615:
fish taxon to exhibit more diversity of species at higher latitudes. A cool, temperate to polar water in the deep sea can be a favorable environment for skates. As the water becomes more shallow and warmer, skates are seen to be replaced by stingrays. Skates are absent from brackish and freshwater environments. However, there is a single estuarine species that has been found in
Tasmania, Australia. Also, the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection has caught and studied skates within the Long Island Sound estuary. Some skate fauna have been found inhabiting areas of rock cobble and high rocky relief.
606:
lateral musculature of the notochord. The impulses put out by the electric organs of the skate are considered to be weak, asynchronous, long-lasting signals. Although the anatomy of the skate's electric organ is well described, its function is poorly understood. Some research suggests the electric impulses are too weak to be a mechanism used for defense or hunting. It is also too irregular to be useful for electrolocation purposes. The most reasonable explanation in the literature suggests that the electric organ discharges may be used as a form of communication used for reproduction purposes.
126:
762:
594:
748:
102:
629:
644:
716:
561:
1110:
González-Rajal, Álvaro; Bogdanovic, Ozren; Gibcus, Johan H.; Yang, Liyan; Gallardo-Fuentes, Lourdes; Sospedra, Ismael; Lopez-Rios, Javier; Darbellay, Fabrice; Visel, Axel; Dekker, Job; Shubin, Neil; Gabaldón, Toni; Nakamura, Tetsuya; Tena, Juan J.; Lupiáñez, Darío G.; Rokhsar, Daniel S.; Gómez-Skarmeta, José Luis (20 April 2023).
585:
ridge that runs along the outside of the structure. Another characteristic is the number of embryos in the egg case. Some species contain only one embryo while others can have up to seven. The size of the fibrous shell around the case is another characteristic. Some species have thick layers on the exterior.
690:
of demersal marine communities. They utilize similar resources to those of other upper trophic-level marine predators, such as seabirds, marine mammals, and sharks. The flattened body shape, ventral eyes and well developed spiracles of the skate allows them to live benthically, buried in the sediment
1109:
Marlétaz, Ferdinand; de la Calle-Mustienes, Elisa; Acemel, Rafael D.; Paliou, Christina; Naranjo, Silvia; Martínez-García, Pedro Manuel; Cases, Ildefonso; Sleight, Victoria A.; Hirschberger, Christine; Marcet-Houben, Marina; Navon, Dina; Andrescavage, Ali; Skvortsova, Ksenia; Duckett, Paul Edward;
704:
Skates are like stingrays in that they have five pairs of gill slits that are located ventrally, which means on the underside of their body (unlike sharks that have their gills located on their sides). Skates and rays both have pectoral fins that are flat and expanded, which are typically fused to
695:
to glide along the water floor. Current research suggests that some species of skates, in addition to their
Rajiform locomotion, use their pelvic fins to perform ambulatory locomotion. This form of locomotion performed by the skate is being explored as a possible origin for our own development of
614:
Skates are primarily found from the intertidal down to depths greater than 3,000 m (9,843 ft). They are most commonly found along outer continental shelves and upper slopes. They are typically more diverse at higher latitudes and in deep-water. In fact, skates are the only cartilaginous
584:
Skates produce their young in an egg case called a mermaid's purse. These egg cases have distinct characteristics that are individualized to each species. This makes a great tool for identifying different species of skates. One of these identifiable structures is the keel. The keel is a flexible
605:
is a characteristic exclusive to aquatic species. Among the
Chondrichthyes, the only groups to possess electric organs are the electric ray and the skates. Unlike many other electrogenic fishes, skates are unique in having paired electric organs which run longitudinally through the tail in the
365:
includes skates, rays, and sharks. Skates are the most diverse elasmobranch group, comprising over 20% of the known species. The number of species is likely to increase as taxonomic issues are resolved and new species are identified. There are 17 genera recognized in the family
Rajidae:
536:
allow the skate to be partially buried in floor sediment and still complete respiratory exchange. Also located on the dorsal side of the skate are their two eyes which allow for predator awareness. In addition to their pectoral fins, skates have a first and second
495:
are considered monophyletic because of their similarity in appearance. There are 13 genera and about 245 valid species. However, there is little information about the diets of about 24% of these species. There are at least 45 dubious species of skates worldwide.
