Slavery in China - Knowledge (XXG)

1779: 2316:, the age of the slave and how many years the slave was to work for the new family, which was typically around 10–15 years. It also stated how much money was being exchanged for the slave. Most contracts for slave girls had a clause that the master was to choose a mate for the girl following the end of her time working. After the agreement was made, the slave was then transported, cleaned, trained, inspected and brought to their new master's home to start work. These contracts were often known as "white contracts", meaning contracts meant for common goods as opposed to "red contracts" which were reserved for more important matters such as land. 54: 1770:) can also be roughly translated into 'debtor', 'dependent', or 'subject'. Despite a few attempts to ban it, slavery existed continuously throughout pre-modern China, sometimes serving a key role in politics, economics, and historical events. However slaves in China were a very small part of the population due to a large peasant population that mitigated the need for large scale slave labor. The slave population included war prisoners and kidnapped victims or people who had been sold. 4537: 1894:(475–221 BC) saw a decline in slavery from previous centuries, although it was still widespread during the period. Since the introduction of private ownership of land in the state of Lu in 594 BC, which brought a system of taxation on private land, and saw the emergence of a system of landlords and peasants, the system of slavery began to later decline over the following centuries, as other states followed suit. 1992: 4547: 1801:, slaves generally consisted of war captives or criminals, although peasants lived in a similar condition of perpetual servitude and were unable to leave their land or own it. Some people deliberately became slaves to escape imperial taxation, but they were still considered to be higher in status than traditional slaves, and inhabited a position somewhere between a slave and a commoner. From the 2192:. They possessed about two million slaves upon their conquest of China. However, like previous dynasties, the Qing rulers soon saw the advantages of phasing out slavery, and gradually introduced reforms turning slaves and serfs into peasants. Laws passed in 1660 and 1681 forbade landowners from selling slaves with the land they farmed and prohibited physical abuse of slaves by landowners. The 2112:. Some temple slaves were criminals, orphans (who were allowed to enter the monastery in adulthood), or previous tenants of land donated to the monasteries. However, a majority were laborers left unemployed during consolidations of estates by the monasteries who sold themselves to earn a livelihood. Temple slaves were permitted to marry each other, but not free peasants. 1932:, although domestic servants retained their status. The Han dynasty promulgated laws to limit the possession of slaves: each king or duke was allowed a maximum of 200 slaves, an imperial princess was allowed a maximum of 100 slaves, other officials were limited to 30 slaves each. Sometimes instead of the death penalty, felons receive punished with castration during the 2364:) however were unpaid and forced to remain on duty at all times. The children of a woman slave did not necessarily inherit her slave status, but there was a high possibility of becoming a slave themselves to avoid starvation. Oftentimes, women who found work outside of their family found themselves vulnerable to kidnapping, trafficking, and sexual violence. 3523: 3531: 1830:, slavery of Chinese increased. These Chinese slaves to Mongols or Manchus were called bondsmen and became personal retainers of their imperial overlords. Some attained high positions and led other Chinese slaves. In the 19th century, due to concerted efforts to end the African slave trade, large numbers of Chinese laborers known as 2383:

YA-TOU 丫頭. Slave girl, a female slave. Slave girls are very common in China; nearly every Chinese family owns one or more slave girls generally bought from the girl's parents, but sometimes also obtained from other parties. It is a common thing for well-to-do people to present a couple of slave girls

2299:

consisted of adolescents and young adults. Chinese law stated that families could only sell their children under the condition that doing so would save the rest of their family from starvation. Despite this law, the restrictions of human sales were rarely enforced. On some occasions, slaves were born

2107:

monastic slavery grew in the Tang dynasty as monasteries became increasingly wealthy and acquired more land. Monks were not generally required to work the fields they owned, with cultivation of farmland left in the hands of free laymen employed by the temples and temple slaves, although temple slaves

2064:

The law of the tang dynasty forbade enslaving free people, but allowed enslavement of criminals, foreigners, and orphans. Free people could however willingly sell themselves. The primary source of slaves was southern tribes, and young slave girls were the most desired. Although various officials such

1834:

were exported to replace slave labor. They were transported in cargo ships with conditions and practices nearly identical to the former African slave trade. Visitors to late 19th century China found little difference between the poor free and the slaves, both of which were treated as hired laborers.

