6374:
6206:
6180:
6137:
5757:
5749:
5244:
5154:
4834:
On the other hand, Gan, Wu, Hakka, and Yue languages tend to place the DO in front of the IO.
3640:
Nantongnese has heavy Wu influence, which has led to it also having raised and backed vowels.
2730:
2534:
2501:
1314:
710:
473:
234:
31:
9905:
9895:
9880:
9294:
7570:"What Is a Chinese 'Dialect/Topolect'? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"
3121:, by 22 million people, sometimes believed to be related to Hakka. Gan varieties tend to not
472:
estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible Sinitic languages. They form a
10646:
10166:
10041:
9826:
9748:
9699:
9660:
9609:
9523:
9475:
9459:
9339:
9299:
9233:
9221:
9181:
9135:
9081:
9076:
9066:
9060:
8889:
8834:
8819:
8695:
8667:
8508:
8468:
8438:
8412:
8362:
8320:
8229:
8206:
8099:
8086:
8079:
8036:
7961:
7824:
7750:
7600:
7421:
7411:
5741:
5600:
5557:
4397:
3462:
3457:
3392:
3380:
3295:
3259:
2522:
2236:
1838:
1322:
763:
706:
618:
518:
289:
258:
125:
9672:
9368:
9316:
9311:
9245:
7684:
3780:
in the other group. The exception was phonological regularity, where the one Gan dialect (
10597:
10577:
10565:
10474:
10434:
10419:
10414:
10158:
10008:
9998:
9978:
9935:
9930:
9796:
9760:
9743:
9733:
9490:
9426:
9213:
9109:
9104:
9013:
8960:
8955:
8935:
8920:
8915:
8856:
8851:
8841:
8824:
8796:
8768:
8745:
8500:
8454:
8313:
8195:
8134:
7968:
7915:
7906:
7892:
7644:(2003), "The Chinese dialects: Phonology", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.),
7464:
Bradley, David (2012), "Languages and Language Families in China", in Rint Sybesma (ed.),
6307:
5992:
5158:
4217:
3867:
3835:
3785:
3643:
3452:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3360:
3331:
3062:
3040:
2721:
Min can primarily be split into Coastal and Inland Min varieties. The former contains the
2538:
2489:
2429:
2308:
2304:
2061:
2045:
2020:
1889:
1850:
1681:
1637:
1309:
Northeastern Mandarin lects can be divided into three main groups, namely Hafu (including
702:
686:
682:
663:
648:
603:
498:
419:
406:
393:
93:
10602:
9890:
9306:
5852:
Chan, Sin-Wai; Chappell, Hilary; Li, Lan (2017). "Mandarin and other Sinitic languages".
3810:
Chengdu (Sichuan) was somewhat divergent lexically but very little on the other measures.
1203:
Northeastern Mandarin, especially in Heilongjiang, contains many loanwords from Russian.
792:
as well as other lects, which do not neatly fall into these categories, such as Mandarin
5737:
1616:. Central Plains Mandarin lects merge the historical checked tones with a lesser muddy (
10651:
10641:
10612:
10319:
10291:
10003:
9988:
9841:
9836:
9821:
9765:
9704:
9586:
9558:
9538:
9485:
9454:
9431:
9421:
9416:
9378:
9361:
9274:
9262:
9250:
9238:
9226:
9171:
9153:
9071:
9045:
8986:
8906:
8894:
8846:
8801:
8791:
8717:
8570:
8548:
8462:
8431:
8367:
8327:
8301:
8275:
8252:
8175:
8121:
8093:
8062:
7940:
7866:
7725:
Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region
7565:
7426:
7395:
5274:
5240:
4210:
3943:
3879:
3686:
3447:
3327:
3319:
3074:
3051:
has been observed to have 20 phonemic monophthongal vowels, according to one analysis.
3048:
3036:
2726:
2530:
2505:
2481:
2480:, by around 76 million people. Due to significant amounts of migration, many people in
1677:
1310:
1026:
1010:
751:
722:
694:
667:
607:
525:
478:
261:
constitutes a family of distinct languages, rather than variants of a single language.
230:
78:
9163:
5805:... may form a constituent of Sinitic, albeit one heavily influenced by Lolo–Burmese."
170:
160:
10689:
10452:
10264:
10259:
9831:
9775:
9770:
9738:
9725:
9601:
9553:
9480:
9436:
9326:
9086:
8925:
8773:
8760:
8294:
8216:
7982:
7947:
7899:
5769:
5596:
5270:
3923:
3773:
3745:
3655:
2790:
2750:
2521:) are not affricates in Min. This, interestingly, has led to many languages, such as
2260:
1893:
1842:
1347:
658:
633:
367:
354:
6588:
10324:
10274:
9650:
9533:
9506:
9050:
9040:
8268:
8184:
8140:
8069:
7475:
Linguistics Epidemiology: Semantics and Language Contact in Mainland Southeast Asia
5561:
5166:
4401:
3919:
3831:
3827:
3781:
3442:
3255:
3054:
3032:
2814:
2810:
2742:
2722:
2264:
2248:
2065:
2049:
1641:
1428:
1355:
1326:
1030:
998:
726:
505:
82:
3854:
3732:
Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of
7704:
7591:(1970), "Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone",
6764:
3342:, although Pinghua is itself a pair of languages and Huizhou maybe half a dozen.
10469:
10443:
10339:
10309:
10286:
10254:
9993:
9983:
9787:
9682:
9667:
9630:
9578:
9399:
9390:
9286:
9125:
9000:
8727:
8614:
7829:
7588:
5547:
3823:
3803:
3789:
3777:
3769:
3765:
3756:
A 2007 study compared fifteen major urban dialects on the objective criteria of
3736:. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the
3722:
3690:
3651:
3350:
3346:
3335:
2746:
2734:
2244:
769:
653:
638:
628:
623:
494:
380:
341:
328:
302:
250:
17:
7404:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
5884:
5639:, which corresponds better to the familiar Western linguistic use of 'dialect'.
1461:), Jiaoliao Mandarin can be divided into Qingzhou, Denglian and Gaihuan areas.
9885:
9859:
9625:
9591:
9096:
9023:
5745:
3815:
3737:
3733:
3094:
3066:
2738:
2256:
2252:
2232:
643:
461:
315:
86:
6184:
5753:
10334:
10085:
10076:
9804:
9694:
9346:
9334:
9145:
8976:
8629:
indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.
8607:
8248:
8013:
7820:
7416:
3761:
3384:
2798:
2545:) with a plosive. Min varieties also have a very large number of words with
2493:
2485:
2457:
2453:
2316:
2288:
2276:
2228:
2057:
2053:
2037:
2029:
1814:
1593:
1553:
718:
698:
673:
with Jin, Hui, Pinghua, and Tuhua not part of the seven traditional groups.
154:
140:
74:
7754:
7435:
5761:
5564:
and Chinese. The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain and the term
3795:
The study did not find clear splits within the Northern and Central areas:
2440:
2069:
Southern, should be listed under Yue, though some reject this standpoint.
1640:
is a collection of Central Plains Mandarin varieties spoken in the former
481:, are hard to classify and thus are not included in the following briefs.
146:
10656:
10624:
10210:
9851:
9032:
7249:
Tenses and Aspects? Old Shanghainese as Found in the Book Huyu Bian Shang
5050:
4901:
4731:
3946:. Take for instance, this simplified analysis of Suzhounese tone sandhi:
3086:
3070:
3058:
2806:
2774:
2770:
2753:. Shaojiang Min acts as a transitional area between Min, Gan, and Hakka.
2477:
2449:
2240:
1830:
1605:
1585:
1565:
1351:
1343:
1236:
1006:
7779:
5180:
5121:
4972:
4853:
4772:
4651:
4538:
4460:
4423:
4333:
4245:
1684:. It was first proposed as a lect separate from the rest of Mandarin by
1652:
455:
10523:
10203:
10090:
9919:
9515:
8109:
7612:
7511:"Chinese Geolinguistics: History, Current Trend and Theoretical Issues"
3871:
3670:
3339:
3287:
3283:
3106:
2786:
2778:
2497:
2473:
2300:
2292:
2033:
1885:
1877:
1810:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1669:
1624:) initial together with the rising tone, and those with a fully muddy (
1613:
1597:
1589:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1414:
1363:
1022:
1018:
690:
5267:(distal), but this is not the only system found in Sinitic languages.
10582:
10384:
8022:
7837:
5974:
Gong, Xun (6 November 2015). "How Old is the Chinese in Bái?". Paris.
4289:
3744:
area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the
3674:
3647:
3355:
2802:
2794:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2284:
2280:
1826:
1790:
1661:
1609:
1601:
1561:
1410:
1330:
793:
514:
459:
L1 speakers of Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages according to
216:
7604:
2448:
Min Chinese is a direct descendant of Old Chinese, and is spoken in
1393:
788:(or "Lower Yangtze", sometimes "Huai", "Southern" or "Southeastern")
534:
All other Sinitic languages henceforth would be considered Chinese.
8636:
3291:
Most also have a three-way plosive distinction, like Wu varieties.
10095:
8018:
7833:
7741:
Wang, Feng (2005), "On the genetic position of the Bai language",
3853:
3395:
languages. For instance, the vowels of the second division of the
3388:
3313:
3279:
3269:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3090:
2782:
2760:
2444:
Distribution of Min varieties in mainland China, Hainan and Taiwan
2439:
2296:
2041:
2019:
1881:
1873:
1863:
1822:
1818:
1806:
1673:
1665:
1651:
1581:
1557:
1392:
1359:
1033:
1014:
1002:
804:
454:
7444:"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research"
7070:
7068:
7066:
7064:
5933:(in Chinese) (2). Shanghai Educational Publishing House: 389–400.
4735:
3918:, their contours and the total number of tones vary wildly, from
253:
and thus Sinitic; otherwise, Sinitic is defined only by the many
5560:
proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising
3858:
An example of Hokkien written exclusively in the Latin alphabet.
766:(sometimes "Northwestern" and considered part of Central Plains)
8640:
7783:
5347:
5287:
5165:, however, use of classifiers vary greatly in features such as
3349:
languages are commonly thought to have split off directly from
1029:. The two families' most notable features are the heavy use of
5552:
3914:
Phonologically speaking, though all Sinitic languages possess
2028:
Yue Chinese is spoken by around 84 million people, in western
1837:, and merges all checked tone categories together. Except for
803:, among other features. Mandarin lects also often have rhotic
6159:
Language Power and Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China
5613:, which separates mutually unintelligible languages within a
5908:
5906:
5193:
5097:
5026:
4999:
4948:
4877:
4837:
4796:
4675:
4600:
4562:
4484:
4407:
3862:
Typographically, the vast majority of Sinitic languages use
4699:
4627:
4404:, though Shanghainese also has the alternative word order.
2064:
belong to this family. Yue Chinese lects generally possess
249:, whose classification is difficult, may be an offshoot of
579:
The loss or retention of coda position plosives and nasals
7283:
Liu, Juan; Peng, Zerun (July 2019). "衡山方言人稱代詞領格變調現象的實質".
4759:
4447:
2737:
branches of Houguan and Funing, Qionglei Min, as well as
5443:
5360:
5300:
5247:
and other Northeastern varieties have a two-way system:
4220:, in these sentences meaning "today I go to Guangzhou":
3934:; 'door (diminutive)') seen in Pingdingnese, or
2295:, as well as scattered points in the rest of Guangdong,
2488:
are also able of speaking Min varieties. Lects such as
7253:. Shanghai: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.
5239:
Sinitic languages can vary greatly in their system of
3792:(the southernmost Wu dialect) and all other dialects.
3788:, and the deepest phonological difference was between
2789:
by around 82 million people. Many large cities in the
2432:
is often used as the representative variety of Hakka.
1350:. Notable cities that use Jilu Mandarin lects include
1342:
Jilu Mandarin is spoken in southern Hebei and western
709:. Standard Chinese is now an official language of the
6908:
5782:
5614:
583:
489:
This is a language family first proposed by linguist
6274:
Wu, Jizhang; Tang, Jianxiong; Chen, Shujing (2005).
5541:
3274:
Distribution of Xiang varieties in Hunan and Guangxi
2725:
branches of Quanzhang (Hokkien), Chaoshan (Teoswa),
528:
521:
10553:
10522:
10451:
10442:
10433:
10367:
10358:
10300:
10220:
10195:
10157:
10104:
10030:
9966:
9918:
9873:
9850:
9795:
9786:
9724:
9643:
9618:
9600:
9577:
9514:
9505:
9468:
9445:
9407:
9398:
9389:
9325:
9285:
9212:
9190:
9162:
9144:
9118:
9095:
9031:
9022:
8999:
8969:
8946:
8870:
8810:
8782:
8759:
8736:
8703:
8694:
8685:
8569:
8521:
8478:
8406:
8339:
8247:
8215:
8173:
8108:
8011:
7925:
7818:
7669:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
5879:
5877:
5875:
5873:
5871:
5869:
5867:
5865:
5863:
3922:, which can be analysed to have only two tones, to
3705:, though its tonal distribution is more similar to
153:
139:
119:
111:
92:
68:
60:
50:
3363:. However, this view is not universally accepted.
37:For the sociolinguistic treatment of Chinese, see
7466:Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics.
6657:Chinese dialects classified on shared innovations
6205:. Beijing Language and Culture University Press.
2024:Distribution of Yue varieties (including Pinghua)
1013:, whereas Beijing Mandarin is spoken in northern
6849:Sun, Yizhi; Chen, Changyi; Xu, Yangchun (2001).
4708:{ma33 ma} ei pa41 ŋo41 lian41 kʰuai41 tɕiɛ̃13 lo
2821:An example of a tripartite division of plosives
2813:, except for Oujiang lects, where it has become
1628:) initial are merged with the light level tone.
