704:. Kuzmin asserts that UHMWPE is non-porous and can hold neither wax nor water, so there is no possibility for filling pores; furthermore, he asserts that UHMWPE is very hydrophobic, which means that wet snow does not appreciably retard the ski and that glide wax offers little additional ability to repel water. He notes that clear bases are more durable and hydrophobic than those with carbon content. The same author asserts that texture is more important than surface chemistry for creating the optimum balance between a running surface that's too dry (not slippery enough) and too wet (ski subject to suction forces). In warm, moist snow, texture can help break the retarding capillary attraction between the ski base and the snow. Giesbrecht agrees that low wetting angle of the ski base is key and also emphasizes the importance of the degree of surface roughness at the
519:, and mechanical action. Temperature changes may be from the ambient temperature, solar radiation, rainwater, wind, or the temperature of the material beneath the snow layer. Mechanical action includes wind and compaction. Over time, bulk snow tends to consolidateâits crystals become truncated from breaking apart or losing mass with sublimation directly from solid to gas and with freeze-thaw, causing them to combine as coarse and granular ice crystals. Colbeck reports that fresh, cold, and man-made snow all interact more directly with the base of a ski and increase friction, indicating the use of harder waxes. Conversely, older, warmer, and denser snows present lower friction, in part due to increased grain size, which better promotes a water film and a smoother surface of the snow crystals for which softer waxes are indicated.
816:
804:
651:
ability to avoid suction from meltwater in the snow. Too little melting and sharp edges of snow crystals or too much suction impede the passage of the ski. A tipping point between where crystal type dominates sliding friction and moisture content dominates occurs around 26 °F (â3 °C). Harder waxes address colder, drier or more abrasive snow conditions, whereas softer waxes have a lower coefficient of friction, but abrade more readily. Wax formulations combine three types of wax to adjust coefficient of friction and durability. From hard to soft, they include synthetic waxes with 50 or more carbon atoms,
577:
604:. However, the heat generated by friction can be lost by conduction to a cold ski, thereby diminishing the production of the melt layer. At the other extreme, when the snow is wet and warm, heat generation creates a thicker film that can create increased capillary drag on the ski bottom. Kuzmin and Fuss suggest that the most favorable combination of ski base material properties to minimize ski sliding friction on snow include: increased hardness and lowered thermal conductivity of the base material to promote meltwater generation for lubrication, wear resistance in cold snow, and
553:
279:
27:
533:
565:
742:
presence of camber allows the skis to grip the snow, when the weight is on one ski and the ski is fully flexed, but minimize drag when the skis are weighted equally and are thus less than fully flexed. Grip waxes are designed for specific temperature ranges and types of snow; a correctly selected grip wax does not appreciably decrease the glide of skis that have proper camber for the skier's weight and for the snow conditions. There are two substances used for grip wax: hard wax and klister.
765:, adjust the hardness of the wax to tailor the effectiveness of its grip for specific, discrete temperature ranges (from approximately -25 °F to +35 °F); waxes are graded and color-coded according to these temperature ranges. Harder grip waxes are designed for colder snow temperatures, but grip poorly in warm temperatures. Conversely, softer waxes in cold temperatures create enough friction and melting that the melt layer may accumulate and promote frozen accretion of snow.
792:
2829:
2819:
773:: a sticky ointment, which may contain a combination of rosins, waxes, solvents and fatsâwith the formulation tailored for snow that comprises coarse crystals, having been transformed through freeze-thaw or being wind-blown, and adjusted for specific temperature ranges. Spray-on klister is more convenient than klister applied from a tube. An incorrect match of klister to snow conditions can also cause icing.
593:
snow to the ski bottom, and 5) contamination of the snow with dust and other non-slippery elements. Plowing and deformation pertain to the interaction of the ski, as a whole, with the snow and are negligible on a firm surface. Lubrication, capillary attraction and contamination are issues for the ski bottom and the wax that is applied to reduce sliding friction or achieve adequate grip.