2421:

was a regular part of Chinese history. A slave who had sexual relations willingly or unwillingly with her master was considered to be a second wife rather than a slave, regardless of whether the master himself thought of her as such. A slave could also become a concubine if she was sold or given to

2328:

Punishment and abuse were regular occurrences for slaves in China and could sometimes result in extreme permanent injuries or even death in some cases. Abuse was rarely reported or looked into. The only instances where slave abuse was questioned was if the family or masters were under investigation

2466:

Slavery is prohibited in modern China, but there are still some people working in slave-like conditions under illegal circumstances. In 2007 and 2011, disabled men in central China were enslaved to work in kilns. However, Chinese government has made efforts to eliminate various kinds of slavery.

2346:

were given the hardest and most demanding tasks. After their servitude, male slaves were either released from the main house to survive on their own, or they could have marriages arranged for them if their masters considered them to be extremely loyal or hard working. Those who were chosen to be

2341:

system in China's history, boys were bought and sold for one of two reasons: to become an heir to a family with no son or to become a slave. Males were always in high demand due to their ability to become heirs and their higher physical capabilities. Therefore, they were four to five times more

2271:

were enslaved by the Mongol rulers. According to Japanese historians Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), there were also a certain number of Mongolian slaves owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan. Moreover, there is no evidence that Han Chinese suffered particularly cruel abuse.

2052:

products”, They always had a low social status, and even if they were deliberately murdered, the perpetrators received only a year in prison, and were punished even when they reported the crimes of their lords. However, when the stable period comes, perhaps because the increase in the number of

2232:

for slaves. Only 270 or 259 Japanese on eight ships were returned when Goryeo managed to intercept them. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374

1850:

ordered the nationalization of large estates and their redistribution to farmers. Part of his reform was changing the institution of slavery so that they would become tax payers, since some impoverished farmers sold themselves or their children into slavery. In the 13th century AD, the jurist

2286:

Mongol military families in China during the Yuan dynasty themselves became "victims of destitution enslavement" and sold their own daughters and sons as slaves to their Han Chinese subjects due to many Mongols becoming poor from the time of Kublai Khan in 1290 to Shiedebala in 1323.

2237:, the Mongol invasions of Japan in addition to Japan viewing the Jurchens as "Tatar" "barbarians" after copying China's barbarian-civilized distinction, may have played a role in Japan's antagonistic views against Manchus and hostility towards them in later centuries such as when the 2463:. The descendants of the Han slaves, known as the White Yi (白彝), outnumbered the Black Yi (黑彝) aristocracy by ten to one. There was a saying that can be translated as: "The worst insult to a Nuosu is to call him a 'Han'." (To do so implied that the Nuosu's ancestors were slaves.) 2384:

to a daughter as part of her marriage dowery. Nearly all prostitutes are slaves. It is, however, customary with respectable people to release their slave girls when marriageable. Some people sell their slave girls to men wanting a wife for themselves or for a son of theirs.

1813:

in the 12th century. Advances in fertilizer, hydraulic, and agricultural technologies allowed the plantation of commercial crops such as medical herbs, mulberry, and cotton. The small land to population ratio enticed slaves to run away and seek better employment. During the

2355:

Women slaves were distinguished by their marital status rather than what kind of work they did. Married women who were slaves were similar to employees; they were paid wages and were free to leave the family house when they were not working. Unmarried women (called

1983:(r. 9–23 AD) usurped the Chinese throne and, to deprive landowning families of their power, instituted a series of sweeping reforms, including the abolition of slavery and radical land reform. Slavery was reinstated in AD 12 before his assassination in AD 23. 2233:

Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down. Traumatic memories of the Jurchen raids on Japan in the 1019

2275:

Korean women were viewed as having white and delicate skin (肌膚玉雪發雲霧) by Hao Jing 郝經 (1223–1275), a Yuan scholar, and it was highly desired and prestigious to own Korean female servants among the "Northerner" nobility in the Yuan dynasty as mentioned in

2176:

castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs to give them to Yongle. Yongle said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.

2200:'s "Yongzheng emancipation" between 1723 and 1730 sought to free all slaves to strengthen his authority through a kind of social leveling that created an undifferentiated class of free subjects under the throne, freeing the vast majority of slaves. 1552: 2430:) as he desired. On some occasions, the wife would select a concubine for her husband for the goal of getting a son and heir to the family line. Whether a child was born from the wife or a concubine, the wife was considered to be the mother. 2347:

married would be provided with an 'unlucky' woman, usually a person with disabilities or the daughter of another slave. If a male slave had a son, his slave status was inherited and the son remained the property of his father's master.

2214:

In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to

2041:

dynasties, Due to years of poor harvests, the influx of foreign tribes, and the resulting wars, The number of slaves exploded. They became a class and were called "jianmin (贱民)", The word literally means "inferior person". As stated in

1809:, slavery expanded beyond criminals and war captives. The Qin used large scale slave labor for public works such as land reclamation, road construction, and canal building. Slavery declined during the economic boom of the 2219:

where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.