1448:Based on, for example, the pronunciation of the
1040:Tone contour of historically dark checked tone (
7667:Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology
6196:
6194:
6170:
6168:
3278:Xiang Chinese is spoken in central and western
772:(often considered a top-level group due to the
7074:
7002:
6625:
6623:
6607:
6605:
5854:Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese language
3784:) was in the Southern group and very close to
3105:Gan Chinese is spoken in northern and central
8652:
7795:
7683:Tang, Chaoju; Van Heuven, Vincent J. (2007),
6581:"The Hakka People > Historical Background"
6127:
5799:
2307:, along with overseas communities such as in
1296:
1269:
1242:
725:. Re-population efforts, such as that of the
546:The evolution of the historical fully muddy (
8:
7085:
7083:
6804:Zhengzhang, Shangfang (1986). "皖南方言的分區（稿）".
6125:
6123:
6121:
6119:
6117:
6115:
6113:
6111:
6109:
6107:
3306:are usually taken as Xiang representatives.
1382:) checked-tone words, among other features.
188:Map of Sinitic languages in China and Taiwan
7264:Zhang, Qiang (2021). "臨夏方言格標記「哈［XA⁴³］」探究".
6956:
6722:
6720:
6718:
6716:
6714:
6538:
6536:
6534:
6532:
6506:Zeng, Xiaoyu (2014). "《西儒耳目資》音系基礎非南京方言補證".
6369:Su, Xiaoqing; Lü, Yongwei (December 1996).
6319:
6317:
5535:
1397:Distribution of Jiaoliao Mandarin varieties
742:(sometimes considered part of Northeastern)
41:. For other languages spoken in China, see
10672:
10448:
10439:
10364:
9792:
9511:
9404:
9395:
9028:
8700:
8691:
8659:
8645:
8637:
8475:
8336:
8170:
7922:
7802:
7788:
7780:
6668:
6666:
6556:
6554:
2048:, as well as overseas communities such as
610:are not highly mutually intelligible. The
272:
7626:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
7425:
7415:
6744:
6742:
6740:
6738:
6432:
6430:
6224:
6222:
6091:
6089:
6087:
6085:
6083:
6081:
6079:
6077:
6075:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6067:
6065:
6063:
6061:
6059:
6057:
6055:
6053:
6051:
5847:
5845:
5843:
5794:
5711:
5393:nɤ35 sɿ35 sən55 ti {} nɤ35 sɿ35 səu213 ti
1636:Jincheng, Yinwu, Hexi, and Beijiang. The
1552:Central Plains Mandarin is spoken in the
6990:
6920:
6049:
6047:
6045:
6043:
6041:
6039:
6037:
6035:
6033:
6031:
5841:
5839:
5837:
5835:
5833:
5831:
5829:
5827:
5825:
5823:
5647:
5645:
5546:'China', from the Chinese dynastic name
5430:(proximal) are both etymologically from
5426:
5416:
5153:Like other East Asian languages such as
4044:
3949:
3407:
3153:
2819:
2551:
2331:
2071:
1906:
1463:
1205:
1038:
809:
6254:
6252:
6250:
6248:
6246:
6244:
6242:
6240:
5814:
5668:
5651:This term was not assigned a character.
5578:
5527:
3890:; 'I', ' me' in Hakka,
3772:(samples at Fuzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou),
3135:) and have an f-like initial in closed
7743:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale
7043:
6303:
6292:
5988:
5977:
5912:
5897:
5856:. Oxford: Routledge. pp. 605–628.
5582:
5540:, 'the Chinese', probably from Arabic
4816:{꜂n len} ꜀tɕia le ꜂tɕie ꜀san tsaʔ꜆ ꜀wo
2541:, loaning the Sinitic word for 'tea' (
681:Varieties of Mandarin are used in the
237:that constitute a major branch of the
47:
7055:
6698:
6696:
6694:
5161:, Sinitic languages have a system of
3085:Huizhou Chinese is spoken in western
1325:), and Heisong. Notably, the extinct
118:
7:
7764:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology
5699:
5687:
5675:
5603:, which is used for Chinese itself;
6944:
6932:
6819:Zhang, Guangyu (1999). "東南方言關係總論".
6467:Zhou, Jixu (2012). "南路話和湖廣話的語音特點".
4714:"Mama, give me two dollars please."
4379:{cin1-a1} ngeu4 {kuaon3-cieu1} chi5
3874:, have alternative scripts, namely
3866:. However, some varieties, such as
2073:Checked tone contours in Yue lects
1401:Jiaoliao Mandarin is spoken in the
997:Northeastern Mandarin is spoken in
7593:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
6289:Qian, Zengyi (2002). "山東方言研究" (3).
5396:DEM COP unripe P {} DEM COP ripe P
4819:2SG.POL lend PERF 3SG three CL pot
4711:ma SPEC give 1SG two CL money SPEC
3650:are both traditionally considered
1548:Central Plains and Lanyin Mandarin
1445:of Northern and Beijing Mandarin.
25:
6980:]. Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe.
6969:Zhou, Zhenhe; You, Rujie (1986).
6394:Zhang, Chengcai (December 1994).
3902:; 'do not' in Xiang, and
3165:initial and closed medial in Gan
1829:of Myanmar and parts of northern
993:Northeastern and Beijing Mandarin
10671:
10149:Literary and colloquial readings
10021:
8002:
6894:Bao, Houxing; Chen, Hui (2005).
6673:Huang, Xuezhen (December 1995).
6543:Richard VanNess Simmons (1999).
2769:Wu Chinese is spoken in most of
1346:, and is often represented with
182:
27:Branch of Sino-Tibetan languages
7317:Lau, Chun-Fat (November 2021).
6793:. Beijing: 高等教育出版社. p. 17.
6771:from the original on 2022-07-22
6655:Sagart, Lawrence (March 2011).
6547:. John Benjamins Publishing Co.
6020:Xu, Lin; Zhao, Yansun (1984).
5925:Zhengzhang, Shangfang (2010).
4507:3SG give PERF 1SG one CL sweets
4302:{Jīntiān} wǒ dào {Guǎngzhōu} qù
3898:; 'to not want' in Wu,
3826:) grouped only weakly with the
3151:) terms, among other features.
1409:, which includes the cities of
282:
7495:, University of Hawaii Press,
7140:Bao, Houxing (December 1998).
7003:Jiang, Ouyang & Zou (2007)
6485:. 廣東教育出版社. 2017. p. 150.
6134:Diversity in Sinitic Languages
5635:
5625:
5609:
5591:
5263:
5253:
3397:
3157:
3155:Pronunciation of terms with a
3143:
3137:
3127:
2741:, whereas the latter includes
2555:
2513:
2335:
2333:Realization of the historical
2321:
1868:Distribution of Huai varieties
1453:
1433:
1427:) terms are pronounced with a
1419:
1287:
1260:
1229:
594:
572:
566:The evolution of the checked (
556:
551:
547:
221:
212:
204:
1:
7648:, Routledge, pp. 72–83,
7450:(Press release). May 6, 2019.
6634:. 江蘇教育出版社. pp. 123–135.
6175:Lin, Tao (1987). "北京官话区的划分".
5059:fɐn34 ko33 {lɐi31 tsə53} nə53
4510:"He gave me a box of sweets."
4305:today 1sg arrive Guangzhou go
3894:; 'this' in Hokkien,
2553:Selection of reflexes of the
1656:Distribution of Jin varieties
225:), often synonymous with the
10677:List of varieties of Chinese
7709:, Routledge, pp. 3–21,
7245:Qian, Nairong (錢乃榮) (2010).
7075:Tang & Van Heuven (2007)
6978:Dialects and Chinese culture
6935:, pp. 9–18, 61–69, 222.
6132:Chappell, Hilary M. (2015).
4910:ŋo34 tɛ42⁻33 pun42 ɕy34 ȵi34
3713:Relationships between groups
3697:) is listed as a variety of
2765:Distribution of Wu varieties
2227:Yue is generally split into
451:List of varieties of Chinese
239:Sino-Tibetan language family
7762:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006),
7493:Asia's Orthographic Dilemma
6136:. Oxford University Press.
5800:
5615:
5542:
5136:"Give me a piece of bread."
3886:; 'pretty' in Yue,
1588:, in famous cities such as
782:(sometimes "Upper Yangtse")
584:
10712:
10635:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
7723:van Driem, George (2001),
7706:The Sino-Tibetan languages
7646:The Sino-Tibetan languages
7517:, Special issue I: 97–121.
7357:Zhu, Jiansong (May 1995).
7220:Wang, Ping (August 1996).
6971:Fāngyán yǔ zhōngguó wénhuà
6561:Lin, Yi (2016). "廣西的粵方言".
5420:(distal) and Shanghainese
4987:"Give me a pair of shoes."
4822:"You lent him three pots."
4582:kei53 ɣə53 iəʔ2 pəŋ53 su11
3685:The variety spoken in the
3669:) is spoken in and around
1880:, far western and eastern
1872:Huai is spoken in central
715:People's Republic of China
582:The palatalisation of the
448:
36:
29:
10669:
10019:
8674:
8624:
8000:
6632:魯國堯語言學論文集·客、贛、通泰方言源於南朝通語說
6009:. Guiyang: 貴州民族出版社. 2002.
5746:10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z
5630:
5620:
5604:
5586:
5431:
5421:
5411:
5258:
5248:
5227:
5223:
4169:
4138:
4107:
4076:
4059:
4056:
4053:
4050:
3939:
3931:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3694:
3666:
3584:
3529:
3474:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3402:
3221:
3189:
3162:
3148:
3132:
2974:
2917:
2860:
2663:
2606:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2542:
2518:
2395:
2363:
2326:
2203:
2189:
2175:
2164:
2150:
2136:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2083:
2080:
2077:
1977:
1940:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1660:Jin is spoken in most of
1625:
1621:
1617:
1516:
1486:
1458:
1438:
1424:
1379:
1297:
1281:
1270:
1254:
1243:
1223:
1165:
1128:
1091:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1041:
926:
861:
820:
817:
814:
812:
598:) in front of high vowels
589:
567:
181:
94:Linguistic classification
55:
7543:Kurpaska, Maria (2010),
7530:
7523:
6973:
6923:, pp. 41–53, 55–56.
6879:Song, Diwu; Cao, Shuji.
6423:. Beijing: 中國社會科學院語言研究所.
6161:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
6021:
5945:
5930:
5926:
3045:North Germanic languages
1374:, and vowel breaking in
748:(sometimes "Peninsular")
30:Not to be confused with
7473:Enfield, N. J. (2003),
7417:10.1073/pnas.1817972116
7382:Wei, Gangqiang (1995).
7195:Zheng, Ding'ou (1997).
7029:Liu, Chuanxian (2001).
6911:, pp. 10319–10320.
6201:Zhang, Shifang (2010).
5944:貴州省民族識別工作隊語言組 (1984).
5402:In the above sentence,
5130:bín kuài {mèn báu} ngāi
5065:"I'll give you a pear."
4916:"I give a book to you."
4504:tā gěi le wǒ yī hé táng
4389:Indirect object marking
3703:Language Atlas of China
3699:Central Plains Mandarin
3310:Internal classification
2547:literary pronunciations
2508:are all Min varieties.
2313:Bangka Belitung Islands
2231:(which itself contains
2066:long-short distinctions
2056:. Famous lects such as
1821:and bordering parts of
1680:, often represented by
774:Language Atlas of China
614:identifies ten groups:
612:Language Atlas of China
243:Tibeto-Burman languages
10696:Sino-Tibetan languages
7755:10.3406/clao.2005.1728
7342:Zhu, Jiansong (1992).
6834:Meng, Qinghui (2005).
6749:Ye, Changling (1993).
6727:Qian, Nairong (2007).
6703:Qian, Nairong (1992).
6441:. 上海教育出版社. p. 46.
6302:Cite journal requires
5987:Cite journal requires
5536:
4981:peq te {gha - tsy} ngu
4382:today 1sg Guangzhou go
3951:Unchecked Tone Sandhi
3859:
3742:Lower Yangtze Mandarin
3413:Traditionally Mandarin
3381:lect of urban Hangzhou
3323:
3275:
2766:
2445:
2329:) as an n-like sound.
2025:
1869:
1657:
1441:) finals), unlike the
1398:
1368:manner of articulation
754:(sometimes "Northern")
465:
8529:Central Tibeto-Burman
7663:Pulleyblank, Edwin G.
7302:Liu, Danqing (2001).
7165:Xie, Jianyou (2007).
6452:Wang, Futang (1998).
6354:He, Wei (June 1993).
6324:Qian, Zengyi (2010).
6229:Yin, Shichao (1997).
6157:Tsung, Linda (2014).
4705:{媽 媽} 誒， 把 我 兩 塊 錢 咯。
3857:
3317:
3273:
2764:
2443:
2023:
1867:
1785:Southwestern Mandarin
1655:
1572:, as well as most of
1396:
1317:), Jishen (including
501:. The languages are:
458:
449:Further information:
7577:Sino-Platonic Papers
7477:, Psychology Press,
7247:《從〈滬語便商〉所見的老上海話時態》 (
7014:Liu, Ruoyun (1991).
6909:Sagart et al. (2019)
6612:Peng, Xinyi (2010).
6339:Luo, Futeng (1997).
6259:北京大學中國語言文學系 (1995).
6024:(in Chinese). 民族印刷廠.
5783:Sagart et al. (2019)
4913:1SG give CL book 2SG
4585:give 1SG one CL book
4046:Checked tone sandhi
4028:light departing (6)
3958:↓ 1st char tone cat
3752:A quantitative study
3665:Dongjiang Bendihua (
3367:Points of contention
3282:and nearby parts of
2781:, parts of southern
1835:retroflex consonants
1051:Northeastern/Beijing
491:Zhengzhang Shangfang
255:varieties of Chinese
39:Varieties of Chinese
8587:Proto-Tibeto-Burman
7509:Iwata, Ray (2010),
7491:Hannas, W. (1997),
7410:(21): 10317–10322,
7321:. Hong Kong: 中華教育.
7180:Shen, Ming (2016).
7090:Bai, Wanru (1998).
7058:, pp. 102–108.
7046:, pp. 182–183.
6838:. Beijing: 安徽人民出版社.
6789:Li, Rulong (2001).
6765:"奉贤金汇学校首开"偒傣话"课(图)"
6630:Lu, Guoyao (2003).
6525:. Nanjing: 江蘇人民出版社.
5959:貴州省民族識別工作隊 (1984).
5915:, pp. 189–190.