718:
1039:
177:
726:
148:âto be achieved with a grip wax. Both types of wax are designed to be matched with the varying properties of snow, including crystal type and size, and moisture content of the snow surface, which vary with temperature and the temperature history of the snow. Glide wax is selected to minimize sliding friction for both
741:
to provide traction with static friction on the snow that allows them to propel themselves forward on flats and up hills. They are applied in an area beneath the skier's foot and extending, somewhat forward, that is formed by the camber of the classic ski, called the "grip zone" (or "kick zone"). The
163:
Modern plastic materials (e.g. high-modulus polyethylene and Teflon), used on ski bases, have excellent gliding properties on snow, which in many circumstances diminish the added value of a glide wax. Likewise, uni-directional textures (e.g. fish scale or micro-scale hairs) underfoot on cross-country
1422:
Basic ski wax is made from solid hydrocarbons. Some wax companies also sell wax that has fluorine in it. With these waxes, some, most, or all the hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbons have been replaced with fluorine atoms. This new compound is called a fluorocarbon, and offers very low coefficients of
650:
A variety of glide waxes are tailored for specific temperature ranges and other snow properties with varying wax hardness and other properties that address repellence of moisture and dirt. The hardness of the glide wax affects the melting of the snow to lubricate its passage over the surface and its
592:
Colbeck offers an overview of the five friction processes of skis on snow. They are the: 1) resistance due to plowing of snow out of the way, 2) deformation of the snow over which the ski is traveling, 3) lubrication of the ski with a thin layer of melt water, 4) capillary attraction of water in the
252:
product and the first spring-time wax that repels and makes the running surface slick for spring time alpine ski and snowboard. This technology was introduced to the market in 1986 by Hertel Wax. In 1990, Hertel filed for a U.S. patent on a "ski wax for use with sintered-base snow skis", containing
219:
surface that minimizes suction from water in the snow, yet has sufficient roughness to allow traction for forward motion. In the 1920s and 30s, new varnishes were developed by
European companies as season-long ski bases. A significant advance for cross country racing was the introduction of klister,
286:
The ability of a ski or other runner to slide over snow depends on both the properties of the snow and the ski to result in an optimum amount of lubrication from melting the snow by friction with the skiâtoo little and the ski interacts with solid snow crystals, too much and capillary attraction of
621:
Glide wax can be applied to alpine skis, snowboards, skate skis, classic skis, back-country skis, and touring skis. Traditional waxes comprise solid hydrocarbons. High-performance "fluorocarbon" waxes also contain fluorine, which substitutes some fraction of the hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbons
879:
When skiing, the friction between the snow and skis causes wax to abrade and remain in the snow pack until spring thaw. Then the snowmelt drains into watersheds, streams, lakes and rivers, thereby changing the chemistry of the environment and the food chain. PFASs in ski wax are heat resistant,
1887:
Freberg, Baard
Ingegerdsson; Haug, Line SmĂĽstuen; Olsen, Raymond; Daae, Hanne Line; Hersson, Merete; Thomsen, Cathrine; Thorud, Syvert; Becher, Georg; Molander, Paal; Ellingsen, Dag G. (October 2010). "Occupational Exposure to Airborne Perfluorinated Compounds during Professional Ski Waxing".
192:(History of Lapland) in 1673 gave what is probably the first recorded instruction for ski wax application He advised skiers to use pine tar pitch and rosin. Ski waxing was also documented in 1761. In 1733 the use of tar was described by Norwegian colonel Jens Henrik Emahusen. In the 1740s
815:
1020:
257:
chief chemist Leif
Torgersen found a glide wax additive to repel pollen and other snow impuritiesâa problem with soft grip waxes during distance racesâin the form of a fluorocarbon that could be ironed into the ski base. The solution was based on the work of Enrico Traverso at
199:
Beginning around 1854, California gold rush miners held organized downhill ski races. They also discovered that ski bases, smeared with lubricants brewed from vegetable and/or animal compounds, increased speed. This led to some of the first commercial ski lubricants, such as
803:
622:
with fluorine atoms to achieve lower coefficients of friction and higher water repellency than the pure hydrocarbon wax can achieve. Wax is adjusted for hardness to minimize sliding friction as a function of snow properties, which include the effects of:
596:
Typically, a sliding ski melts a thin and transitory film of lubricating layer of water, caused by the heat of friction between the ski and the snow in its passing. Colbeck suggests that the optimum water film thickness is in the range between 4 and 12
629:: Reflects the metamorphism of snow crystals that are sharp and well-defined, when new, but with aging become broken or truncated with wind action or rounded into ice granules with freeze-thaw, all of which affects a ski's coefficient of friction.
699:
The role of glide wax is to adapt and improve the friction properties of a ski base to the expected snow properties to be encountered on a spectrum from cold crystalline snow to saturated granular snow. Modern ski bases often are made from
1818:
Nilsson, Helena; Kärrman, Anna; Hükan, Westberg; Rotander, Anna; van Bavel, Bert; LindstrÜm, Gunilla (March 15, 2010), "A Time Trend Study of
Significantly Elevated Perfluorocarboxylate Levels in Humans after Using Fluorinated Ski Wax",
612:
base, which diminishes the value added by glide waxes. LintzĂŠn reports that factors other than wax are much more important in reducing friction on cross-country skate skisâthe curvature of the ski and snow conditions.
239:
In the last quarter of the 20th century, researchers addressed the twin problems of water and impurities adhering to skis during spring conditions. Terry Hertel addressed both problems, first with the novel use of a
708:
scale as a function of snow temperatureâcold snow favoring a smoother surface and wetter, warmer snow favoring a textured surface. Some authors question the necessity to use any glide waxes on modern ski bases.
576:
687:
Glide wax can be applied cold or hot. Cold applications include, rubbing hard wax like a crayon, applying a liquid wax or a spray wax. Hot applications of wax include the use of heat from an iron,
1037:, Enrico Traverso & Antonio Rinaldi, "Ski lubricant comprising paraffinic wax and a hydrocarbon compound", issued Apr 13, 1993, assigned to Enichem Synthesis S.p.A.