2180:

Later Ming rulers, as a way of limiting slavery because of their inability to prohibit it, passed a decree that limited the number of slaves that could be held per household and extracted a severe tax from slave owners.

1863:

made similar attempts to abolish slavery. In 1909, the Qing officially abolished slavery, but due to internal turmoil and its demise, the institution persisted until 1949 when the People's Republic of China was founded.

3472:

Funada Yoshiyuki, "The Image of the Semu People: Mongols, Chinese, Southerners, and Various Other Peoples under the Mongol Empire", Historical and Philological Studies of China's Western Regions, p199-221,

1968:), Murder against slaves was as taboo as murder against free people, and perpetrators were always severely punished. Ancient China can be said to be very distinctive compared to other countries of the 1887:

engaged in frequent raids of surrounding states, obtaining captives who would be killed in ritual sacrifices. Scholars disagree as to whether these victims were also used as a source of slave labor.

1940:

laws, the Han dynasty set in place rules penalizing criminals doing three years of hard labor or sentenced to castration by having their families seized and kept as property by the government.

1901:(221–206 BC) confiscated property and enslaved families as punishment. Large numbers of slaves were used by the Qin government to construct large-scale infrastructure projects, including 1673: 2452:

trade in girls, which was a matter given international attention at this point. Hong Kong refused to provide any information with the motivation that there was no slavery in Hong Kong.

2324:

Slaves had very poor living conditions with little time to themselves and a small living space often shared with other slaves. They were confined to small mud or brick huts known as

1537: 1068: 1778: 2130:'s (960–1279 AD) warfare against northern and western neighbors produced many captives on both sides, but reforms were introduced to ease the transition from bondage to freedom. 2023:, but they were recognized as the owner of property, and armed in time of war to serve as their master's private soldiers. The large decline in demographic figures during the 1422: 794: 531: 1158: 799: 2342:

expensive than female slaves and were only owned by the elite families that could afford them; daughters and even land were sold before males of the family. Male slaves (

2470: 491: 1766:

has taken various forms throughout history. Slavery was nominally abolished in 1910, although the practice continued until at least 1949. The Chinese term for slave (

2280:'s (shùndì 順帝) Xù Zīzhì Tōngjiàn (續資治通鑒): (京師達官貴人，必得高麗女，然後為名家) and the Caomuzi (草木子) by Ye Ziqi (葉子奇) which was cited by the Jingshi ouji (京師偶記引) by Chai Sang (柴桑). 1838:

A handful of emperors and officials throughout Chinese history have made efforts to limit or outlaw slavery. None were successful. In 100 BC, the Confucian scholar

2380:. He was a person of considerable ability, but did not appear to care about being free. Female slaves are very common all over China, and are generally called ... 3741: 846: 2308:

If a slave was bought from their birth family and sold, a slave contract was created by the selling agency or agent (more commonly known as "people sellers" or

1392: 1542: 873: 3450:

Japan and Its East Asian Neighbors: Japan's Perception of China and Korea and the Making of Foreign Policy Fromo the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century

2312:). The contract stated the name of the person offering the slave, the name of the person buying the slave, the name of the selling agent, the name of the 1619: 371: 2329:

by the police for another offence. After a master dies, his slaves are distributed evenly among the rest of the family members like all other property.

1793:, which means "base" or "mean". Direct equivalents to large scale slavery such as classical Greece and Rome did not exist in ancient China. During the 821: 1592: 1412: 585: 4451: 3316:

Brown, Delmer Myers; Hall, John Whitney; Shively, Donald H.; McCullough, William H.; Jansen, Marius B.; Yamamura, Kōzō; Duus, Peter, eds. (1988).

1750: 2168:

for doing it once the Ming government heard of the event. Since 329 of the boys died, they had to castrate even more. On 30 Jan 1406, the Ming

1878: 856: 274: 3772: 3717: 3494: 2968: 1434: 1111: 883: 4176: 4012: 3888: 1626: 1587: 1230: 2686:

Schottenhammer, Angela (1 August 2003). "Slaves and Forms of Slavery in Late Imperial China (Seventeenth to Early Twentieth Centuries)".