5738:2019Natur.569..112Z
5595:, corresponding to
4047:
4014:dark departing (5)
3952:
3842:Internal comparison
3707:Peninsular Mandarin
3419:Traditionally Xiang
3379:Traditionally, the
3166:
2822:
2560:
2340:
2074:
1407:Liaodong Peninsulae
1045:
485:Macro-Bai languages
477:varieties, such as
247:Macro-Bai languages
209:traditional Chinese
10630:Cantonese Bopomofo
10497:Chinese characters
10425:Written Sichuanese
9009:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
8580:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
8522:Proposed groupings
7400:Jacques, Guillaume
6957:Pulleyblank (1984)
6437:Hou, Jing (2002).
5961:南龍人（南京-龍家）族別問題調查報告
5074:Lau's Romanization
4813:{你 人} 接 了 佢 三 隻 鍋。
4045:
3950:
3860:
3758:lexical similarity
3727:dialect boundaries
3324:
3276:
3154:
3061:(or Northern Wu),
2820:
2767:
2552:
2446:
2332:
2072:
2026:
1870:
1658:
1399:
1039:
466:
270:are listed below:
235:analytic languages
201:simplified Chinese
43:Languages of China
10683:
10682:
10665:
10664:
10492:
10491:
10410:Written Cantonese
10405:
10404:
10187:Classical grammar
10182:Cantonese grammar
10017:
10016:
9914:
9913:
9720:
9719:
9639:
9638:
9501:
9500:
9208:
9207:
8995:
8994:
8885:Chengdu–Chongqing
8678:Sinitic languages
8634:
8633:
8517:
8516:
8402:
8401:
8243:
8242:
7998:
7997:
7773:978-3-89586-629-6
7766:, LINCOM Europa,
7716:978-0-7007-1129-1
7676:978-0-7748-0192-8
7655:978-0-7007-1129-1
7633:978-0-521-29653-3
7558:978-3-11-021914-2
7549:Walter de Gruyter
7115:Li, Rong (1993).
6614:江西客贛語的特殊音韻現象與結構變遷
6212:978-7-5619-2775-5
6096:Li, Rong (2012).
5732:(7754): 112–115.
5516:
5515:
5245:Standard Mandarin
5145:
5144:
5133:give CL bread 1SG
5072:Hong Kong Hakka (
4996:
4995:
4831:
4830:
4597:
4596:
4588:"Give me a book."
4299:{今 天} 我 到 {廣 州} 去
4200:
4199:
4139:departing (5, 6)
4041:
4040:
3768:in one group and
3638:
3637:
3252:
3251:
3030:
3029:
2719:
2718:
2426:
2425:
2339:initial in Hakka
2235:, Xiangshan, and
2225:
2224:
2013:
2012:
1774:꜂kʊŋ → kuəʔ꜆ ꜂lʊŋ
1545:
1544:
1431:(apart from open
1389:Jiaoliao Mandarin
1307:
1306:
1201:
1200:
1009:and northeastern
990:
989:
711:Republic of China
474:dialect continuum
442:
441:
227:Chinese languages
197:Sinitic languages
193:
192:
32:Semitic languages
16:(Redirected from
10703:
10675:
10674:
10647:Taiwanese Hangul
10536:Mainland Chinese
10449:
10440:
10365:
10042:Standard Chinese
10025:
9793:
9512:
9405:
9396:
9278:
9266:
9254:
9242:
9230:
9029:
8701:
8692:
8668:Chinese language
8661:
8654:
8647:
8638:
8476:
8337:
8171:
8006:
7923:
7804:
7797:
7790:
7781:
7776:
7758:
7737:
7719:
7699:
7692:Interlingüística
7689:
7679:
7658:
7637:
7615:
7584:
7574:
7561:
7538:
7518:
7505:
7487:
7469:
7451:
7439:
7429:
7419:
7388:
7387:
7379:
7373:
7372:
7354:
7348:
7347:
7339:
7333:
7332:
7314:
7308:
7307:
7299:
7293:
7292:
7280:
7274:
7273:
7261:
7255:
7254:
7242:
7236:
7235:
7217:
7211:
7210:
7192:
7186:
7185:
7177:
7171:
7170:
7162:
7156:
7155:
7137:
7131:
7130:
7112:
7106:
7105:
7087:
7078:
7072:
7059:
7053:
7047:
7041:
7035:
7034:
7033:. Beijing: 中华书局.
7026:
7020:
7019:
7011:
7005:
7000:
6994:
6988:
6982:
6981:
6966:
6960:
6954:
6948:
6942:
6936:
6930:
6924:
6918:
6912:
6906:
6900:
6899:
6891:
6885:
6884:
6876:
6870:
6869:
6864:Chen, Zhangtai.
6861:
6855:
6854:
6846:
6840:
6839:
6831:
6825:
6824:
6816:
6810:
6809:
6801:
6795:
6794:
6786:
6780:
6779:
6777:
6776:
6761:
6755:
6754:
6746:
6733:
6732:
6724:
6709:
6708:
6700:
6689:
6688:
6670:
6661:
6660:
6652:
6646:
6645:
6627:
6618:
6617:
6616:. 國立中興大學中國文學研究所.
6609:
6600:
6599:
6597:
6596:
6587:. Archived from
6577:
6571:
6570:
6558:
6549:
6548:
6540:
6527:
6526:
6518:
6512:
6511:
6503:
6497:
6496:
6479:
6473:
6472:
6464:
6458:
6457:
6456:. Beijing: 語文研究.
6449:
6443:
6442:
6434:
6425:
6424:
6416:
6410:
6409:
6391:
6385:
6384:
6366:
6360:
6359:
6351:
6345:
6344:
6336:
6330:
6329:
6321:
6312:
6311:
6305:
6300:
6298:
6290:
6286:
6280:
6279:
6271:
6265:
6264:
6256:
6235:
6234:
6226:
6217:
6216:
6198:
6189:
6188:
6172:
6163:
6162:
6154:
6148:
6147:
6129:
6102:
6101:
6093:
6026:
6025:
6017:
6011:
6010:
6003:
5997:
5996:
5990:
5985:
5983:
5975:
5971:
5965:
5964:
5956:
5950:
5949:
5941:
5935:
5934:
5922:
5916:
5910:
5901:
5895:
5889:
5888:
5881:
5858:
5857:
5849:
5818:
5812:
5806:
5804:
5803:
5792:
5786:
5780:
5774:
5773:
5721:
5715:
5712:van Driem (2001)
5709:
5703:
5697:
5691:
5685:
5679:
5673:
5652:
5649:
5640:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5618:
5611:
5606:
5601:language cluster
5593:
5588:
5575:
5569:
5558:Paul K. Benedict
5545:
5539:
5534:From Late Latin
5532:
5512:
5507:
5497:
5492:
5482:
5477:
5467:
5462:
5444:
5434:, for instance.
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5405:
5386:
5362:
5349:
5326:
5302:
5289:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5229:
5225:
5195:
5182:
5123:
5099:
5062:give CL pear 2SG
5052:
5028:
5000:
4984:give CL shoe 1SG
4974:
4950:
4903:
4879:
4855:
4838:
4798:
4774:
4761:
4737:
4733:
4701:
4677:
4653:
4629:
4601:
4564:
4540:
4486:
4462:
4449:
4425:
4408:
4335:
4247:
4048:
3986:light level (2)
3953:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3696:
3668:
3662:mixed language.
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3416:Traditionally Wu
3408:
3404:
3399:
3359:, a 7th-century
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3167:
3164:
3159:
3150:
3145:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3057:divides Wu into
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2823:
2817:, and Xuanzhou.
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2561:
2557:
2544:
2520:
2515:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2341:
2337:
2328:
2323:
2259:(which includes
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2075:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1907:
1849:, and sometimes
1731:pəŋ꜄ → pəʔ꜇ ləŋ꜄
1691:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1426:
1421:
1381:
1300:
1299:
1289:
1283:
1273:
1272:
1262:
1256:
1246:
1245:
1231:
1225:
1206:
1167:
1130:
1093:
1046:
1043:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
810:
760:(or "Zhongyuan")
707:Standard Chinese
596:
591:
587:
574:
569:
558:
553:
549:
530:
523:
284:
273:
223:
214:
206:
186:
177:
173:
167:
163:
149:
48:
21:
18:Sinitic language
10711:
10710:
10706:
10705:
10704:
10702:
10701:
10700:
10686:
10685:
10684:
10679:
10661:
10598:Tongyong Pinyin
10578:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
10566:Dungan Cyrillic
10549:
10518:
10488:
10429:
10420:Written Hokkien
10401:
10360:
10354:
10330:Middle Mandarin
10296:
10216:
10191:
10153:
10100:
10033:
10026:
10013:
9962:
9910:
9869:
9846:
9782:
9716:
9635:
9614:
9596:
9573:
9497:
9464:
9441:
9385:
9321:
9281:
9272:
9260:
9248:
9236:
9224:
9204:
9186:
9158:
9140:
9114:
9091:
9018:
8991:
8965:
8942:
8866:
8806:
8778:
8755:
8732:
8681:
8670:
8665:
8635:
8630:
8620:
8571:Proto-languages
8565:
8513:
8480:Greater Siangic
8474:
8411:
8398:
8335:
8239:
8211:
8169:
8113:
8104:
8016:
8007:
7994:
7927:Greater Magaric
7921:
7848:West Himalayish
7828:
7814:
7808:
7774:
7761:
7740:
7735:
7722:
7717:
7702:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7661:
7656:
7640:
7634:
7618:
7605:10.2307/2718766
7587:
7572:
7566:Mair, Victor H.
7564:
7559:
7542:
7532:
7525:
7521:
7508:
7503:
7490:
7485:
7472:
7463:
7460:
7442:
7396:Sagart, Laurent
7394:
7391:
7381:
7380:
7376:
7369:
7356:
7355:
7351:
7341:
7340:
7336:
7329:
7316:
7315:
7311:
7301:
7300:
7296:
7285:湘潭大學學報（哲學社會科學版）
7282:
7281:
7277:
7272:(2). Guangzhou.
7263:
7262:
7258:
7244:
7243:
7239:
7232:
7219:
7218:
7214:
7207:
7194:
7193:
7189:
7179:
7178:
7174:
7164:
7163:
7159:
7152:
7139:
7138:
7134:
7127:
7114:
7113:
7109:
7102:
7089:
7088:
7081:
7077:, p. 1025.
7073:
7062:
7054:
7050:
7042:
7038:
7028:
7027:
7023:
7013:
7012:
7008:
7001:
6997:
6991:Kurpaska (2010)
6989:
6985:
6975:
6968:
6967:
6963:
6955:
6951:
6943:
6939:
6931:
6927:
6921:Kurpaska (2010)
6919:
6915:
6907:
6903:
6893:
6892:
6888:
6878:
6877:
6873:
6863:
6862:
6858:
6848:
6847:
6843:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6818:
6817:
6813:
6803:
6802:
6798:
6788:
6787:
6783:
6774:
6772:
6763:
6762:
6758:
6748:
6747:
6736:
6726:
6725:
6712:
6702:
6701:
6692:
6685:
6672:
6671:
6664:
6654:
6653:
6649:
6642:
6629:
6628:
6621:
6611:
6610:
6603:
6594:
6592:
6585:edu.ocac.gov.tw
6579:
6578:
6574:
6560:
6559:
6552:
6542:
6541:
6530:
6521:Tao, Guoliang.