352:
491:
253:
paraffin, a hardener wax, roughly 1% per-fluoroether diol, and 2% SDS surfactant. Trademarks for Hertel waxes are Super HotSauce, Racing FC739, SpringSolution and White Gold. In the 1990s,
440:, is less than the coefficient of static friction for both ice and snow. The force required for sliding on snow is the product of the coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force:
564:
438:
381:
1961:
552:
2162:
409:
1985:
Grønnestad, Randi; VĂĄzquez, Berta PĂŠrez; Arukwe, Augustine; Jaspers, Veerle L. B.; Jenssen, Bjørn Munro; Karimi, Mahin; Lyche, Jan L.; Krøkje, Ă
se (2019-11-19).
532:
282:
Conceptual representation of sliding friction over snow, as a function of water film thickness, created by passage of a ski or other slider over a snow surface.
791:
212:, vegetable oil and pine pitch. However, some instead used paraffin candle wax that melted onto ski bases, and these worked better under colder conditions.
880:
chemically and biologically stable, and thus environmentally persistent. They have been shown to accumulate in animals that are present at ski venues. The
411:
is the normal force of the ski on snow. Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when the ski is moving over the snow. The coefficient of kinetic friction,
2191:
701:
511:, hexagonal needles, platelets and icy pellets. Once snow accumulates on the ground, the flakes immediately begin to undergo transformation (called
215:
Pine tar on wooden ski bases proved effective for using skis as transport over the centuries, because it fills the pores of the wood and creates a
2853:
1708:
Selected
Formulary Book on Petroleum, Lubricants, Fats, Polishes, Glass, Ceramics, Nitrogenous Fertilizers, Emulsions, Leather and Insecticides
2155:
1616:
1181:
1098:
1064:
1542:
Kuzmin, Leonid; Tinnsten, Mats (2006). "Dirt absorption on the ski running surface - quantification and influence on the gliding ability".
236:
and other admixtures. By 1952, such noted brands as Toko, Swix and Rex were providing an array of color-coded, temperature-tailored waxes.
1673:
1312:
860:
2131:
1765:
1787:
753:-based substance with admixturesâfor snow comprising crystals that are relatively intact and not substantially changed by packing or
2112:
2093:
1716:
1472:
1360:
1284:
821:
Smoothing of grip wax on a classic cross-country ski, using a hand-held "cork", like the item marked "Swix" in the right foreground.
1987:"Levels, Patterns, and Biomagnification Potential of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in a Terrestrial Food Chain in a Nordic Skiing Area"
1462:
2148:
2221:
1348:
864:
516:
884:(FIS) announced to introduce a ban on PFASs in waxes in all competitive ski disciplines from the winter season of 2020/21.
156:
skiing. Grip wax (also called "kick wax") provides on-snow traction for cross-country skiers, as they stride forward using
1134:
2052:
809:
Application of grip wax to a classic cross-country ski, using a canister of wax, like those shown in the left foreground.
2216:
881:
298:
278:
26:
1204:
443:
1941:"Environmental occurrence and fate of semifluorinated n-alkanes and perfluorinated alkyl acids present in ski waxes"
1376:
635:: The percentage of mass that is liquid water and may create suction friction with the base of the ski as it slides.
221:
2728:
2417:
2341:
1755:
493:. Both the static and kinetic coefficients of friction increase with colder snow temperatures (also true for ice).
1706:
220:
for good traction in granular snow, especially in spring conditions; klister was invented and patented in 1913 by
2858:
2518:
2455:
244:
that interacted with the wax matrix in such a way as to repel water effectively, a product introduced in 1974 by
2508:
1644:
1435:
1862:
1578:
994:
1732:
641:: Affects the ease with which sliding friction can melt snow crystals at the interface between ski and snow.
609:
133:
2523:
2346:
868:
777:
Some skis are "waxless", having a fish-scale or other texture to prevent the ski from sliding backwards.
414:
357:
266:, patented in Italy as a "ski lubricant comprising paraffinic wax and hydrocarbon compounds containing a
2832:
2788:
1171:
263:
958:
1034:
1015:
262:, who had developed a fluorocarbon powder with a melting temperature just a few degrees below that of
2783:
2756:
2282:
1998:
1897:
1828:
1516:
738:
652:
165:
157:
153:
2574:
2503:
1940:
1018:, Terry J. Hertel, "Ski wax for use with sintered base snow skis", issued May 19, 1992
582:
Cluster of ice grains in wet snow at a low liquid contentâgrain crystals range 0.5 to 1.0 mm.