708:
Skates are different from rays in that they lack a whip-like tail and stinging spines. However, some skates have electric organs located in their tail. The main difference between skates and rays is that skates lay eggs, whereas rays give birth to live young.
1371:
Mabragaña, E.; Vazquez, D. M.; Gabbanelli, V.; Sabadin, D.; Barbini, S. A.; Lucifora, L. O. (September 2017). "Egg cases of the graytail skate
Bathyraja griseocauda and the cuphead skate Bathyraja scaphiops from the south-west Atlantic Ocean".
348:
The body plan of skates is caused by skate-specific genomic rearrangements that have altered the three-dimensional regulatory landscape of genes. These changes arose about 286–221 million years ago when skates diverged from sharks.
958:
to its seafood red list. "The
Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."
685:
The majority of skates feed on bottom dwelling animals, such as shrimp, crab, oyster, clams, and other invertebrates. To feed on these animals they have grinding plates in their mouths. Skates are an influential part of the
528:. Placoid scales have a pointed tip that is oriented caudally and are homologous to teeth. Their mouths are located on the underside of the body, with a jaw suspension common to Batoids known as euhyostyly. Skate's
490:
Skates have more valid species (574) than any other group of cartilaginous fishes. Since 1950, 126 new species of skates have been discovered. Five scientists take credit for the rapid increase of findings. The
1644:
Jung, Heekyung; Baek, Myungin; D’Elia, Kristen P.; Boisvert, Catherine; Currie, Peter D.; Tay, Boon-Hui; Venkatesh, Byrappa; Brown, Stuart M.; Heguy, Adriana; Schoppik, David; Dasen, Jeremy S. (February 2018).
252:
were previously treated as subfamilies of
Rajidae (Arhynchobatinae and Gurgesiellinae), but are now considered as distinct families. Alternatively, the name "skate" is used to refer to the entire order of
677:, or more commonly mermaid's purse. This egg case is then deposited out of the mother's body onto the ocean floor where the skates develop for up to 15 months before they enter the external environment.
1032:
Last, P.R.; Séret, B.; Stehmann, M.F.W.; Weigmann, S. (2016). "Skates: Family
Rajidae". In Last, Peter; Naylor, Gavin; Séret, Bernard; White, William; de Carvalho, Marcelo; Stehmann, Matthias (eds.).
521:
that extend the length of their body. This structure creates power for forward propulsion, providing the emergence swimming capabilities that enabled skates to colonize the sea floor.
977:, a Korean dish made from fermented skate. The Korean public who support the conservative right refer to Jeolla people as 'skate' based on their food culture of eating rotten skate.
2157:
2162:
1990:
2029:
1172:
Ebert, David A.; Davis, Chante D. (18 January 2007). "Descriptions of skate egg cases (Chondrichthyes: Rajiformes: Rajoidei) from the eastern North
Pacific".
1514:
Ebert, David A.; Bizzarro, Joseph J. (October 2007). "Standardized diet compositions and trophic levels of skates (Chondrichthyes: Rajiformes: Rajoidei)".
1964:
1425:
Macesic, Laura J.; Kajiura, Stephen M. (November 2009). "Electric organ morphology and function in the lesser electric ray, Narcine brasiliensis".
2003:
2152:
549:. Distinct from their rhomboidal shape is a long fleshy slender tail. While skate anatomy is similar to other Batoidea, features such as their
361:. This class consists of all the cartilaginous fishes, including sharks and stingrays. Chondrichthyes is divided into two subclasses; of which
1703:
1577:
1079:
1041:
1202:
Ebert, David A.; Compagno, Leonard J. V. (October 2007). "Biodiversity and systematics of skates (Chondrichthyes: Rajiformes: Rajoidei)".
1767:
705:
the head. Both skates and stingrays typically have their eyes on top of their head. Skates also share similar feeding habits with rays.