6520:
6519:
6515:
6505:
6504:
6500:
6493:
6481:
6480:
6476:
6466:
6465:
6461:
6451:
6450:
6446:
6436:
6435:
6428:
6418:
6417:
6413:
6406:
6393:
6392:
6388:
6381:
6368:
6367:
6363:
6353:
6352:
6348:
6338:
6337:
6333:
6323:
6322:
6315:
6301:
6291:
6288:
6287:
6283:
6273:
6272:
6268:
6258:
6257:
6238:
6228:
6227:
6220:
6213:
6200:
6199:
6192:
6174:
6173:
6166:
6156:
6155:
6151:
6144:
6131:
6130:
6105:
6095:
6094:
6029:
6023:
6019:
6018:
6014:
6005:
6004:
6000:
5986:
5976:
5973:
5972:
5968:
5958:
5957:
5953:
5947:
5943:
5942:
5938:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5923:
5919:
5911:
5904:
5896:
5892:
5883:
5882:
5861:
5851:
5850:
5821:
5813:
5809:
5798:
5795:van Driem (2001
5793:
5789:
5781:
5777:
5723:
5722:
5718:
5710:
5706:
5698:
5694:
5686:
5682:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5655:
5650:
5643:
5576:
5572:
5533:
5529:
5524:
5400:
5388:
5375:
5364:
5351:
5339:
5328:
5315:
5304:
5291:
5257:(proximal) and
5237:
5221:
5208:
5197:
5184:
5151:
5146:
5138:
5125:
5112:
5101:
5088:
5077:
5067:
5054:
5041:
5030:
5017:
5006:
5005:Yining Pinghua:
4997:
4989:
4976:
4963:
4952:
4939:
4928:
4918:
4905:
4892:
4881:
4868:
4857:
4844:
4832:
4824:
4811:
4800:
4787:
4776:
4763:
4750:
4739:
4722:
4716:
4703:
4690:
4679:
4666:
4655:
4642:
4631:
4618:
4607:
4598:
4590:
4577:
4566:
4553:
4542:
4529:
4518:
4512:
4499:
4488:
4475:
4464:
4451:
4438:
4427:
4414:
4391:
4386:
4376:{今 阿} 我 {廣 州} 去
4374:
4359:
4348:
4337:
4324:
4313:
4309:
4297:
4282:
4271:
4260:
4249:
4236:
4225:
4206:
4201:
4170:checked (7, 8)
4071:
4066:
4051:chain length →
4042:
3972:dark level (1)
3957:
3912:
3880:Latin alphabets
3852:
3844:
3754:
3715:
3683:
3377:
3369:
3361:rime dictionary
3312:
3268:
3125:terms with the
3103:
3083:
2759:
2438:
2309:West Kalimantan
2273:
2018:
1862:
1787:
1779:
1769:
1761:
1753:
1745:
1736:
1726:
1718:
1710:
1702:
1650:
1638:Dungan language
1560:, southwestern
1550:
1391:
1340:
995:
683:Western Regions
679:
576:) tone category
540:
487:
468:Dialectologist
453:
447:
267:
189:
175:
169:
168:
165:
159:
145:
70:
64:Sinitic peoples
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10709:
10707:
10699:
10698:
10688:
10687:
10681:
10680:
10670:
10667:
10666:
10663:
10662:
10660:
10659:
10654:
10649:
10644:
10642:Taiwanese kana
10639:
10638:
10637:
10632:
10622:
10621:
10620:
10615:
10613:Lessing-Othmer
10610:
10605:
10600:
10595:
10590:
10585:
10580:
10570:
10569:
10568:
10557:
10555:
10551:
10550:
10548:
10543:
10538:
10533:
10528:
10526:
10520:
10519:
10517:
10516:
10511:
10510:
10509:
10504:
10493:
10490:
10489:
10487:
10482:
10477:
10472:
10467:
10462:
10457:
10455:
10446:
10437:
10431:
10430:
10428:
10427:
10422:
10417:
10415:Written Dungan
10412:
10406:
10403:
10402:
10400:
10399:
10394:
10393:
10392:
10387:
10382:
10371:
10369:
10362:
10356:
10355:
10353:
10352:
10347:
10342:
10337:
10332:
10327:
10322:
10320:Middle Chinese
10317:
10312:
10306:
10304:
10298:
10297:
10295:
10294:
10289:
10287:Wubi (Wang Ma)
10284:
10279:
10278:
10277:
10272:
10267:
10257:
10252:
10247:
10246:
10245:
10235:
10232:
10226:
10224:
10218:
10217:
10215:
10214:
10207:
10199:
10197:
10193:
10192:
10190:
10189:
10184:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10163:
10161:
10155:
10154:
10152:
10151:
10146:
10141:
10136:
10131:
10126:
10121:
10120:
10119:
10108:
10106:
10102:
10101:
10099:
10098:
10093:
10088:
10083:
10082:
10081:
10080:
10079:
10074:
10064:
10059:
10054:
10049:
10038:
10036:
10028:
10027:
10020:
10018:
10015:
10014:
10012:
10011:
10006:
10004:Xiangnan Tuhua
10001:
9996:
9991:
9989:Shaozhou Tuhua
9986:
9981:
9976:
9970:
9968:
9964:
9963:
9961:
9960:
9959:
9958:
9953:
9948:
9940:
9939:
9938:
9933:
9924:
9922:
9916:
9915:
9912:
9911:
9909:
9908:
9903:
9898:
9893:
9888:
9883:
9877:
9875:
9871:
9870:
9868:
9867:
9862:
9856:
9854:
9848:
9847:
9845:
9844:
9839:
9834:
9829:
9824:
9819:
9818:
9817:
9812:
9801:
9799:
9790:
9784:
9783:
9781:
9780:
9779:
9778:
9773:
9768:
9758:
9757:
9756:
9746:
9741:
9736:
9730:
9728:
9722:
9721:
9718:
9717:
9715:
9714:
9713:
9712:
9707:
9702:
9692:
9691:
9690:
9680:
9675:
9670:
9665:
9664:
9663:
9658:
9647:
9645:
9641:
9640:
9637:
9636:
9634:
9633:
9628:
9622:
9620:
9616:
9615:
9613:
9612:
9606:
9604:
9598:
9597:
9595:
9594:
9589:
9583:
9581:
9575:
9574:
9572:
9571:
9566:
9561:
9556:
9551:
9546:
9541:
9536:
9531:
9526:
9520:
9518:
9509:
9503:
9502:
9499:
9498:
9496:
9495:
9494:
9493:
9488:
9478:
9472:
9470:
9466:
9465:
9463:
9462:
9457:
9451:
9449:
9443:
9442:
9440:
9439:
9434:
9429:
9424:
9419:
9413:
9411:
9402:
9393:
9387:
9386:
9384:
9383:
9382:
9381:
9371:
9366:
9365:
9364:
9359:
9354:
9344:
9343:
9342:
9331:
9329:
9323:
9322:
9320:
9319:
9314:
9309:
9304:
9303:
9302:
9291:
9289:
9283:
9282:
9280:
9279:
9267:
9255:
9243:
9231:
9218:
9216:
9210:
9209:
9206:
9205:
9203:
9202:
9196:
9194:
9188:
9187:
9185:
9184:
9179:
9174:
9168:
9166:
9160:
9159:
9157:
9156:
9150:
9148:
9142:
9141:
9139:
9138:
9133:
9128:
9122:
9120:
9116:
9115:
9113:
9112:
9107:
9101:
9099:
9093:
9092:
9090:
9089:
9084:
9079:
9074:
9069:
9064:
9058:
9053:
9048:
9043:
9037:
9035:
9026:
9020:
9019:
9017:
9016:
9011:
9005:
9003:
8997:
8996:
8993:
8992:
8990:
8989:
8984:
8979:
8973:
8971:
8967:
8966:
8964:
8963:
8958:
8952:
8950:
8944:
8943:
8941:
8940:
8939:
8938:
8928:
8923:
8918:
8913:
8912:
8911:
8910:
8909:
8902:Renshou–Fushun
8899:
8898:
8897:
8887:
8876:
8874:
8868:
8867:
8865:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8849:
8844:
8839:
8838:
8837:
8827:
8822:
8816:
8814:
8812:Central Plains
8808:
8807:
8805:
8804:
8799:
8794:
8788:
8786:
8780:
8779:
8777:
8776:
8771:
8765:
8763:
8757:
8756:
8754:
8753:
8748:
8742:
8740:
8734:
8733:
8731:
8730:
8725:
8720:
8715:
8709:
8707:
8698:
8689:
8683:
8682:
8675:
8672:
8671:
8666:
8664:
8663:
8656:
8649:
8641:
8632:
8631:
8625:
8622:
8621:
8619:
8618:
8611:
8604:
8597:
8590:
8583:
8575:
8573:
8567:
8566:
8564:
8563:
8561:Tibeto-Kanauri
8558:
8551:
8546:
8541:
8536:
8534:Kuki-Chin–Naga
8531:
8525:
8523:
8519:
8518:
8515:
8514:
8512:
8511:
8506:
8505:
8504:
8497:
8484:
8482:
8473:
8472:
8465:
8460:
8459:
8458:
8444:
8443:
8442:
8435:
8422:
8420:
8404:
8403:
8400:
8399:
8397:
8396:
8395:
8394:
8387:
8382:
8370:
8365:
8360:
8359:
8358:
8345:
8343:
8334:
8333:
8332:
8331:
8324:
8317:
8305:
8298:
8291:
8284:
8279:
8272:
8265:
8257:
8255:
8253:Southeast Asia
8245:
8244:
8241:
8240:
8238:
8237:
8232:
8227:
8221:
8219:
8213:
8212:
8210:
8209:
8204:
8199:
8192:
8190:Angami–Pochuri
8187:
8181:
8179:
8168:
8167:
8160:
8153:
8152:
8151:
8144:
8132:
8125:
8117:
8115:
8114:Burmese border
8106:
8105:
8103:
8102:
8097:
8090:
8083:
8076:
8075:
8074:
8066:
8059:
8052:
8047:
8032:
8030:
8009:
8008:
8001:
7999:
7996:
7995:
7993:
7992:
7979:
7974:
7973:
7972:
7965:
7953:
7952:
7951:
7944:
7931:
7929:
7920:
7919:
7912:
7911:
7910:
7903:
7896:
7884:
7877:
7876:
7875:
7870:
7858:
7851:
7843:
7841:
7816:
7815:
7809:
7807:
7806:
7799:
7792:
7784:
7778:
7777:
7772:
7759:
7749:(1): 101–127,
7738:
7733:
7720:
7715:
7700:
7680:
7675:
7659:
7654:
7638:
7632:
7616:
7585:
7562:
7557:
7540:
7533:(in Chinese),
7519:
7506:
7501:
7488:
7483:
7470:
7459:
7456:
7455:
7454:
7453:
7452:
7390:
7389:
7374:
7367:
7349:
7334:
7327:
7309:
7294:
7275:
7256:
7237:
7230:
7212:
7205:
7187:
7172:
7157:
7150:
7132:
7125:
7107:
7100:
7079:
7060:
7048:
7036:
7021:
7006:
6995:
6983:
6961:
6949:
6937:
6925:
6913:
6901:
6886:
6871:
6856:
6841:
6826:
6811:
6796:
6781:
6756:
6734:
6710:
6690:
6683:
6662:
6647:
6640:
6619:
6601:
6572:
6550:
6528:
6513:
6498:
6491:
6474:
6459:
6444:
6426:
6411:
6404:
6386:
6379:
6361:
6346:
6331:
6313:
6304:|journal=
6281:
6266:
6236:
6218:
6211:
6190:
6179:(3): 166–172.
6164:
6149:
6142:
6103:
6027:
6012:
5998:
5989:|journal=
5966:
5951:
5936:
5917:
5902:
5890:
5859:
5819:
5815:Bradley (2012)
5807:
5797::403) states "
5787:
5775:
5716:
5714:, p. 351.
5704:
5692:
5690:, p. 122.
5680:
5678:, p. 107.
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5654:
5653:
5641:
5570:
5526:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5514:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5499:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5484:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5469:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5454:
5453:
5450:
5447:
5390:是 生 的 ， 是 熟 的
5376:
5365:
5352:
5340:
5329:
5316:
5305:
5292:
5280:
5279:
5241:demonstratives
5236:
5235:Demonstratives
5233:
5213:ngo5 bun2 syu1
5198:
5185:
5172:
5171:
5150:
5147:
5143:
5142:
5113:
5102:
5089:
5078:
5071:
5070:
5068:
5042:
5031:
5018:
5007:
5004:
5003:
4998:
4994:
4993:
4964:
4953:
4940:
4929:
4923:Shanghainese (
4922:
4921:
4919:
4893:
4882:
4869:
4858:
4845:
4842:
4841:
4836:
4829:
4828:
4801:
4788:
4777:
4764:
4751:
4740:
4723:
4720:
4719:
4717:
4691:
4680:
4667:
4656:
4643:
4632:
4619:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4599:
4595:
4594:
4567:
4554:
4543:
4530:
4519:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4501:他 給 了 我 一 盒 糖。
4489:
4476:
4465:
4452:
4439:
4428:
4415:
4412:
4411:
4406:
4390:
4387:
4360:
4349:
4338:
4325:
4314:
4311:
4310:
4283:
4272:
4261:
4250:
4237:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4205:
4202:
4198:
4197:
4194:
4191:
4188:
4184:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4171:
4167:
4166:
4163:
4160:
4157:
4153:
4152:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4126:
4122:
4121:
4118:
4115:
4112:
4109:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4087:
4084:
4081:
4078:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4058:
4055:
4052:
4043:
4039:
4038:
4035:
4032:
4029:
4025:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4015:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3997:
3996:
3993:
3990:
3987:
3983:
3982:
3979:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3968:
3965:
3962:
3959:
3956:chain length →
3948:
3944:part of speech
3911:
3908:
3851:
3850:Writing system
3848:
3843:
3840:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3800:
3753:
3750:
3714:
3711:
3687:Ganyu District
3682:
3681:Northern China
3679:
3636:
3635:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3526:
3525:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3471:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3376:
3375:Southern China
3373:
3368:
3365:
3345:Like Bai, the
3328:Middle Chinese
3320:Laurent Sagart
3311:
3308:
3300:Shuangfengnese
3267:
3264:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3102:
3099:
3082:
3079:
3049:Dondac variety
3028:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2758:
2755:
2717:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2482:Southeast Asia
2437:
2434:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2272:
2269:
2223:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2017:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1861:
1858:
1786:
1783:
1762:
1754:
1746:
1738:
1737:
1719:
1711:
1703:
1695:
1694:
1678:Inner Mongolia
1649:
1646:
1554:Central Plains
1549:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1390:
1387:
1378:rime series' (
1339:
1336:
1305:
1304:
1294:
1291:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1267:
1264:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1240:
1233:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1199:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1027:Inner Mongolia
1011:Inner Mongolia
994:
991:
988:
987:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
923:
922:
919:
914:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
879:
874:
869:
864:
858:
857:
854:
851:
848:
845:
842:
839:
836:
833:
830:
827:
823:
822:
819:
816:
813:
790:
789:
783:
777:
767:
761:
758:Central Plains
755:
749:
743:
737:
723:United Nations
699:Central Plains
695:Inner Mongolia
678:
675:
671:
670:
661:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
600:
599:
580:
577:
564:
561:
539:
536:
532:
531:
508:
486:
483:
479:Shaozhou Tuhua
446:
443:
440:
439:
436:
435:1,521,943,700
433:
429:
428:
425:
422:
416:
415:
412:
409:
403:
402:
399:
396:
390:
389:
386:
383:
377:
376:
373:
370:
364:
363:
360:
357:
351:
350:
347:
344:
338:
337:
334:
331:
325:
324:
321:
318:
312:
311:
308:
305:
299:
298:
295:
294:1,118,584,040
292:
286:
285:
280:
277:
266:
263:
233:of East Asian
191:
190:
187:
179:
178:
157:
151:
150:
143:
137:
136:
135:
134:
128:
121:
117:
116:
113:
112:Proto-language
109:
108:
107:
106:
96:
90:
89:
79:Southeast Asia
72:
66:
65:
62:
58:
57:
53:
52:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10708:
10697:
10694:
10693:
10691:
10678:
10668:
10658:
10655:
10653:
10650:
10648:
10645:
10643:
10640:
10636:
10633:
10631:
10628:
10627:
10626:
10623:
10619:
10616:
10614:
10611:
10609:
10606:
10604:
10601:
10599:
10596:
10594:
10591:
10589:
10586:
10584:
10581:
10579:
10576:
10575:
10574:
10571:
10567:
10564:
10563:
10562:
10561:Cyrillization
10559:
10558:
10556:
10552:
10547:
10544:
10542:
10539:
10537:
10534:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10525:
10521:
10515:
10512:
10508:
10505:
10503:
10500:
10499:
10498:
10495:
10494:
10486:
10483:
10481:
10478:
10476:
10473:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10456:
10454:
10453:Script styles
10450:
10447:
10445:
10441:
10438:
10436:
10432:
10426:
10423:
10421:
10418:
10416:
10413:
10411:
10408:
10407:
10398:
10395:
10391:
10388:
10386:
10383:
10381:
10378:
10377:
10376:
10373:
10372:
10370:
10366:
10363:
10357:
10351:
10348:
10346:
10343:
10341:
10338:
10336:
10333:
10331:
10328:
10326:
10323:
10321:
10318:
10316:
10313:
10311:
10308:
10307:
10305:
10303:
10299:
10293:
10290:
10288:
10285:
10283:
10280:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10266:
10263:
10262:
10261:
10258:
10256:
10253:
10251:
10248:
10244:
10241:
10240:
10239:
10236:
10233:
10231:
10228:
10227:
10225:
10223:
10219:
10213:
10212:
10208:
10206:
10205:
10201:
10200:
10198:
10194:
10188:
10185:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10164:
10162:
10160:
10156:
10150:
10147:
10145:
10142:
10140:
10137:
10135:
10132:
10130:
10127:
10125:
10122:
10118:
10115:
10114:
10113:
10110:
10109:
10107:
10103:
10097:
10094:
10092:
10089:
10087:
10084:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10069:
10068:
10065:
10063:
10060:
10058:
10055:
10053:
10050:
10048:
10045:
10044:
10043:
10040:
10039:
10037:
10035:
10029:
10024:
10010:
10007:
10005:
10002:
10000:
9997:
9995:
9992:
9990:
9987:
9985:
9982:
9980:
9977:
9975:
9972:
9971:
9969:
9965:
9957:
9954:
9952:
9949:
9947:
9944:
9943:
9941:
9937:
9934:
9932:
9929:
9928:
9926:
9925:
9923:
9921:
9917:
9907:
9904:
9902:
9899:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9884:
9882:
9879:
9878:
9876:
9872:
9866:
9863:
9861:
9858:
9857:
9855:
9853:
9849:
9843:
9840:
9838:
9835:
9833:
9830:
9828:
9825:
9823:
9820:
9816:
9813:
9811:
9808:
9807:
9806:
9803:
9802:
9800:
9798:
9794:
9791:
9789:
9785:
9777:
9774:
9772:
9769:
9767:
9764:
9763:
9762:
9759:
9755:
9752:
9751:
9750:
9747:
9745:
9742:
9740:
9737:
9735:
9732:
9731:
9729:
9727:
9723:
9711:
9708:
9706:
9703:
9701:
9698:
9697:
9696:
9693:
9689:
9686:
9685:
9684:
9681:
9679:
9676:
9674:
9671:
9669:
9666:
9662:
9659:
9657:
9654:
9653:
9652:
9649:
9648:
9646:
9642:
9632:
9629:
9627:
9624:
9623:
9621:
9617:
9611:
9608:
9607:
9605:
9603:
9599:
9593:
9590:
9588:
9585:
9584:
9582:
9580:
9576:
9570:
9567:
9565:
9562:
9560:
9557:
9555:
9552:
9550:
9547:
9545:
9542:
9540:
9537:
9535:
9532:
9530:
9527:
9525:
9522:
9521:
9519:
9517:
9513:
9510:
9508:
9504:
9492:
9489:
9487:
9484:
9483:
9482:
9479:
9477:
9474:
9473:
9471:
9467:
9461:
9458:
9456:
9453:
9452:
9450:
9448:
9444:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9423:
9420:
9418:
9415:
9414:
9412:
9410:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9397:
9394:
9392:
9388:
9380:
9377:
9376:
9375:
9372:
9370:
9367:
9363:
9360:
9358:
9355:
9353:
9350:
9349:
9348:
9345:
9341:
9338:
9337:
9336:
9333:
9332:
9330:
9328:
9324:
9318:
9315:
9313:
9310:
9308:
9305:
9301:
9298:
9297:
9296:
9293:
9292:
9290:
9288:
9284:
9276:
9271:
9268:
9264:
9259:
9256:
9252:
9247:
9244:
9240:
9235:
9232:
9228:
9223:
9220:
9219:
9217:
9215:
9211:
9201:
9198:
9197:
9195:
9193:
9189:
9183:
9180:
9178:
9175:
9173:
9170:
9169:
9167:
9165:
9161:
9155:
9152:
9151:
9149:
9147:
9143:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9123:
9121:
9117:
9111:
9108:
9106:
9103:
9102:
9100:
9098:
9094:
9088:
9085:
9083:
9080:
9078:
9075:
9073:
9070:
9068:
9065:
9062:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9052:
9049:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9038:
9036:
9034:
9030:
9027:
9025:
9021:
9015:
9012:
9010:
9007:
9006:
9004:
9002:
8998:
8988:
8985:
8983:
8980:
8978:
8975:
8974:
8972:
8968:
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8953:
8951:
8949:
8945:
8937:
8934:
8933:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8924:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8908:
8905:
8904:
8903:
8900:
8896:
8893:
8892:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8882:
8881:
8878:
8877:
8875:
8873:
8869:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8848:
8845:
8843:
8840:
8836:
8833:
8832:
8831:
8828:
8826:
8823:
8821:
8818:
8817:
8815:
8813:
8809:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8790:
8789:
8787:
8785:
8781:
8775:
8772:
8770:
8767:
8766:
8764:
8762:
8758:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8743:
8741:
8739:
8735:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8710:
8708:
8706:
8702:
8699:
8697:
8693:
8690:
8688:
8684:
8680:
8679:
8673:
8669:
8662:
8657:
8655:
8650:
8648:
8643:
8642:
8639:
8628:
8623:
8617:
8616:
8612:
8610:
8609:
8605:
8603:
8602:
8601:Proto-Karenic
8598:
8596:
8595:
8594:Proto-Loloish
8591:
8589:
8588:
8584:
8582:
8581:
8577:
8576:
8574:
8572:
8568:
8562:
8559:
8557:
8556:
8555:Tibeto-Burman
8552:
8550:
8547:
8545:
8542:
8540:
8537:
8535:
8532:
8530:
8527:
8526:
8524:
8520:
8510:
8507:
8503:
8502:
8498:
8496:
8495:
8491:
8490:
8489:
8486:
8485:
8483:
8481:
8477:
8471:
8470:
8466:
8464:
8461:
8457:
8456:
8452:
8451:
8450:
8449:
8445:
8441:
8440:
8436:
8434:
8433:
8429:
8428:
8427:
8424:
8423:
8421:
8418:
8414:
8409:
8405:
8393:
8392:
8388:
8386:
8383:
8381:
8378:
8377:
8376:
8375:
8371:
8369:
8366:
8364:
8361:
8357:
8354:
8353:
8352:
8351:
8347:
8346:
8344:
8342:
8341:Burmo-Qiangic
8338:
8330:
8329:
8325:
8323:
8322:
8318:
8316:
8315:
8311:
8310:
8309:
8306:
8304:
8303:
8299:
8297:
8296:
8292:
8290:
8289:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8277:
8273:
8271:
8270:
8266:
8264:
8263:
8259:
8258:
8256:
8254:
8250:
8246:
8236:
8235:Jingpho–Luish
8233:
8231:
8228:
8226:
8223:
8222:
8220:
8218:
8214:
8208:
8205:
8203:
8200:
8198:
8197:
8193:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8182:
8180:
8177:
8172:
8166:
8165:
8161:
8159:
8158:
8154:
8150:
8149:
8145:
8143:
8142:
8138:
8137:
8136:
8133:
8131:
8130:
8126:
8124:
8123:
8119:
8118:
8116:
8111:
8107:
8101:
8098:
8096:
8095:
8091:
8089:
8088:
8084:
8082:
8081:
8077:
8072:
8071:
8067:
8065:
8064:
8060:
8058:
8057:
8053:
8051:
8048:
8046:
8045:
8041:
8040:
8039:
8038:
8034:
8033:
8031:
8028:
8024:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8005:
7991:
7990:
7985:
7984:
7980:
7978:
7975:
7971:
7970:
7966:
7964:
7963:
7959:
7958:
7957:
7954:
7950:
7949:
7945:
7943:
7942:
7938:
7937:
7936:
7933:
7932:
7930:
7928:
7924:
7918:
7917:
7913:
7909:
7908:
7904:
7902:
7901:
7897:
7895:
7894:
7890:
7889:
7888:
7885:
7883:
7882:
7878:
7874:
7873:Baram–Thangmi
7871:
7869:
7868:
7864:
7863:
7862:
7859:
7857:
7856:
7852:
7850:
7849:
7845:
7844:
7842:
7839:
7835:
7831:
7826:
7822:
7817:
7812:
7805:
7800:
7798:
7793:
7791:
7786:
7785:
7782:
7775:
7769:
7765:
7760:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7739:
7736:
7734:90-04-10390-2
7730:
7726:
7721:
7718:
7712:
7708:
7707:
7701:
7697:
7693:
7686:
7681:
7678:
7672:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7657:
7651:
7647:
7643:
7642:Norman, Jerry
7639:
7635:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7620:Norman, Jerry
7617:
7614:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7598:
7594:
7590:
7586:
7582:
7578:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7560:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7541:
7536:
7529:
7520:
7516:
7515:Dialectologia
7512:
7507:
7504:
7498:
7494:
7489:
7486:
7480:
7476:
7471:
7467:
7462:
7461:
7457:
7449:
7445:
7441:
7440:
7437:
7433:
7428:
7423:
7418:
7413:
7409:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7393:
7392:
7385:
7378:
7375:
7370:
7364:
7360:
7353:
7350:
7345:
7338:
7335:
7330:
7328:9789888760046
7324:
7320:
7313:
7310:
7305:
7298:
7295:
7290:
7286:
7279:
7276:
7271:
7267:
7260:
7257:
7252:
7248:
7241:
7238:
7233:
7227:
7224:. 華中理工大學出版社.
7223:
7216:
7213:
7208:
7206:9787534329425
7202:
7198:
7191:
7188:
7183:
7176:
7173:
7168:
7161:
7158:
7153:
7151:9787534319983
7147:
7144:. 江蘇教育出版社出版.
7143:
7136:
7133:
7128:
7126:9787534319952
7122:
7119:. 江蘇教育出版社出版.
7118:
7111:
7108:
7103:
7101:9787534334344
7097:
7094:. 江蘇教育出版社出版.
7093:
7086:
7084:
7080:
7076:
7071:
7069:
7067:
7065:
7061:
7057:
7052:
7049:
7045:
7044:Norman (1988)
7040:
7037:
7032:
7025:
7022:
7017:
7010:
7007:
7004:
6999:
6996:
6993:, p. 73.
6992:
6987:
6984:
6979:
6972:
6965:
6962:
6958:
6953:
6950:
6946:
6941:
6938:
6934:
6929:
6926:
6922:
6917:
6914:
6910:
6905:
6902:
6897:
6890:
6887:
6882:
6881:中國移民史 第五卷：名師其
6875:
6872:
6867:
6860:
6857:
6852:
6845:
6842:
6837:
6830:
6827:
6822:
6815:
6812:
6807:
6800:
6797:
6792:
6785:
6782:
6770:
6766:
6760:
6757:
6752:
6745:
6743:
6741:
6739:
6735:
6730:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6717:
6715:
6711:
6706:
6699:
6697:
6695:
6691:
6686:
6680:
6676:
6669:
6667:
6663:
6658:
6651:
6648:
6643:
6637:
6633:
6626:
6624:
6620:
6615:
6608:
6606:
6602:
6591:on 2019-09-09
6590:
6586:
6582:
6576:
6573:
6568:
6564:
6557:
6555:
6551:
6546:
6539:
6537:
6535:
6533:
6529:
6524:
6517:
6514:
6509:
6502:
6499:
6494:
6492:9787554816332
6488:
6484:
6478:
6475:
6470:
6463:
6460:
6455:
6448:
6445:
6440:
6433:
6431:
6427:
6422:
6415:
6412:
6407:
6401:
6397:
6390:
6387:
6382:
6376:
6372:
6365:
6362:
6357:
6350:
6347:
6342:
6335:
6332:
6327:
6320:
6318:
6314:
6309:
6296:
6285:
6282:
6277:
6270:
6267:
6262:
6255:
6253:
6251:
6249:
6247:
6245:
6243:
6241:
6237:
6232:
6225:
6223:
6219:
6214:
6208:
6204:
6197:
6195:
6191:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6171:
6169:
6165:
6160:
6153:
6150:
6145:
6143:9780198723790
6139:
6135:
6128:
6126:
6124:
6122:
6120:
6118:
6116:
6114:
6112:
6110:
6108:
6104:
6099:
6092:
6090:
6088:
6086:
6084:
6082:
6080:
6078:
6076:
6074:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6066:
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6062:
6060:
6058:
6056:
6054:
6052:
6050:
6048:
6046:
6044:
6042:
6040:
6038:
6036:
6034:
6032:
6028:
6016:
6013:
6008:
6002:
5999:
5994:
5981:
5970:
5967:
5962:
5955:
5952:
5948:(in Chinese).
5940:
5937:
5921:
5918:
5914:
5913:Norman (1988)
5909:
5907:
5903:
5900:, p. 72.