2650:
2422:
2377:
2287:
1559:
778:
508:
1492:
507:
Snowflakes have a wide range of shapes, even as they fall; among these are: six-sided star-like
140:
conditions. The two main types of wax used on skis are glide waxes and grip waxes. They address
2186:
2127:
2108:
2089:
2034:
2026:
1921:
1913:
1844:
1761:
1712:
1681:
1622:
1612:
1468:
1356:
1324:
1280:
1276:
1177:
1146:
1094:
1086:
1060:
1054:
832:
1579:"An Investigation Comparing the Efficacy of Different Lubricants for Skis on Artificial Snow"
386:
2543:
2465:
2437:
2261:
2016:
2006:
1905:
1836:
1551:
904:
141:
1407:
1236:
2822:
2579:
2538:
2427:
2240:
1794:
839:
267:
145:
2002:
1901:
1832:
2863:
2746:
2362:
2082:
1645:"Ski wax made (somewhat) simpleâConfused by the wax rainbow? Maybe you've gone too far"
543:
193:
2847:
2718:
2686:
2594:
2584:
2569:
2445:
2407:
2326:
2311:
2292:
2201:
1563:
1269:
672:
229:
181:
149:
42:
in canisters (blue for "dry snow" and yellow for "wet and corn snow") and a paraffin
2800:
2778:
2599:
2495:
2470:
2412:
2382:
2367:
2331:
2256:
2175:
750:
656:
249:
233:
81:
73:
2795:
2615:
2559:
2266:
2228:
754:
35:
570:
Fresh, dry snow with newly formed bonds, showing a grain boundary (top center).
164:
skis can offer a practical substitute for grip wax for those skiers, using the
2723:
2713:
2677:
2625:
2589:
2533:
2485:
2475:
2460:
2372:
2233:
717:
705:
676:
608:
to minimize capillary suction. These attributes are readily achievable with a
605:
598:
539:
245:
241:
216:
104:
2030:
1917:
1626:
1150:
2763:
2751:
2696:
2691:
2657:
2640:
2564:
2528:
2480:
2297:
2011:
1986:
871:, have been shown to increase in ski wax technicians during the ski season.
782:
762:
295:
Before a ski can slide, it must overcome the maximum value static friction,
209:
125:
63:
32:
2038:
1925:
1848:
176:
2140:
2738:
2708:
2662:
2635:
2620:
2402:
2021:
843:
688:
660:
225:
129:
196:
people use of resin and tallow under their skis is recorded in writing.
2773:
2768:
2630:
2513:
2450:
2336:
1555:
835:
668:
259:
1909:
1840:
859:
Ski wax may contain chemicals with potential health affects including
846:, which is less toxic, harder to ignite, and gentler on the ski base.
797:
Melting glide wax onto a skate ski to be ironed in and scraped smooth.
2171:
1439:
664:
77:
1788:"Nordic Ski PreparationâWaxing Guide for Skating and Classic Skiing"
228:, a Swedish chemical company, advised by Olympic crosscountry skier
2703:
1760:(2 ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 270.
1237:"The International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground"
758:
724:
716:
277:
175:
108:
1960:
Centre for
Radiation; Chemical and Environmental Hazards (2009).
906:
Investigation of the most essential factors influencing ski glide
737:
Cross-country skiers use a grip wax (also called "kick wax") for
725:
502:
254:
137:
100:
2144:
785:
to provide uphill grip, but typically remove them for descent.
120:
is a material applied to the bottom of snow runners, including
2645:
733:(ĐиŃŃи)âbrand klisters, graded by color and temperature range.
121:
1235:
659:
with 20 to 35 carbon atoms. Additives to such waxes include
232:, started the development of petroleum-based waxes, using
184:, pioneered development of modern cross-country ski waxes.
558:
Platelets and needles, two alternate forms of snowflakes.
2053:"International Ski Federation to ban PFASs in ski waxes"
1353:
Routledge
Handbook of Sports Technology and Engineering
1313:"A Review of the Processes That Control Snow Friction"
1173:
Sliding friction: physical principles and applications
1091:
Statics: Analysis and Design of
Systems in Equilibrium
842:. However, some commercial wax solvents are made from
757:. The admixtures, which include a dye, rubber, rosin,
446:
417:
389:
360:
301:
2737:
2676:
2608:
2552:
2494:
2436:
2395:
2355:
2319:
2310:
2275:
2249:
2209:
2200:
2105:
The
Complete Guide to Cross-Country Ski Preparation
1583:
ENQUIRY: The ACES Journal of Undergraduate Research
1464:
The Complete Guide to Cross-Country Ski Preparation
95:
87:
69:
59:
51:
2081:
1711:. Niir Project Consultancy Services. p. 784.
1705:NPCS Board of Consultants & Engineers (2008).
1268:
1089:; Tongue, Benson H. & Anagnos, Thalia (2005).
679:to improve glide and/or reduce dirt accumulation.
485:
432:
403:
375:
347:{\displaystyle F_{max}=\mu _{\mathrm {s} }F_{n}\,}
346:
1757:The Physics of Skiing: Skiing at the Triple Point
1524:(Doctoral). Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
1377:"Glidvallan har marginell betydelse i Vasaloppet"
702:ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)
107:, Holmenkol, Oneball, Purl, Speedwax, Rex, Rode,
1467:. Seattle: The Mountaineers Books. p. 140.