1814:
1312:"Morphological Characters of the Thickbody Skate Amblyraja frerichsi (Krefft 1968) (Rajiformes: Rajidae), with Notes on Its Biology"
1290:
2114:
673:, meaning they give birth to live young. When a female skate is fertilized, a protected case forms around the embryo called an
2008:
2016:
939:
Skates have slow growth rates and, since they mature late, low reproductive rates. As a result, skates are vulnerable to
1912:
1899:
669:, meaning they lay eggs with very little development in the mother. This is one major difference from rays, which are
1056:
EBERT, D.A. (2003) The Sharks, Rays and
Chimaeras of California. University California Press, Berkeley, CA. 284 pp.
2034:
674:
661:, a structure attached to the pelvic fins. The claspers allow them to direct the flow of semen into the female's
651:
633:
597:
The fibers of the skate electric organ are embedded in the muscles located lateral to the notochord in the tail.
125:
1556:
602:
550:
212:
696:
walking by looking for similar neural pathways used for movement between skates and animals walking on land.
637:
1751:
943:
and appear to have been overfished and are suffering reduced population levels in many parts of the world.
1839:
533:
1729:
2147:
2078:
1248:
2096:
1917:
1603:"Walking in skates (Chondrichthyes, Rajidae): anatomy, behaviour and analogies to tetrapod locomotion"
2119:
2044:
1938:
1886:
1523:
1434:
1381:
1325:
1211:
1123:
712:
Moreover, skates can be more abundant than rays, and are fished for food in some parts of the world.
1094:
1005:
1539:
1227:
306:
120:
804:
579:
554:
2083:
2065:
1925:
1785:
1699:
1676:
1583:
1573:
1496:
1450:
1407:
1353:
1286:
1149:
1075:
1037:
692:
277:
2106:
1995:
2142:
2070:
1666:
1658:
1624:
1614:
1531:
1486:
1442:
1397:
1389:
1343:
1333:
1278:
1219:
1181:
1139:
1131:
1067:
951:
258:
230:
1823:
803:, that is they lay eggs. Their fertilized eggs are laid in a protective hard case called a
761:
657:
Skates mate at the same nursery ground each year. In order to fertilize the egg, males use
2052:
736:
727:
294:
262:
245:
1527:
1438:
1385:
1329:
1215:
1144:
1127:
1111:
593:
1671:
1646:
1348:
1311:
1282:
947:
525:
510:
362:
358:
298:
266:
249:
226:
177:
167:
747:
101:
2136:
1877:
1619:
1602:
1307:
1001:
968:
955:
518:
413:
59:
1231:
867:
Rely on "thorny projections on their backs and tails for protection from predators"
628:
1543:
814:, that is, they bear their young inside their bodies and give birth to them alive.
643:
392:
109:
1930:
1338:
2021:
1977:
1891:
1871:
940:
715:
455:
318:
34:
1904:
1662:
1446:
1135:
1535:
1223:
1185:
871:
836:
821:
811:
670:
546:
538:
514:
492:
469:
427:
378:
342:
302:
254:
241:
197:
79:
44:
1862:
1587:
1951:
1557:
https://www.ct.gov/deep/lib/deep/fishing/fisheries_management/trawl_show.pdf
974:
800:
666:
648:
529:
524:
A large portion of the skate's dorsal body is covered by rough skin made of
476:
420:
399:
385:
371:
137:
84:
1680:
1500:
1454:
1411:
1357:
1153:
1112:"The little skate genome and the evolutionary emergence of wing-like fins"
560:
2057:
1856:
1316:
1010:
687:
542:
448:
441:
406:
326:
322:
310:
237:
187:
157:
74:
69:
54:
49:
39:
1629:
1491:
1474:
1402:
1310:; Francisco Concha; David A. Ebert; Michael B. Bennett (29 June 2012).
658:
483:
462:
434:
338:
270:
89:
64:
1393:
870:
Rely on stinging spines or barbs for protection (though some, such as
1982:
662:
293:
Skates belong to the ancient lineage of cartilaginous fishes. Fossil
147:
1969:
1833:
1956:
1249:"Ray & Skate Anatomy :: Florida Museum of Natural History"
2091:
980:
714:
642:
627:
592:
559:
334:
330:
314:
691:
or using a longitudinal undulation of the pectoral fins known as
564:
Full view of a skate's mermaid's purse. Roughly 125 mm in length.