5899:
5898:Norman (2003)
5894:
5891:
5886:
5880:
5878:
5876:
5874:
5872:
5870:
5868:
5866:
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5855:
5848:
5846:
5844:
5842:
5840:
5838:
5836:
5834:
5832:
5830:
5828:
5826:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5811:
5808:
5802:
5796:
5791:
5788:
5784:
5779:
5776:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5720:
5717:
5713:
5708:
5705:
5701:
5696:
5693:
5689:
5684:
5681:
5677:
5672:
5669:
5663:
5658:
5648:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5628:
5617:
5612:
5602:
5598:
5597:macrolanguage
5594:
5584:
5583:Hannas (1997)
5580:
5579:Enfield (2003
5574:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5538:
5531:
5528:
5521:
5519:
5509:
5504:
5501:
5500:
5494:
5489:
5486:
5485:
5479:
5474:
5471:
5470:
5464:
5459:
5456:
5455:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5445:
5442:
5439:
5435:
5429:
5419:
5408:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5391:
5387:
5382:
5379:
5374:
5371:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5342:
5338:
5335:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5319:
5314:
5311:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5282:
5278:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5266:
5256:
5246:
5242:
5234:
5232:
5220:
5217:
5214:
5211:
5207:
5204:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5175:
5170:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5148:
5141:
5137:
5134:
5131:
5128:
5127:分 塊 {麪 包} 𠊎。
5124:
5119:
5116:
5111:
5108:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5092:
5087:
5084:
5081:
5075:
5069:
5066:
5063:
5060:
5057:
5053:
5048:
5045:
5040:
5037:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5021:
5016:
5013:
5010:
5002:
5001:
4992:
4988:
4985:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4970:
4967:
4962:
4959:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4943:
4938:
4935:
4932:
4926:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4911:
4908:
4904:
4899:
4896:
4891:
4888:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4872:
4867:
4864:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4848:
4840:
4839:
4835:
4827:
4823:
4820:
4817:
4814:
4810:
4807:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4791:
4786:
4783:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4754:
4749:
4746:
4743:
4738:
4729:
4726:
4718:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4706:
4702:
4697:
4694:
4689:
4686:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4670:
4665:
4662:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4646:
4641:
4638:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4622:
4617:
4614:
4611:
4606:Changshanese:
4603:
4602:
4593:
4589:
4586:
4583:
4580:
4576:
4573:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4557:
4552:
4549:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4533:
4528:
4525:
4522:
4514:
4511:
4508:
4505:
4502:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4479:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4442:
4437:
4434:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4418:
4410:
4409:
4405:
4403:
4399:
4394:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4377:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4355:
4352:
4347:
4344:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4328:
4323:
4320:
4317:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4300:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4259:
4256:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4240:
4235:
4232:
4229:
4221:
4219:
4214:
4212:
4203:
4195:
4192:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4181:
4178:
4175:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4150:
4147:
4144:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4130:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4119:
4116:
4113:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4099:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4088:
4085:
4082:
4079:
4077:level (1, 2)
4075:
4069:
4064:
4063:
4049:
4036:
4033:
4030:
4027:
4026:
4022:
4019:
4016:
4013:
4012:
4008:
4005:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3991:
3988:
3985:
3984:
3980:
3977:
3974:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3963:
3960:
3955:
3954:
3947:
3945:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3909:
3907:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3856:
3849:
3847:
3841:
3839:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3819:
3817:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3786:Meixian Hakka
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3746:Yangtze River
3743:
3739:
3735:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3719:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3692:
3688:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3672:
3663:
3661:
3660:Hainanese Min
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3527:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3409:
3406:
3400:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3374:
3372:
3366:
3364:
3362:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3343:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3321:
3316:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3292:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3272:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3257:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3219:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3187:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3160:
3152:
3146:
3140:
3130:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3100:
3098:
3096:
3093:and parts of
3092:
3088:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2972:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2915:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2824:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2791:Yangtze Delta
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2763:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2751:Shaojiang Min
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2661:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2562:
2558:
2550:
2548:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2516:
2509:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2472:and parts of
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2442:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2393:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2330:
2324:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2076:
2070:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2044:and parts of
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2022:
2015:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1908:
1905:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1866:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1825:, as well as
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1765:
1760:
1757:
1752:
1749:
1744:
1741:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1725:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1709:
1706:
1701:
1698:
1693:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1654:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1629:
1620:) and clear (
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1584:and southern
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1568:and northern
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1514:
1511:'to hand in'
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1437:rime series (
1436:
1430:
1422:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1395:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1338:Jilu Mandarin
1337:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1315:Changchunnese
1312:
1303:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1221:
1217:
1214:
1212:Pronunciation
1211:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1163:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1047:
1044:) characters
1037:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
992:
985:
980:
975:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
924:
920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
859:
855:
852:
849:
846:
843:
840:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
824:
811:
808:
806:
802:
797:
795:
787:
784:
781:
778:
775:
771:
768:
765:
762:
759:
756:
753:
750:
747:
744:
741:
738:
736:
733:
732:
731:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
676:
674:
669:
665:
662:
660:
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
615:
613:
609:
605:
597:
586:
581:
578:
575:
565:
562:
559:
545:
544:
543:
537:
535:
527:
520:
516:
512:
509:
507:
504:
503:
502:
500:
496:
492:
484:
482:
480:
475:
471:
464:
463:
457:
452:
444:
437:
434:
431:
430:
426:
423:
421:
418:
417:
413:
410:
408:
405:
404:
400:
397:
395:
392:
391:
387:
384:
382:
379:
378:
374:
371:
369:
366:
365:
361:
358:
356:
353:
352:
348:
345:
343:
340:
339:
335:
332:
330:
327:
326:
322:
319:
317:
314:
313:
309:
306:
304:
301:
300:
296:
293:
291:
288:
287:
281:
278:
275:
274:
271:
264:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
218:
210:
202:
198:
185:
180:
172:
162:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
142:
138:
132:
129:
127:
124:
123:
122:
115:Proto-Sinitic
114:
110:
105:
102:
101:
100:
97:
95:
91:
88:
84:
80:
76:
73:
67:
63:
59:
54:
49:
44:
40:
33:
19:
10583:Hanyu Pinyin
10573:Romanization
10480:Semi-cursive
10325:Old Mandarin
10282:Stroke count
10209:
10202:
10124:Old National
9967:Unclassified
8872:Southwestern
8705:Northeastern
8687:Major groups
8677:
8676:
8626:
8613:
8606:
8599:
8592:
8585:
8578:
8553:
8499:
8492:
8467:
8453:
8446:
8437:
8430:
8389:
8374:Lolo-Burmese
8372:
8348:
8326:
8319:
8312:
8300:
8293:
8286:
8274:
8267:
8261:
8260:
8194:
8162:
8155:
8146:
8139:
8127:
8120:
8092:
8085:
8078:
8068:
8061:
8054:
8042:
8035:
7987:
7981:
7967:
7960:
7946:
7939:
7914:
7905:
7898:
7891:
7879:
7865:
7853:
7846:
7811:Sino-Tibetan
7763:
7746:
7742:
7724:
7705:
7698:: 1019–1028.
7695:
7691:
7666:
7645:
7623:
7596:
7592:
7589:Mei, Tsu-lin
7580:
7576:
7544:
7534:
7527:
7514:
7492:
7474:
7465:
7448:ScienceDaily
7447:
7407:
7403:
7383:
7377:
7358:
7352:
7343:
7337:
7318:
7312:
7303:
7297:
7288:
7284:
7278:
7269:
7265:
7259:
7250:
7246:
7240:
7221:
7215:
7196:
7190:
7184:. 中國社會科學出版社.
7181:
7175:
7166:
7160:
7141:
7135:
7116:
7110:
7091:
7056:Iwata (2010)
7051:
7039:
7030:
7024:
7015:
7009:
6998:
6986:
6977:
6970:
6964:
6959:, p. 3.
6952:
6947:, p. ?.
6940:
6928:
6916:
6904:
6895:
6889:
6880:
6874:
6865:
6859:
6850:
6844:
6835:
6829:
6820:
6814:
6805:
6799:
6790:
6784:
6773:. Retrieved
6759:
6750:
6728:
6704:
6674:
6656:
6650:
6631:
6613:
6593:. Retrieved
6589:the original
6584:
6575:
6566:
6562:
6544:
6522:
6516:
6507:
6501:
6482:
6477:
6468:
6462:
6454:漢語方言語音的演變和層次
6453:
6447:
6438:
6420:
6414:
6395:
6389:
6370:
6364:
6358:. 社會科學文獻出版社.
6355:
6349:
6340:
6334:
6325:
6295:cite journal
6284:
6275:
6269:
6260:
6230:
6202:
6176:
6158:
6152:
6133:
6097:
6015:
6006:
6001:
5980:cite journal
5969:
5960:
5954:
5939:
5927:蔡家话白语关系及词根比较
5920:
5893:
5853:
5817:, p. 1.
5810:
5790:
5778:
5729:
5725:
5719:
5707:
5702:, p. 3.
5695:
5683:
5671:
5634:
5624:
5608:
5590:
5573:
5565:
5556:). In 1982,
5551:
5530:
5517:
5440:
5436:
5425:
5415:
5409:
5401:
5398:
5395:
5392:
5389:
5383:
5380:
5377:
5372:
5369:
5366:
5359:
5356:
5353:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5336:
5333:
5330:
5323:
5320:
5317:
5312:
5309:
5306:
5299:
5296:
5293:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5269:
5262:
5252:
5238:
5222:
5218:
5215:
5212:
5209:
5205:
5202:
5199:
5192:
5189:
5186:
5179:
5176:
5173:
5167:definiteness
5152:
5139:
5135:
5132:
5129:
5126:
5120:
5117:
5114:
5109:
5106:
5103:
5096:
5093:
5090:
5085:
5082:
5079:
5073:
5064:
5061:
5058:
5056:分 個 {梨 子} 你。
5055:
5049:
5046:
5043:
5038:
5035:
5032:
5025:
5022:
5019:
5014:
5011:
5008:
4990:
4986:
4983:
4980:
4978:撥 對 {鞋 子} 我。
4977:
4971:
4968:
4965:
4960:
4957:
4954:
4947:
4944:
4941:
4936:
4933:
4930:
4915:
4912:
4909:
4906:
4900:
4897:
4894:
4889:
4886:
4883:
4876:
4873:
4870:
4865:
4862:
4859:
4852:
4849:
4846:
4833:
4825:
4821:
4818:
4815:
4812:
4808:
4805:
4802:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4771:
4768:
4765:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4730:
4727:
4724:
4721:Nanchangese:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4704:
4698:
4695:
4692:
4687:
4684:
4681:
4674:
4671:
4668:
4663:
4660:
4657:
4650:
4647:
4644:
4639:
4636:
4633:
4626:
4623:
4620:
4615:
4612:
4609:
4591:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4578:
4574:
4571:
4568:
4561:
4558:
4555:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4537:
4534:
4531:
4526:
4523:
4520:
4509:
4506:
4503:
4500:
4496:
4493:
4490:
4483:
4480:
4477:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4459:
4456:
4453:
4446:
4443:
4440:
4435:
4432:
4429:
4422:
4419:
4416:
4402:Shanghainese
4395:
4392:
4384:
4381:
4378:
4375:
4371:
4364:
4361:
4356:
4353:
4350:
4345:
4342:
4339:
4332:
4329:
4326:
4321:
4318:
4315:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4287:
4284:
4279:
4276:
4273:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4257:
4254:
4251:
4244:
4241:
4238:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4215:
4207:
3920:Shanghainese
3913:
3861:
3845:
3830:dialects of
3828:Southern Min
3820:
3813:
3794:
3782:Nanchang Gan
3755:
3731:
3718:Jerry Norman
3716:
3684:
3664:
3642:
3639:
3396:
3378:
3370:
3354:
3344:
3325:
3296:Changshanese
3293:
3277:
3260:Nanchangnese
3256:Tang dynasty
3253:
3156:
3142:
3136:
3126:
3117:and eastern
3104:
3084:
3055:Qian Nairong
3053:
3033:Shanghainese
3031:
2815:vowel length
2811:glottal stop
2785:and eastern
2768:
2723:Southern Min
2720:
2554:
2512:
2510:
2447:
2427:
2334:
2320:
2274:
2226:
2050:Kuala Lumpur
2027:
1915:Non-Tongtai
1902:
1898:Yangzhounese
1884:and most of
1871:
1855:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1758:
1755:
1750:
1747:
1742:
1739:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1720:
1715:
1712:
1707:
1704:
1699:
1696:
1676:and central
1659:
1642:Soviet Union
1634:
1630:
1551:
1452:
1447:
1432:
1429:null initial
1418:
1400:
1384:
1375:
1356:Shijiazhuang
1341:
1327:Taz language
1323:Shenyangnese
1308:
1301:
1286:
1274:
1259:
1247:
1228:
1202:
999:Heilongjiang
996:
818:Non-Mandarin
798:
791:
780:Southwestern
735:Northeastern
727:Qing dynasty
680:
672:
601:
593:
571:
555:
541:
533:
488:
470:Jerry Norman
467:
460:
268:
226:
220:
196:
194:
120:Subdivisions
103:
99:Sino-Tibetan
83:Central Asia
71:distribution
10652:Xiao'erjing
10514:Punctuation
10507:Traditional
10460:Oracle bone
10444:Logographic
10340:Proto-Hakka
10315:Eastern Han
10310:Old Chinese
10172:Classifiers
10139:Northern Wu
10067:Singaporean
9273: [
9261: [
9249: [
9237: [
9225: [
8615:Proto-Hakka
8544:Mahakiranti
8050:East Bodish
7830:Uttarakhand
7458:Works cited
7361:. 江蘇教育出版社.
7199:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6677:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6569:(6): 38–42.
6398:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6373:. 江蘇教育出版社.
5700:Mair (1991)
5688:Wang (2005)
5676:Wang (2005)
5216:1SG CL book
5149:Classifiers
4843:Yichunnese:
4517:Taiyuanese:
4413:Beijingese:
4398:Nanchangese
4224:Beijingese:
4108:rising (3)
4000:rising (3)
3824:Eastern Min
3816:Wu dialects
3807:divergence.
3790:Wenzhounese
3734:wave models
3723:Han dynasty
3709:varieties.
3691:Lianyungang
3644:Danzhounese
3387:of eastern
3351:Old Chinese
3298:and one of
3109:, parts of
3089:, southern
3041:Wenzhounese
2777:, southern
2735:Eastern Min
2430:Meizhounese
2291:, southern
2279:, parts of
1890:Nanjingnese
1876:, northern
1851:Kunmingnese
1805:, southern
1797:, northern
1682:Taiyuannese
1672:, northern
1668:, northern
1576:, southern
1564:, southern
1450:palatalized
1021:, parts of
801:classifiers
796:varieties.