1053:Bhavikatti, S. S.; K. G. Rajashekarappa (1994).
486:{\displaystyle F_{k}=\mu _{\mathrm {k} }F_{n}\,}
1347:Kuzmin, Leonid; Fuss, Franz Konstantin (2013),
1271:How to Build an Igloo: And Other Snow Shelters
988:
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
524:Freshly fallen and metamorphosed snow crystals
2156:
1609:Cross-country skiing: touring and competition
8:
1342:
1340:
995:"Grip and Glide: A Short History of Ski Wax"
912:(Licentiate). LuleĂĽ University of Technology
19:
2080:Brady, M. Michael; Torgersen, Leif (2001).
1948:Department of Applied Environmental Science
1105:In general, for given contacting surfaces,
2734:
2316:
2206:
2163:
2149:
2141:
1700:
1698:
1306:
1304:
1302:
383:is the coefficient of static friction and
103:, Toko), Briko-Maplus, Dakine, Dominator,
25:
18:
2192:Glossary of skiing and snowboarding terms
2020:
2010:
1863:"Ski Wax Chemicals Can Build Up in Blood"
1651:. Active Interest Media, Inc.. p. 14
1638:
1636:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1128:
1126:
482:
476:
465:
464:
451:
445:
423:
422:
416:
400:
394:
388:
366:
365:
359:
343:
337:
326:
325:
306:
300:
2126:(Revised ed.). Contemporary Books.
1667:
1665:
1611:(3d ed.). Toronto: Copp C. Pitman.
1486:
1484:
1244:IHP-VII Technical Documents in Hydrology
1205:"A Review of Sintering in Seasonal Snow"
2107:. The Mountaineers Books. p. 140.
1754:Lind, David A.; Sanders, Scott (2013).
1518:Polymers on snow: Towards skiing faster
1275:. W. W. Norton & Company. pp.
898:
896:
892:
787:
528:
2084:Waxing and Care of Skis and Snowboards
1991:Environmental Science & Technology
1890:Environmental Science & Technology
1059:. New Age International. p. 112.
144:âto be minimized with a glide waxâand
1733:"Grip Waxing Your Cross-Country Skis"
934:. Vaage: Skienes Verden. p. 254.
7:
1821:Environmental Science and Technology
1423:friction and high water- repellency.
1413:. New England Nordic Ski Association
1203:Colbeck, Samuel C. (December 1997),
721:Canister of vintage German grip wax.
55:Winter sports equipment and supplies
1962:"PFOS and PFOA General Information"
1375:Ahlbom, Helen (February 29, 1916).
861:per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
433:{\displaystyle \mu _{\mathrm {k} }}
376:{\displaystyle \mu _{\mathrm {s} }}
466:
424:
367:
354:, for the ski/snow contact, where
327:
248:. Hertel also developed the first
60:Main technologies or sub-processes
14:
2124:Alpine Ski Maintenance and Repair
1672:McKenney, Kim (August 22, 2014).
1497:(Doctoral). Mid Sweden University
1311:Colbeck, Samuel C. (April 1992),
1133:Bowden, F.P. (January 30, 1964).
948:SkĂĽrer: Swix Sport International.
515:), owing to temperature changes,
2828:
2827:
2818:
2817:
1589:(1). Sheffield Hallam University
1494:Interfacial kinetic ski friction
850:Health and environmental effects
814:
802:
790:
575:
563:
551:
531:
31:Vintage ski waxes, once used by
16:Material for use on snow runners
1093:. Wiley and Sons. p. 618.
865:perfluorinated carboxylic acids
655:with 25 to 50 carbon atoms and
208:; both were mainly composed of
2854:Non-petroleum based lubricants
1643:Woodward, Bob (January 1985).
1515:Giesbrecht, Jan Lukas (2010).
1349:"Cross country ski technology"
1267:Yankielun, Norbert E. (2007).
1:
869:perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)
1939:Plassmann, Merle M. (2011),
882:International Ski Federation
1678:Cross Country Ski Technique
1438:. skiwax.ca. Archived from
691:lamp, or a "hot box" oven.
287:meltwater retards the ski.
2880:
2122:Masia, Seth (April 1989).
1408:"The science of ski waxes"
1170:Persson, B. N. J. (2000).
739:classic-style waxable skis
500:
274:Science of sliding on snow
136:performance under varying
2813:
2182:
24:
1674:"All About Classic Skis"
831:Wax can be dissolved by
781:use temporarily adhered
190:Argentoratensis LapponiĂŚ
2012:10.1021/acs.est.9b02533
1967:. Public Health England
1577:Coupe, Richard (2008).
1491:Kuzmin, Leonid (2010).
1323:(2): 49, archived from
959:"Longboards at Mammoth"
946:Skismøringens historie.
903:Kuzmin, Leonid (2006).
588:Ski friction properties
404:{\displaystyle F_{n}\,}
134:coefficient of friction
1793:. Swix. Archived from
1406:Talbot, Chris (2008).