325:, with the best-understood neoselachian fossils dating from the
1837:
1943:
1475:"Anatomy and motor pathways of the electric organ of skates"
1072:
Sharks, Skates, and Rays: The Biology of Elasmobranch Fishes
297:(tooth-like scales in the skin) resembling those of today's
276:
Members of Rajidae are distinguished by a stiff snout and a
1647:"The Ancient Origins of Neural Substrates for Land Walking"
1570:
Fins into Limbs: Evolution, Development, and Transformation
244:. More than 150 species have been described, in 17 genera.
1601:
Lucifora, Luis O.; Vassallo, Aldo I. (28 August 2002).
1698:. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 155–158.
1846:
983:, a South Korean city famous for its skate cuisine.
1167:
1165:
1163:
971:, a fake sea monster created from a skate carcass.
1095:UCMP Berkeley "Chondrichthyes: Fossil Record"
887:"Plate-like teeth adapted for crushing prey"
647:Four developing embryos located in an opened
8:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1104:
1102:
946:In 2010, Greenpeace International added the
910:Often drab, brown or gray (but not always)
776:However, there are fundamental differences.
509:Skates are cartilaginous fishes like other
1834:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
857:Whip-like with one or two stinging spines
722:
532:are located ventrally as well, but dorsal
100:
20:
1670:
1628:
1618:
1607:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1490:
1401:
1347:
1337:
1273:Berkovitz, Barry; Shellis, Peter (2017).
1143:
305:, with the oldest unambiguous fossils of
2158:Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances
913:Often boldly patterned (but not always)
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
993:
513:, however, skates, like rays and other
2163:Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte
1824:Skate Goes From Trash Fish to Treasure
1815:images and movies of the common skate
1694:Castro, Peter; Huber, Michael (2017).
1275:The Teeth of Non-Mammalian Vertebrates
1036:. Csiro Publishing. pp. 204–363.
1468:
1466:
1464:
1243:
1241:
926:Often shallow water (but not always)
7:
2097:FD1087D9-FFA5-4A53-FF67-A6534D71FF7F
2045:697c6f4d-976d-4967-a10a-73fd07baf6d2
1197:
1195:
719:Skates swim with their pectoral fins
1755:ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research
517:, have a flat body shape with flat
1283:10.1016/b978-0-12-802850-6.00002-3
923:Often deep water (but not always)
14:
1733:Florida Museum of Natural History
1730:Ichthyology: Ray and Skate Basics
301:date at least as far back as the
1620:10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00085.x
1070:. In Hamlett, William C. (ed.).
841:Fins are divided into two lobes
760:
746:
505:General Batoidea characteristics
317:within this diverse family, the
124:
1572:. University of Chicago Press.
1516:Environmental Biology of Fishes
1204:Environmental Biology of Fishes
854:Fleshy tails which lack spines
357:The skate belongs to the class
569:Skate specific characteristics
1:
2153:Cretaceous cartilaginous fish
1786:"'밈화'된 전라도 혐오 표현 대응이 없다 '지적'"
1768:"Greenpeace Seafood Red list"
1568:Hall, Brian K., ed. (2008).
1339:10.1371/journal.pone.0039963
1074:. JHU Press. pp. 1–42.
1066:Compagno, Leonard J (1999).
928:
915:
902:
889:
876:
859:
846:
831:
816:
1757:. Retrieved 212 March 2013.
1696:Marine Biology 10th Edition
1068:"Systematics and Body Form"
900:Usually larger than skates
557:create clear distinctions.
2179:
1735:. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
1663:10.1016/j.cell.2018.01.013
1473:Koester, David M. (2003).