604:Wenzhounese
495:Old Chinese
385:22,200,000
372:37,400,000
359:44,065,190
346:47,100,000
333:75,633,810
320:81,817,790
307:85,576,570
251:Old Chinese
176:(Macro-Bai)
10603:Wade–Giles
10502:Simplified
10397:Vernacular
10390:in Vietnam
10243:Simplified
10230:Biaoxingma
10177:Honorifics
10112:Historical
10057:Philippine
10047:Sichuanese
9974:Badong Yao
9678:Shao–Jiang
9549:Philippine
9357:Xiangxiang
9352:Shuangfeng
9097:Taizhou Wu
8880:Sichuanese
8509:Idu–Taraon
8463:Miju–Meyor
8356:Gyalrongic
8202:Tangkhulic
7977:Raji–Raute
7599:: 86–110,
7537:(1): 23–34
7524:海南省三亚市迈话音系
7502:082481892X
7484:0415297435
7386:. 江蘇教育出版社.
7368:7534323290
7231:7560911315
7182:安徽宣城（雁翅）方言
7169:. 廣西人民出版社.
6945:Mei (1970)
6933:Yan (2006)
6851:江西贛方言語音的特點
6775:2022-07-22
6753:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6731:. 上海教育出版社.
6707:. 上海教育出版社.
6684:7534325064
6641:7534354994
6595:2010-06-11
6405:7534322936
6380:7534328837
6343:. 江蘇教育出版社.
6233:. 江蘇教育出版社.
5659:References
5275:Ningbonese
5163:classifers
4907:我 得 本 書 你。
4579:給 我 一 本 書。
4343:kuaon-cieu
4218:Beijingese
4211:Suzhounese
4187:light (8)
4156:light (8)
4125:light (8)
4094:light (8)
3864:Sinographs
3738:Huai River
3468:Shuangfeng
3123:palatalize
3095:Jingdezhen
3037:Suzhounese
2793:, such as
2739:Puxian Min
2468:, most of
2283:, western
2142:Hong Kong
2128:Guangzhou
2062:Taishanese
2032:, eastern
1847:Sichuanese
1817:, most of
1801:, most of
1789:Spoken in
1664:, western
1311:Harbinnese
1017:, most of
1005:, most of
608:Ningbonese
560:) initials
462:Ethnologue
411:4,130,000
398:5,380,000
265:Population
87:North Asia
69:Geographic
10541:Taiwanese
10531:Cantonese
10375:Classical
10335:Proto-Min
10270:Microsoft
10129:Cantonese
10105:Phonology
10086:Cantonese
10077:Singdarin
10062:Malaysian
10052:Taiwanese
9956:Rongjiang
9946:Yongjiang
9942:Southern
9927:Northern
9901:Luo–Guang
9810:Hong Kong
9805:Guangzhou
9761:Taiwanese
9754:Changting
9688:Zhanjiang
9602:Zhongshan
9569:Malaysian
9564:Singapore
9529:Zhangzhou
9481:Zhongshan
9374:Yong–Quan
9270:Jing-Zhan
9200:Xuancheng
9177:Jiangshan
9056:Changzhou
8977:Junjiahua
8830:Guanzhong
8713:Changchun
8608:Proto-Min
8539:Macro-Bai
8417:Arunachal
8410:(possible
8225:Boro–Garo
8129:Kuki-Chin
8112:and Indo-
8027:Arunachal
8014:Himalayas
7989:Tandrange
7956:Chepangic
7887:Dhimalish
7821:Himalayas
7727:, Brill,
7304:吳語的句法類型特點
6419:He, Wei.
6185:0257-0203
5885:"Chinese"
5770:129946000
5754:1476-4687
5664:Citations
5581::69) and
5472:Proximal
5452:Zhangshu
5449:Dongxiang
5271:Wuhannese
5219:'my book'
4958:gha - tsy
4346:Guangzhou
4312:Wuxinese:
4269:Guangzhou
4266:Guǎngzhōu
4173:dark (7)
4165:˨ ˥˨ ˨ ˧
4151:˥ ˥˨ ˨ ˧
4142:dark (7)
4134:˨ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌
4120:˥ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌
4111:dark (7)
4089:˦ ˨˧ ˦ ꜉
4080:dark (7)
4072:darkness
4067:tone cat
4037:˨˧ ˩ ˩ ꜌
4023:˥˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
3936:/tʃɦɻʷəi/
3924:Bobainese
3910:Phonology
3802:Taiyuan (
3762:New Xiang
3524:'flower'
3385:New Xiang
3304:Loudinese
3147:initial (
3131:initial (
2834:Changzhou
2799:Changzhou
2731:Zhongshan
2601:Changsha
2527:Inuktitut
2517:initial (
2502:Taiwanese
2494:Hainanese
2486:Hong Kong
2458:Guangdong
2454:Zhanjiang
2355:Hong Kong
2349:Changting
2325:initial (
2317:Indonesia
2289:Hong Kong
2277:Guangdong
2229:Cantonese
2156:Dongguan
2058:Cantonese
2054:Vancouver
2038:Hong Kong
2030:Guangdong
1894:Hefeinese
1843:Wuhannese
1815:Chongqing
1777:'to roll'
1594:Zhengzhou
1541:'to see'
1457:initial (
1423:initial (
1348:Jinannese
1319:Jilinnese
1302:politsiya
1266:'machine'
1065:Changchun
847:Guangzhou
832:Zhengzhou
786:Jianghuai
719:Singapore
703:Northeast
687:Southwest
588:initial (
499:Southwest
445:Languages
279:Speakers
166:(Sinitic)
155:Glottolog
141:ISO 639-5
131:Macro-Bai
75:East Asia
61:Ethnicity
10690:Category
10625:Bopomofo
10554:Phonetic
10546:Two-cell
10475:Clerical
10385:in Japan
10380:Adoption
10368:Official
10359:Literary
10234:Boshiamy
10211:Xiehouyu
10167:Numerals
10144:Mandarin
10072:Standard
10032:Standard
9906:Qin–Lian
9896:Yong–Xun
9881:Gao–Yang
9827:Jiujiang
9815:Malaysia
9749:Tingzhou
9700:Wenchang
9661:Jianyang
9651:Northern
9610:Sanxiang
9524:Quanzhou
9507:Southern
9476:Manjiang
9340:Changsha
9300:Nanchang
9295:Chang–Du
9192:Xuanzhou
9182:Qingtian
9136:Wencheng
9082:Jiangyin
9077:Jinxiang
9067:Shaoxing
9061:Hangzhou
9041:Shanghai
8982:Qinjiang
8890:Minjiang
8862:Xinjiang
8820:Dongping
8784:Jiaoliao
8723:Shenyang
8696:Mandarin
8413:isolates
8380:Mondzish
8308:Cai–Long
8056:Tshangla
8012:Eastern
7855:Tamangic
7825:Himachal
7819:Western
7813:branches
7665:(1984),
7622:(1988),
7568:(1991),
7436:31061123
7266:淮南師範學院學報
7222:蘇州方言語音研究
7167:廣西漢語方言研究
6896:湘語的分區（稿）
6769:Archived
6483:漢語方言學大詞典
6439:現代漢語方言概論
6326:漢語官話方言研究
6278:. 方志出版社.
6276:河北省志 方言志
6263:. 语文出版社.
6203:北京官话语音研究
6007:貴州省志 民族志
5762:31019300
5155:Japanese
4196:˧ ˦ ˨ ꜋
4182:˦ ˦ ˦ ˨
4103:˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
4070:1st char
4065:2nd char
4009:˥ ˩ ˩ ꜌
3995:˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉
3981:˦ ˦ ˦ ꜉
3876:Cyrillic
3836:Chaozhou
3814:The two
3579:'melon'
3463:Changsha
3458:Hangzhou
3443:Shanghai
3393:Mandarin
3184:Yingtan
3172:Nanchang
3087:Hangzhou
2837:Shaoxing
2828:Shanghai
2807:Hangzhou
2775:Shanghai
2771:Zhejiang
2743:Northern
2580:Chaozhou
2577:Quanzhou
2569:Non-Min
2559:initial
2478:Zhejiang
2450:Chaoshan
2261:Luoguang
2181:Taishan
2103:Examples
1935:Huizhou
1929:Hangzhou
1926:Yangzhou
1831:Thailand
1771:滾 {} 骨 攏
1734:'stupid'
1728:笨 {} 薄 愣
1690:/(u)əʔl/
1586:Xinjiang
1566:Shandong
1403:Jiaodong
1352:Cangzhou
1344:Shandong
1237:rutabaga
1197:'north'
1160:'eight'
1123:'guest'
1077:Chaozhou
1068:Shenyang
1007:Liaoning
986:'heart'
921:'sound'
815:Mandarin
746:Jiaoliao
701:and the
677:Mandarin
619:Mandarin
557:quánzhuó
511:Cai-Long
290:Mandarin
229:, are a
222:Hànyǔ zú
171:macr1275
161:sini1245
10524:Braille
10485:Cursive
10435:Scripts
10302:History
10292:ZhengMa
10238:Cangjie
10204:Chengyu
10159:Grammar
10134:Hokkien
10091:Hokkien
9999:Waxiang
9979:Danzhou
9951:Guandao
9936:Younian
9931:Tongdao
9920:Pinghua
9860:Taishan
9776:Raoping
9744:Huizhou
9734:Meixian
9710:Banqiao
9683:Leizhou
9673:Pu–Xian
9668:Central
9656:Jian'ou
9631:Longyan
9579:Teochew
9516:Hokkien
9491:Nanlang
9447:Fu–Ning
9427:Changle
9409:Houguan
9400:Eastern
9347:Loushao
9335:Changyi
9317:Da–Tong
9312:Ying–Yi
9258:Yanzhou
9126:Wenzhou
9119:Oujiang
9110:Tiantai
9105:Taizhou
9014:Zhi–Yan
8961:Nantong
8956:Nanjing
8931:Gui–Liu
8921:Nanping
8916:Kunming
8842:Luoyang
8797:Qingdao
8769:Tianjin
8746:Beijing
8738:Beijing
8627:Italics
8488:Siangic
8469:Songlin
8448:Kho-Bwa
8426:Hrusish
8408:Dubious
8391:Loloish
8385:Burmish
8350:Qiangic
8321:Longjia
8288:Karenic
8282:Nungish
8262:Sinitic
8148:Hkongso
8110:Myanmar
8080:Gongduk
8044:Tibetic
7962:Chepang
7935:Magaric
7881:Kiranti
7861:Newaric
7624:Chinese
7613:2718766
7583:: 1–31.
7528:Fāngyán
7468:, Brill
7427:6534992
7319:香港客家話研究
6974:方言与中国文化
6767:. 人民網.
6328:. 齊魯書社.
6231:哈爾濱方言詞典
6098:中國語言地圖集
5734:Bibcode
5610:fāngyán
5566:Sinitic
5502:Yonder
5487:Distal
5107:mèn báu
5036:lɐi tsə
4231:Jīntiān
4204:Grammar
4162:˨ ˥˨ ˧
4148:˥ ˥˨ ˧
4131:˨ ˥˩ ꜌
4117:˥ ˥˩ ꜌
4086:˦ ˨˧ ꜊
4060:4 char
4057:3 char
4054:2 char
4034:˨˧ ˩ ꜌
4020:˥˨ ˧ ꜊
3967:4 char
3964:3 char
3961:2 char
3872:Hokkien
3740:to the
3701:in the
3671:Huizhou
3634:'down'
3453:Wenzhou
3438:Nantong
3433:Nanjing
3428:Beijing
3340:Pinghua
3332:Huizhou
3288:Guizhou
3284:Guangxi
3107:Jiangxi
3067:Oujiang
3063:Taizhou
3047:. The
2855:Quzhou
2846:Wenzhou
2843:Taizhou
2787:Jiangxi
2779:Jiangsu
2747:Central
2598:Guiyang
2595:Lanzhou
2592:Leizhou
2586:Jian'ou
2523:Occitan
2506:Hokchiu
2500:(incl.