734:
722:
653:microcrystalline waxes
487:
434:
405:
377:
348:
283:
185:
2833:Category:Snowboarding
1056:Engineering Mechanics
1035:US patent 5202041
1016:US patent 5114482
728:
720:
488:
435:
406:
378:
349:
281:
264:sintered polyethylene
224:. In the early 1940s
188:Johannes Scheffer in
179:
38:. Left to right are:
2553:Technique / learning
2283:Cross-country skiing
2217:Cross-country skiing
2088:. Wilderness Press.
1607:Rees, David (1981).
961:. Mic Mac Publishing
944:Jakob Vaage (1977).
538:Dendritic snowflakeâ
444:
415:
387:
358:
299:
52:Industrial sector(s)
2320:Olympic disciplines
2103:Brown, Nat (1999).
2003:2019EnST...5313390G
1997:(22): 13390â13397.
1902:2010EnST...44.7723F
1867:Scientific American
1833:2010EnST...44.2150N
1649:Backpacker Magazine
1461:Brown, Nat (1999).
1212:CRREL Report Series
930:Oberleutnant Hals.
863:(PFASs). Levels of
180:Swedish ski racer,
132:, to improve their
91:Glide wax, grip wax
21:
2651:List of ski brands
2423:Ski mountaineering
2378:Para-alpine skiing
2288:Backcountry skiing
1556:10.1007/BF02844115
1544:Sports Engineering
1442:on 21 January 2015
749:: a traditionally
735:
723:
483:
430:
401:
373:
344:
284:
186:
2841:
2840:
2809:
2808:
2391:
2390:
2356:Other disciplines
2306:
2305:
2187:History of skiing
1910:10.1021/es102033k
1896:(19): 7723â7728.
1841:10.1021/es9034733
1618:978-0-7730-4045-8
1183:978-3-540-67192-3
1100:978-0-471-37299-8
1066:978-81-224-0617-7
158:classic technique
115:
114:
96:Leading companies
2871:
2859:Skiing equipment
2831:
2830:
2821:
2820:
2735:
2544:Snowboard racing
2466:Half-pipe skiing
2438:Freestyle skiing
2317:
2262:Ski orienteering
2207:
2165:
2158:
2151:
2142:
2137:
2118:
2099:
2087:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2024:
2014:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1973:
1972:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1945:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1805:
1799:
1792:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1774:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1702:
1693:
1692:
1690:
1689:
1680:. Archived from
1669:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1656:
1640:
1631:
1630:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1523:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1502:
1488:
1479:
1478:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1412:
1403:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1388:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1344:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1308:
1297:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1274:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1241:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1223:
1209:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1130:
1121:
1120:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1073:
1050:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1006:
1005:
1003:
1001:
990:
971:
970:
968:
966:
955:
949:
942:
936:
935:
927:
921:
920:
918:
917:
911:
900:
818:
806:
794:
779:Ski mountaineers
633:Moisture content
579:
567:
555:
535:
492:
490:
489:
484:
481:
480:
471:
470:
469:
456:
455:
439:
437:
436:
431:
429:
428:
427:
410:
408:
407:
402:
399:
398:
382:
380:
379:
374:
372:
371:
370:
353:
351:
350:
345:
342:
341:
332:
331:
330:
317:
316:
142:kinetic friction
111:, Startex, Visti
29:
22:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2837:
2823:Category:Skiing
2805:
2733:
2672:
2604:
2548:
2539:Snowboard cross
2490:
2432:
2428:Telemark skiing
2387:
2351:
2302:
2271:
2245:
2241:Nordic combined
2196:
2178:
2169:
2134:
2121:
2115:
2102:
2096:
2079:
2076:
2074:Further reading
2071:
2062:
2060:
2051:
2050:
2046:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1871:
1869:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1790:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1753:
1752:
1748:
1738:
1736:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1704:
1703:
1696:
1687:
1685:
1671:
1670:
1663:
1654:
1652:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1619:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1592:
1590:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1550:(13): 137â146.
1541:
1540:
1536:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1500:
1498:
1490:
1489:
1482:
1475:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1445:
1443:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1404:
1395:
1386:
1384:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1346:
1345:
1338:
1330:
1328:
1317:CRREL Monograph
1310:
1309:
1300:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1251:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1221:
1219:
1207:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1169:
1168:
1164:
1155:
1153:
1132:
1131:
1124:
1118:
1111:
1101:
1087:Sheppard, Sheri
1085:
1084:
1080:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1014:
1013:
1009:
999:
997:
992:
991:
974:
964:
962:
957:
956:
952:
943:
939:
929:
928:
924:
915:
913:
909:
902:
901:
894:
890:
877:
857:
852:
840:mineral spirits
829:
822:
819:
810:
807:
798:
795:
715:
697:
685:
648:
619:
590:
583:
580:
571:
568:
559:
556:
547:
536:
527:
505:
499:
497:Snow properties
472:
460:
447:
442:
441:
418:
413:
412:
390:
385:
384:
361:
356:
355:
333:
321:
302:
297:
296:
293:
276:
268:perfluorocarbon
206:Sierra Lighting
174:
146:static friction
47:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2877:
2875:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2846:
2845:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2835:
2825:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2749:
2747:Aerial tramway
2743:
2741:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2689:
2683:
2681:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2612:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2500:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2442:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2399:
2397:
2393:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2363:Extreme skiing
2359:
2357:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2323:
2321:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2226:
2225:
2224:
2213:
2211:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2160:
2153:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2133:978-0809247189
2132:
2119:
2113:
2100:
2094:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2057:Chemical Watch
2044:
1977:
1952:
1931:
1879:
1861:Katz, Cheryl.