1447:10.1016/j.zool.2009.02.002
1136:10.1038/s41586-023-05868-1
897:Usually smaller than rays
809:
735:Superficially, skates and
652:egg case (mermaid's purse)
634:egg case (mermaid's purse)
577:
1536:10.1007/s10641-007-9227-4
1253:www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu
1224:10.1007/s10641-007-9247-0
1186:10.11646/ZOOTAXA.1393.1.1
733:
726:Comparison of skates and
725:
610:Distribution and habitats
121:Scientific classification
119:
108:
99:
23:
1772:Greenpeace International
1004:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
739:appear somewhat similar.
333:is represented today by
284:Taxonomy and systematics
1792:(in Korean). 2021-12-16
1374:Journal of Fish Biology
1014:. January 2009 version.
700:Skates versus stingrays
309:dating from the middle
720:
654:
640:
638:San Sebastian Aquarium
598:
565:
30:Late Cretaceous–Recent
2079:Paleobiology Database
1479:The Anatomical Record
829:Missing or vestigial
718:
646:
631:
596:
573:
563:
280:that is not reduced.
619:Behavior and ecology
114:Amblyraja hyperborea
1528:2007EnvBF..80..221E
1439:2009Zool..112..442M
1386:2017JFBio..91..968M
1330:2012PLoSO...739963B
1306:Carlos Bustamente;
1216:2007EnvBF..80..111E
1128:2023Natur.616..495M
844:Fins have one lobe
693:Rajiform locomotion
1657:(4): 667–682.e15.
1492:10.1002/ar.a.10076
721:
655:
641:
632:A skate laying an
599:
566:
307:cartilaginous fish
236:in the superorder
227:cartilaginous fish
2130:
2129:
2066:Open Tree of Life
1840:Taxon identifiers
1705:978-1-259-25199-3
1579:978-0-226-31340-5
1394:10.1111/jfb.13380
1277:. pp. 5–27.
1122:(7957): 495–503.
1081:978-0-8018-6048-5
1043:978-0-643-10914-8
1034:Rays of the World
932:
931:
321:, emerged by the
229:belonging to the
220:
219:
216:
2170:
2123:
2122:
2110:
2109:
2100:
2099:
2087:
2086:
2074:
2073:
2061:
2060:
2048:
2047:
2038:
2037:
2025:
2024:
2022:NBNSYS0000160868
2012:
2011:
1999:
1998:
1986:
1985:
1973:
1972:
1960:
1959:
1947:
1946:
1934:
1933:
1921:
1920:
1908:
1907:
1895:
1894:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1835:
1817:(Dipturus batis)
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1764:
1758:
1749:
1736:
1727:
1710:
1709:
1691:
1685:
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1674:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1622:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1565:
1559:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1522:(2–3): 221–237.
1511:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1470:
1459:
1458:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1405:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1351:
1341:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1245:
1236:
1235:
1210:(2–3): 111–124.
1199:
1190:
1189:
1169:
1158:
1157:
1147:
1106:
1097:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1029:
1016:
1015:
1006:"Family Rajidae"
998:
952:bottlenose skate
764:
750:
723:
681:Diet and feeding
259:Anacanthobatidae
211:
129:
128:
104:
94:
31:
27:Temporal range:
21:
16:Family of fishes
2178:
2177:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2118:
2113:
2105:
2103:
2095:
2090:
2082:
2077:
2069:
2064:
2056:
2053:Observation.org
2051:
2043:
2041:
2033:
2028:
2020:
2015:
2007:
2002:
1994:
1989:
1981:
1976:
1968:
1963:
1955:
1950:
1942:
1937:
1929:
1924:
1916:
1911:
1903:
1898:
1890:
1885:
1876:
1875:
1870:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1842:
1822:Kliman, Todd. "
1810:
1805:
1804:
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1739:
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1471:
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1424:
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1419:
1370:
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1305:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1272:
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1267:
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1246:
1239:
1201:
1200:
1193:
1171:
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1108:
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1100:
1093:
1089:
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1065:
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1060:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1031:
1030:
1019:
1000:
999:
995:
990:
965:
937:
805:mermaid's purse
782:Characteristic
777:
774:
773:
772:
771:
770:
769:
765:
757:
756:
755:
751:
740:
702:
683:
626:
621:
612:
591:
582:
580:Mermaid's purse
576:
574:Mermaid's purse
571:
555:mermaid's purse
507:
502:
355:
299:chondrichthyans
291:
286:
263:Arhynchobatidae
246:Softnose skates
210:
123:
95:
93:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
42:
37:
29:
28:
25:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2176:
2174:
2166:
2165:
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2145:
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2128:
2127:
2125:
2124:
2111:
2101:
2088:
2075:
2062:
2049:
2039:
2026:
2013:
2000:
1987:
1974:
1961:
1948:
1935:
1922:
1909:
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250:pygmy skates
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184:Superorder:
113:
110:Arctic skate
18:
1978:iNaturalist
1872:Wikispecies
1403:11336/45691
941:overfishing
864:Protection
837:Pelvic fins
799:Skates are
547:pelvic fins
545:and paired
500:Description
319:Neoselachii
2137:Categories
1796:2024-05-20
1259:2018-03-10
988:References
872:manta rays
822:Dorsal fin
812:viviparous
671:viviparous
543:caudal fin
539:dorsal fin
530:gill slits
515:Rajiformes
470:Rostroraja
428:Malacoraja
379:Beringraja
303:Ordovician
257:(families
255:Rajiformes
198:Rajiformes
174:Subclass:
1813:ARKive –
1588:308649613
975:Hongeohoe
826:Distinct
810:Rays are
801:oviparous
737:stingrays
728:stingrays
688:food webs
667:oviparous
649:big skate
534:spiracles
477:Spiniraja
421:Leucoraja
400:Dentiraja
386:Breviraja
372:Amblyraja
295:denticles
289:Evolution
213:Bonaparte
144:Kingdom:
138:Eukaryota
1857:Wikidata
1681:29425489
1501:12808649
1455:19651501
1412:28868748
1358:22768186
1317:PLOS One
1232:22875855
1154:37046085
1145:10115646
1011:FishBase
963:See also
920:Habitat
791:Sources
768:Stingray
675:egg case
659:claspers
449:Orbiraja
442:Okamejei
407:Dipturus
327:Jurassic
323:Triassic
311:Devonian
238:Batoidea
204:Family:
188:Batoidea
158:Chordata
154:Phylum:
148:Animalia
134:Domain:
2143:Rajidae
2107:4780382
1905:Rajidae
1892:Rajidae
1878:Rajidae
1863:Q837104
1848:Rajidae
1672:5808577
1544:1382600
1524:Bibcode
1435:Bibcode
1427:Zoology
1382:Bibcode
1349:3386969
1326:Bibcode
1212:Bibcode
1174:Zootaxa
1124:Bibcode
907:Colour
785:Skates
636:at the
493:Rajidae
484:Zearaja
463:Rajella
435:Neoraja
339:sawfish
329:. This
278:rostrum
271:Rajidae
234:Rajidae
208:Rajidae
194:Order:
164:Class:
2120:105711
2104:uBio:
2071:978560
2042:NZOR:
2009:160845
1996:114841
1957:1RAJIF
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884:Small
881:Teeth
663:cloaca
414:Hongeo
335:sharks
231:family
223:Skates
215:, 1831
24:Skates
2115:WoRMS
2092:Plazi
2084:80575
2058:17204
2035:30475
1991:IRMNG
1983:48408
1790:시민의소리
1540:S2CID
1228:S2CID
1180:(1).
981:Mokpo
894:Size
851:Tail
788:Rays
754:Skate
331:clade
315:clade
2030:NCBI
2004:ITIS
1970:5877
1965:GBIF
1952:EPPO
1944:8885
1913:BOLD
1700:ISBN
1677:PMID
1651:Cell
1584:OCLC
1574:ISBN
1497:PMID
1483:273A
1451:PMID
1408:PMID
1354:PMID
1287:ISBN
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1150:PMID
1076:ISBN
1038:ISBN
601:The
553:and
456:Raja
343:rays
313:. A
269:and
248:and
242:rays
225:are
35:PreꞒ
2017:NBN
1939:EoL
1931:FJ6
1926:CoL
1918:946
1900:AFD
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45:O
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