2498:Hokkien
2474:Jiangxi
2352:Hsinchu
2346:Meizhou
2301:Guangxi
2293:Jiangxi
2265:Yongxun
2249:Qinlian
2245:Gaoyang
2237:Guanbao
2034:Guangxi
1923:Taizhou
1920:Nantong
1912:Tongtai
1886:Jiangsu
1878:Jiangxi
1811:Shaanxi
1803:Sichuan
1799:Guangxi
1795:Guizhou
1686:Li Rong
1670:Shaanxi
1614:Lanzhou
1598:Luoyang
1590:Kaifeng
1578:Ningxia
1574:Shaanxi
1570:Jiangsu
1475:Qingdao
1415:Qingdao
1372:initial
1370:of the
1364:Baoding
1298:полиция
1275:mashina
1248:bryukva
1230:bǔliúkè
1218:Origin
1215:Meaning
1071:Beijing
1023:Tianjin
1019:Beijing
850:Meizhou
844:Nanjing
841:Chengdu
838:Taiyuan
826:Beijing
740:Beijing
691:Huguang
664:Pinghua
538:Chinese
519:Longjia
427:0.004%
424:56,300
407:Pinghua
394:Huizhou
297:73.50%
259:Chinese
174:
164:
126:Chinese
104:Sinitic
56:Chinese
51:Sinitic
10593:Postal
10588:MPS II
10465:Bronze
10345:Ba–Shu
10265:Google
10260:Pinyin
10196:Idioms
10009:Yeheni
9891:Wu–Hua
9886:Goulou
9865:Xinhui
9842:Dapeng
9837:Weitou
9822:Xiguan
9797:Yuehai
9766:Sixian
9705:Haikou
9695:Hainan
9626:Zhenan
9592:Haklau
9587:Swatow
9559:Penang
9544:Taiwan
9539:Chawan
9486:Longdu
9455:Ningde
9432:Gutian
9422:Fuqing
9417:Fuzhou
9379:Qiyang
9362:Wugang
9307:Yi–Liu
9234:Xiu-Yi
9222:Ji-She
9172:Quzhou
9164:Chu–Qu
9154:Jinhua
9146:Wuzhou
9131:Rui'an
9072:Ningbo
9046:Suzhou
8936:Wuming
8907:Zigong
8895:Leshan
8857:Lanyin
8852:Dungan
8847:Xuzhou
8825:Gangou
8802:Weihai
8792:Dalian
8751:Taiwan
8718:Harbin
8501:Milang
8455:Puroik
8439:Mijiic
8363:Ersuic
8314:Caijia
8230:Konyak
8196:Meitei
8100:Chamdo
8037:Bodish
8023:Bhutan
7969:Bhujel
7916:Lepcha
7907:Lhokpu
7893:Dhimal
7838:Sikkim
7770:
7731:
7713:
7673:
7652:
7630:
7611:
7555:
7499:
7481:
7434:
7424:
7384:黎川方言詞典
7365:
7359:武漢方言詞典
7344:武漢方言研究
7325:
7228:
7203:
7197:香港粵語詞典
7148:
7142:長沙方言詞典
7123:
7117:廈門方言詞典
7098:
7092:廣州方言詞典
6751:蘇州方言詞典
6729:上海話大詞典
6705:當代吳語研究
6681:
6675:梅縣方言詞典
6638:
6563:欽州學院學報
6523:南通方言詞典
6489:
6421:中原官話分區
6402:
6396:西寧方言詞典
6377:
6371:徐州方言詞典
6356:洛陽方言研究
6341:牟平方言詞典
6261:漢語方言詞彙
6209:
6183:
6140:
5768:
5760:
5752:
5726:Nature
5619:; and
5457:Close
5404:/nɤ³⁵/
5337:
5334:
5313:unripe
5159:Korean
5140:
4991:
4925:Wugniu
4826:
4728:꜂n len
4592:
4497:sweets
4372:
4367:Wugniu
4362:
4295:
4290:pinyin
4285:
4258:arrive
4193:˧ ˦ ꜉
4179:˦ ˦ ꜉
4159:˨ ˥˨˧
4145:˥ ˥˨˧
4100:˨ ˧ ꜊
4006:˥ ˩ ꜌
3992:˨ ˧ ꜊
3978:˦ ˦ ꜉
3928:/mɭɤŋ/
3868:Dungan
3832:Xiamen
3776:, and
3764:, and
3675:Heyuan
3648:Maihua
3448:Suzhou
3422:Gloss
3356:Qieyun
3181:Fuzhou
3175:Yichun
3149:合口曉匣兩母
3075:Wuzhou
2852:Lishui
2849:Jinhua
2840:Ningbo
2831:Suzhou
2803:Ningbo
2795:Suzhou
2733:, the
2727:Datian
2589:Haikou
2583:Putian
2574:Fuzhou
2539:Telugu
2504:) and
2490:Teoswa
2470:Fujian
2466:Taiwan
2462:Hainan
2305:Hainan
2285:Fujian
2281:Taiwan
2257:Goulou
2233:Yuehai
2209:Yulin
2195:Bobai
2170:Shiqi
2084:Light
2046:Hainan
1932:Fuzhou
1839:Minchi
1827:Kokang
1791:Yunnan
1748:
1705:
1662:Shanxi
1610:Xining
1602:Xuzhou
1562:Shanxi
1481:Gloss
1478:Dalian
1472:Weihai
1469:Yantai
1411:Dalian
1331:Russia
1293:'jail'
1288:bālízi
1271:машина
1261:mǎshén
1244:брюква
1086:Wuhan
1080:Suzhou
1074:Heyuan
1062:Harbin
1057:Gloss
1031:rhotic
853:Xiamen
821:Gloss
794:Junhua
764:Lanyin
685:, the
595:jiànmǔ
515:Caijia
432:Total
420:Dungan
414:0.27%
401:0.35%
388:1.46%
375:2.46%
362:2.90%
349:3.09%
336:4.97%
323:5.38%
310:5.62%
276:Branch
219::
217:pinyin
211::
203::
10657:Nüshu
10361:forms
10275:Sogou
10222:Input
10096:Hakka
10034:forms
9874:Other
9832:Shiqi
9771:Hailu
9739:Wuhua
9726:Hakka
9644:Other
9619:Other
9554:Pedan
9469:Other
9460:Fu'an
9437:Matsu
9369:Ji–Xu
9327:Xiang
9277:]
9265:]
9253:]
9246:Qi-De
9241:]
9229:]
9087:Shadi
9033:Taihu
8987:Gyami
8970:Other
8926:Wuhan
8835:Xi'an
8774:Jinan
8432:Hruso
8328:Luren
8302:Kathu
8276:Tujia
8164:Taman
8135:Mruic
8122:Karbi
8063:Basum
8019:Tibet
7941:Magar
7867:Newar
7834:Nepal
7688:(PDF)
7609:JSTOR
7573:(PDF)
7031:赣榆方言志
7016:惠州方言志
6976:[
6791:漢語方言學
5946:蔡家的語言
5766:S2CID
5636:tǔhuà
5616:yǔyán
5592:yǔyán
5537:Sīnae
5522:Notes
5210:我 本 書
5110:bread
4793:tsaʔ꜆
4785:three
4769:꜂tɕie
4745:꜀tɕia
4688:money
4685:tɕiɛ̃
4672:kʰuai
4613:ma ma
4322:today
4319:cin-a
4234:today
4128:˨ ˥˩
4114:˥ ˥˩
4083:˦ ˨˧
4031:˨˧ ˩
4017:˥˨ ˧
3916:tones
3774:Hakka
3667:東江本地話
3656:Hakka
3389:Hunan
3280:Hunan
3266:Xiang
3178:Ji'an
3119:Hunan
3115:Anhui
3111:Hebei
3091:Anhui
3071:Chuqu
3059:Taihu
2783:Anhui
2709:tsʰən
2704:tʂʰən
2556:cheng
2535:Māori
2531:Latin
2514:cheng
2358:Yudu
2297:Hunan
2271:Hakka
2253:Wuhua
2098:Long
2095:Short
2089:Short
2042:Macau
1882:Hubei
1874:Anhui
1823:Hunan
1819:Hubei
1807:Gansu
1759:kuəʔ꜆
1674:Henan
1666:Hebei
1606:Xi'an
1582:Gansu
1558:Henan
1537:tɕiɛ̃
1360:Jinan
1083:Hefei
1054:Other
1034:erhua
1015:Hebei
1003:Jilin
856:Anyi
835:Xi'an
829:Jinan
805:erhua
668:Tuhua
659:Xiang
634:Hakka
526:Luren
438:100%
368:Xiang
355:Hakka
231:group
10618:Yale
10608:EFEO
10470:Seal
10255:Dayi
9852:Siyi
9534:Amoy
9051:Wuxi
8948:Huai
8761:Jilu
8549:Rung
8494:Koro
8368:Naic
8295:Gong
8251:and
8249:East
8207:Zeme
8176:Naga
8094:Tani
8087:ʼOle
7983:Dura
7948:Kham
7900:Toto
7768:ISBN
7729:ISBN
7711:ISBN
7671:ISBN
7650:ISBN
7628:ISBN
7553:ISBN
7535:2007
7497:ISBN
7479:ISBN
7432:PMID
7363:ISBN
7323:ISBN
7291:(4).
7226:ISBN
7201:ISBN
7146:ISBN
7121:ISBN
7096:ISBN
6866:閩語研究
6836:徽州方言
6823:(1).
6808:(1).
6679:ISBN
6636:ISBN
6510:(4).
6508:語言科學
6487:ISBN
6471:(3).
6469:語言研究
6400:ISBN
6375:ISBN
6308:help
6207:ISBN
6181:ISSN
6138:ISBN
6022:白语简志
5993:help
5931:研究之乐
5758:PMID
5750:ISSN
5626:tǔyǔ
5577:See
5511:꜃hɛ̣
5373:ripe
5226:and
5206:book
5157:and
5118:ngāi
5094:kuài
5086:give
5039:pear
5015:give
4961:shoe
4937:give
4890:book
4866:give
4782:꜀san
4760:PERF
4748:lend
4700:SPEC
4661:lian
4640:give
4628:SPEC
4575:book
4527:give
4494:táng
4448:PERF
4436:give
4400:and
4330:ngeu
4190:˧ ˦
4176:˦ ˦
4097:˨ ˧
4003:˥ ˩
3989:˨ ˧
3975:˦ ꜉
3878:and
3870:and
3834:and
3673:and
3646:and
3383:and
3338:and
3286:and
3163:xiao
3141:and
3138:xiao
3128:jian
3113:and
3073:and
3039:and
2911:tʰaŋ
2906:tʰɔŋ
2901:tʰoŋ
2896:tʰoŋ
2891:tʰoŋ
2886:tʰoŋ
2881:tʰoŋ
2876:tʰoŋ
2871:tʰoŋ
2866:tʰoŋ
2805:and
2749:and
2729:and
2714:tsən
2694:ʔdaŋ
2689:teiŋ
2679:tʰiŋ
2652:tsʰa
2647:tʂʰa
2537:and
2484:and
2476:and
2452:and
2311:and
2303:and
2241:Siyi
2092:Long
2081:Dark
2078:Tone
2060:and
2052:and
2008:piaŋ
1988:pʰiŋ
1983:pʰeŋ
1896:and
1860:Huai
1845:and
1809:and
1767:꜂lʊŋ
1743:꜂kʊŋ
1724:ləŋ꜄
1716:pəʔ꜇
1700:pəŋ꜄
1612:and
1580:and
1532:tɕiã
1527:cian
1522:cian
1507:tɕiɔ
1502:tɕiɔ
1497:ciau
1492:ciau
1454:jiàn
1439:止攝開口
1413:and
1405:and
1376:tong
1362:and
1321:and
1313:and
1209:Term
1025:and
952:ɕiəŋ
942:siən
752:Jilu
721:and
666:and
606:and
585:jiàn
283:pct.
195:The
10350:Gan
10250:CKC
10117:Old
9994:She
9984:Mai
9788:Yue
9391:Min
9287:Gan
9214:Hui
9063:(?)
9001:Jin
8728:Taz
8415:) (
8269:Bai
8217:Sal
8157:Pyu
8141:Mru
8070:Nam
7751:doi
7601:doi
7422:PMC
7412:doi
7408:116
5929:.
5801:Bái
5742:doi
5730:569
5629:or
5599:or
5562:Bai
5553:OED
5550:. (
5548:Qin
5543:Ṣīn
5496:꜃hɛ
5481:ko꜆
5476:꜁ko
5466:kọ꜆
5461:꜀ko
5427:geq
5417:go²
5370:səu
5361:COP
5348:DEM
5310:sən
5301:COP
5288:DEM
5254:zhè
5203:syu
5190:bun
5181:1SG
5177:ngo
5122:1SG
5115:𠊎。
5104:麪 包
5083:bín
5051:2SG
5033:梨 子
5012:fɐn
4973:1SG
4969:ngu
4955:鞋 子
4934:peq
4902:2SG
4874:pun
4863:tɛ⁻
4854:1SG
4809:pot
4806:꜀wo
4773:3SG
4736:POL
4732:2SG
4725:你 人
4664:two
4652:1SG
4610:媽 媽
4559:pəŋ
4551:one
4548:iəʔ
4539:1SG
4524:kei
4473:one
4461:1SG
4433:gěi
4424:3SG
4354:chi
4340:廣 州
4334:1sg
4316:今 阿
4263:廣 州
4255:dào
4246:1sg
4228:今 天
3804:Jin
3778:Yue
3770:Min
3766:Gan
3695:贛榆話
3689:of
3652:Yue
3595:ɕiɑ
3590:ɕia
3570:kua
3565:kua
3545:kuo
3540:kuɑ
3535:kua
3510:hua
3505:kʰo
3490:xuo
3485:xuɑ
3480:xua
3398:jia
3347:Min
3336:Jin
3302:or
3215:fɛi
3210:fai
3205:fei
3195:ϕɨi
3161:or
3158:xia
3144:xia
3101:Gan
3081:Hui
3025:daŋ
3020:dɔŋ
3015:doŋ
3010:doŋ
3005:doŋ
3000:doŋ
2995:doŋ
2990:doŋ
2985:doŋ
2980:doŋ
2968:taŋ
2963:tɔŋ
2958:toŋ
2953:toŋ
2948:toŋ
2943:toŋ
2938:toŋ
2933:toŋ
2928:toŋ
2923:toŋ
2699:taŋ
2684:tɛŋ
2674:tan
2669:tiŋ
2657:tsa
2637:ʔdɛ
2566:Min
2456:of
2436:Min
2421:nie
2416:ɡit
2411:ȵit
2401:ȵit
2389:niẽ
2384:ɡin
2379:ȵin
2374:neŋ
2369:ȵin
2315:in
2263:),
2239:),
2221:˨˩
2204:˨˨
2190:˨˩
2165:˨˨
2162:˨˨˦
2151:˨˨
2137:˨˨
2016:Yue
2003:paŋ
1998:biŋ
1993:pin
1966:tei
1951:tʰi
1946:tʰi
1648:Jin
1556:of
1443:/ʐ/
1434:zhǐ
1329:of
1282:巴籬子
1224:卜留克
1194:˨˩˧
1179:˨˩˧
1176:˨˩˧
1173:˨˩˧
1170:˨˩˧
1157:˨˩˧
1120:˨˩˧
1102:˨˩˧
1096:˨˩˧
982:ɕim
977:sim
972:sim
967:sɐm
962:sin
957:ɕin
947:ɕiẽ
937:ɕiẽ
932:ɕin
902:iɐm
887:iəŋ
877:iən
770:Jin
654:Gan
649:Hui
639:Min
629:Yue
624:Jin
506:Bai
381:Gan
342:Jin
329:Min
303:Yue
213:漢語族
205:汉语族
147:zhx
133:(?)
10692::
9275:zh
9263:zh
9251:zh
9239:zh
9227:zh
9024:Wu
8185:Ao
8025:,
8021:,
7836:,
7832:,
7747:34
7745:,
7696:17
7694:,
7690:,
7607:,
7597:30
7595:,
7581:29
7579:,
7575:,
7551:,
7547:,
7531:方言
7526:,
7513:,
7446:.
7430:,
7420:,
7406:,
7398:;
7289:43
7287:.
7270:23
7268:.
7082:^
7063:^
6821:方言
6806:方言
6737:^
6713:^
6693:^
6665:^
6622:^
6604:^
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