1853:
1810:
1779:
1767:978-1475743456
1766:
1746:
1724:
1717:
1694:
1661:
1632:
1617:
1599:
1569:
1534:
1507:
1480:
1473:
1453:
1427:
1393:
1367:
1361:
1336:
1298:
1285:
1259:
1250:(1), Paris: 80
1227:
1195:
1182:
1162:
1135:"Ski and Snow"
1122:
1116:
1109:
1099:
1078:
1065:
1045:
1026:
1007:
972:
950:
937:
922:
891:
889:
886:
876:
873:
856:
853:
851:
848:
828:
825:
824:
823:
820:
813:
811:
808:
801:
799:
796:
789:
783:climbing skins
775:
774:
767:
766:
714:
711:
696:
693:
684:
681:
657:paraffin waxes
647:
644:
643:
642:
636:
630:
618:
615:
606:hydrophobicity
589:
586:
585:
584:
581:
574:
572:
569:
562:
560:
557:
550:
548:
544:Wilson Bentley
537:
530:
526:
525:
521:
498:
495:
479:
475:
468:
463:
459:
454:
450:
426:
421:
397:
393:
369:
364:
340:
336:
329:
324:
320:
315:
312:
309:
305:
292:
289:
275:
272:
173:
170:
113:
112:
97:
93:
92:
89:
85:
84:
71:
67:
66:
61:
57:
56:
53:
49:
48:
30:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2876:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2834:
2826:
2824:
2816:
2815:
2812:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2719:Snow grooming
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2695:
2694:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2687:Dry ski slope
2685:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2595:Ski simulator
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2585:Stem christie
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2570:Parallel turn
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2446:Aerial skiing
2444:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2408:Indoor skiing
2406:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2312:Alpine skiing
2309:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2293:Roller skiing
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2227:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2202:Nordic skiing
2199:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2161:
2159:
2154:
2152:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2135:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2114:9780898866001
2110:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2095:9780899973036
2091:
2086:
2085:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2022:11250/2680004
2018:
2013:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1978:
1963:
1956:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1935:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1883:
1880:
1868:
1864:
1857:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1827:(6): 2150â5,
1826:
1822:
1814:
1811:
1800:on 2016-10-08
1796:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1769:
1763:
1759:
1758:
1750:
1747:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1720:
1718:9788190568562
1714:
1710:
1709:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1684:on 2016-01-28
1683:
1679:
1675:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1650:
1646:
1639:
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1633:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1573:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1535:
1520:
1519:
1511:
1508:
1496:
1495:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1474:9780898866001
1470:
1466:
1465:
1457:
1454:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1409:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1362:9781136966590
1358:
1355:, Routledge,
1354:
1350:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1327:on 2016-01-26
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1288:
1286:9780393732153
1282:
1278:
1273:
1272:
1263:
1260:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1231:
1228:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1199:
1196:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1166:
1163:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:New Scientist
1136:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1102:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1082:
1079:
1068:
1062:
1058:
1057:
1049:
1046:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1017:
1011:
1008:
996:
993:Masia, Seth.
989:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
973:
960:
954:
951:
947:
941:
938:
933:
932:Om Skismøring
926:
923:
908:
907:
899:
897:
893:
887:
885:
883:
874:
872:
870:
867:, especially
866:
862:
854:
849:
847:
845:
841:
837:
834:
826:
817:
812:
805:
800:
793:
788:
786:
784:
780:
772:
769:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
745:
744:
743:
740:
732:
727:
719:
712:
710:
707:
703:
695:Base material
694:
692:
690:
682:
680:
678:
674:
673:fluorocarbons
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
645:
640:
637:
634:
631:
628:
625:
624:
623:
616:
614:
611:
607:
603:
601:
594:
587:
578:
573:
566:
561:
554:
549:
545:
541:
534:
529:
523:
522:
520:
518:
514:
510:
504:
496:
494:
477:
473:
461:
457:
452:
448:
419:
395:
391:
362:
338:
334:
322:
318:
313:
310:
307:
303:
290:
288:
280:
273:
271:
269:
265:
261:
256:
251:
247:
243:
237:
235:
231:
230:Martin Matsbo
227:
223:
218:
213:
211:
207:
203:
197:
195:
191:
183:
182:Martin Matsbo
178:
171:
169:
167:
161:
159:
155:
154:cross-country
151:
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23:
2801:Surface lift
2779:Gondola lift
2667:
2600:Skate skiing
2496:Snowboarding
2413:Night skiing
2396:Other skiing
2383:Speed skiing
2368:Glade skiing
2332:Giant slalom
2276:Recreational
2257:Ski marathon
2176:snowboarding
2123:
2104:
2083:
2061:. Retrieved
2059:. 2019-11-28
2056:
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1383:(in Swedish)
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1325:the original
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1176:. Springer.
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827:Wax solvents
776:
770:
751:paraffin wax
746:
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250:fluorocarbon
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234:paraffin wax
222:Peter Ăstbye
214:
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117:
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99:Brav Group (
74:Paraffin wax
43:
39:
2796:Hybrid lift
2560:Carved turn
2509:Backcountry
2418:Ski archery
2267:Ski touring
2229:Ski jumping
2210:Competitive
1436:"Glide Wax"
875:Environment
755:freeze-thaw
729:Soviet-era
683:Application
639:Temperature
517:sublimation
260:Enichem SpA
217:hydrophobic
168:technique.
2848:Categories
2757:detachable
2724:Snowmaking
2714:Ski tunnel
2590:Ski school
2580:Snowplough
2575:Pivot turn
2534:Slopestyle
2519:Freeriding
2486:Slopestyle
2476:Ski ballet
2461:Freeskiing
2456:Freeriding
2373:Heliskiing
2234:Ski flying
2222:Paralympic
2063:2019-12-13
1971:2016-01-23
1804:2016-01-20
1773:2016-01-30
1739:11 October
1688:2016-01-22
1655:2016-01-16
1593:2012-10-20
1528:2012-10-20
1501:2012-10-20
1446:11 October
1417:2016-01-18
1387:2016-03-11
1331:2016-01-19
1292:2016-01-23
1254:2016-01-24
1222:2016-01-24
1189:2016-01-23
1156:2016-01-21
1072:2007-10-21
1000:11 October
916:2012-10-20
888:References
844:citrus oil
706:micrometre
677:molybdenum
646:Properties
540:micrograph
501:See also:
270:segment".
246:Hertel Wax
242:surfactant
202:Black Dope
126:snowboards
105:Hertel Wax
88:Product(s)
40:grip waxes
36:ski troops
2764:Funicular
2752:Chairlift
2739:Ski lifts
2697:Superpipe
2692:Half-pipe
2680:amenities
2658:Snowboard
2609:Equipment
2565:Jump turn
2529:Half-pipe
2524:Freestyle
2481:Ski cross
2298:Skijoring
2250:Endurance
2031:0013-936X
1918:0013-936X
1627:300405310
1564:109349642
1151:0262-4079
833:non-polar
763:colophony
617:Glide wax
509:dendrites
462:μ
420:μ
363:μ
323:μ
210:sperm oil
130:toboggans
70:Feedstock
64:Tribology
44:glide wax
33:U.S. Army
2789:tricable
2709:Ski area
2616:Bindings
2403:Biathlon
2347:Combined
2342:Downhill
2039:31691564
1926:20831156
1849:20158198
1381:Nyteknik
836:solvents
747:Hard wax
713:Grip wax
689:infrared
661:graphite
291:Friction
226:Astra AB
2784:bicable
2774:Funitel
2769:Funifor
2631:Monoski
2514:Big air
2451:Big air
2337:Super-G
1999:Bibcode
1898:Bibcode
1872:4 April
1829:Bibcode
771:Klister
669:silicon
172:History
166:classic
118:Ski wax
20:Ski wax
2678:Resort
2626:Helmet
2504:Alpine
2327:Slalom
2172:Skiing
2130:
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1041:
1022:
855:Health
675:, and
665:teflon
150:alpine
128:, and
78:resins
2864:Waxes
2729:Trail
2704:Piste
2641:Skins
2636:Poles
2621:Boots
2471:Mogul
1965:(PDF)
1944:(PDF)
1798:(PDF)
1791:(PDF)
1735:. REI
1560:S2CID
1522:(PDF)
1411:(PDF)
1240:(PDF)
1208:(PDF)
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910:(PDF)
838:like
759:resin
731:Visti
109:Skigo
2663:Suit
2646:Skis
2174:and
2128:ISBN
2109:ISBN
2090:ISBN
2035:PMID
2027:ISSN
1922:PMID
1914:ISSN
1874:2017
1845:PMID
1762:ISBN
1741:2014
1713:ISBN
1623:OCLC
1613:ISBN
1469:ISBN
1448:2014
1357:ISBN
1281:ISBN
1218:(10)
1178:ISBN
1147:ISSN
1095:ISBN
1061:ISBN
1002:2014
967:2012
761:and
610:PTFE
503:Snow
255:Swix
204:and
194:Sami
152:and
138:snow
122:skis
101:Swix
2668:Wax
2017:hdl
2007:doi
1906:doi
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