2564: 4426: 3500: 2631: 2532: 1668: 1305: 965: 816: 612: 521: 2594: 3639: 3612: 3585: 3558: 1688: 1382: 1136: 4471: 3679: 3361: 3300: 3271: 2770: 2647: 2606: 2576: 2548: 1510: 1387: 811: 580: 447: 4502: 1357: 53: 2368:"Slavery exists in China, especially in Canton and Peking ... I have known a male slave. He is named Wang and is a native of 2109: 1641: 851: 836: 782: 467: 457: 452: 281: 137: 2399:, another died in Hongkong; the other I gave in marriage to a faithful servant of mine. Some are worth much money at Shanghai." 2030: 1636: 1407: 213: 3177: 1547: 3816:

Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 101

3807:

Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 109

3414: 3387: 3327: 3244: 2149: 1106: 1094: 674: 486: 132: 4512: 3351: 3347: 3261: 3234: 3317: 3288: 2376:

in the house of his original master's son, and with his own family of four persons acknowledged to me that he was a slave,

1937: 1678: 1461: 322: 2295:

Slaves could either be bought and sold to their masters or inherit their role through birth. The majority of the Chinese

3863: 2445: 2413: 2253: 1859:

ordered an end to all slavery, but in practice slavery continued without heed to his commands. In the 18th century, the

1683: 1527: 1397: 1058: 826: 806: 366: 334: 1995:

A contract from the Tang dynasty that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five

1743: 1693: 1417: 1335: 462: 243: 63: 2245:(Ezochi) had a land bridge to Tartary (Orankai) where Manchus lived and thought the Manchus could invade Japan. The 1855:

promulgated a policy limiting the number of slaves owned by officials and commoners to 30. In the 14th century, the

4371: 2482: 2263:(1271–1368 AD) expanded slavery and implemented harsher terms of service. In the process of the Mongol invasion of 2141:(1368–1644 AD) sought to abolish all forms of slavery but in practice, slavery continued through the Ming dynasty. 1602: 1454: 1439: 1330: 526: 196: 19: 4261: 2034: 4571: 4507: 1902: 1698: 1597: 1128: 1116: 706: 679: 184: 4466: 4193: 4169: 3430: 3404: 3377: 2439: 2165: 1478: 1347: 900: 689: 174: 75: 4476: 354: 4421: 4386: 4341: 4031: 2108:

were a far more significant share of the labor force, with 150,000 such slaves being emancipated during the

2053:

slaves slowed down again, the penalties for crimes against them became harsh again. For example, the famous

1996: 1663: 1402: 1352: 1280: 1053: 831: 775: 758: 189: 4431: 4406: 4321: 4301: 4251: 4221: 4211: 3670:

Watson, James L., ed. (1980). "Transactions in People: The Chinese Market in Slaves, Servants, and Heirs".

951: 4517: 4396: 4311: 4306: 4201: 3453: 1736: 1705: 1210: 863: 711: 435: 401: 396: 4461: 4576: 4351: 4206: 1929: 1891: 1572: 1427: 1340: 1325: 1007: 995: 741: 726: 511: 286: 208: 4481: 4286: 4246: 3230: 4522: 2077:, banned the practice, the trade continued. Other peoples sold to Chinese included female people from 1961:'s son Wang Huo murdered a slave, Wang Mang severely criticized him and forced him to commit suicide”( 4391: 4271: 3023: 2418: 2027:

period to the Three Kingdoms period, is seen as being related to the emergence of this status class.

1921: 1710: 1614: 1577: 1505: 1449: 1318: 1275: 1089: 1019: 694: 474: 376: 260: 167: 3458: 4491: 4411: 4366: 4346: 4336: 4236: 4162: 2300:

into the family house by an existing slave thereby becoming a slave under that household by birth.

2241:

viewed the unification of Manchu tribes as a threat to Japan. The Japanese mistakenly thought that

1783: 1198: 1178: 1063: 1048: 917: 888: 878: 768: 716: 684: 481: 339: 307: 302: 255: 112: 4546: 2019:(部曲), was developed took to the social stage. They were legally subordinate to their masters, and 4436: 4331: 4216: 3943: 3778: 3735: 2711: 2246: 1444: 1290: 1265: 1255: 1220: 1215: 1183: 1148: 1141: 1082: 1075: 932: 751: 746: 736: 506: 359: 317: 312: 265: 233: 223: 160: 2148:

sent 300 black slaves as tribute to the Ming dynasty in 1381. When the Ming dynasty crushed the

381: 327: 2960: 4416: 4381: 4316: 4296: 4231: 4226: 3992: 3935: 3768: 3723: 3713: 3685: 3675: 3635: 3629: 3608: 3581: 3575: 3554: 3548: 3490: 3410: 3383: 3357: 3323: 3296: 3267: 3240: 3192: 3188: 2984: 2964: 2789: 2766: 2762: 2703: 2643: 2628: 2602: 2572: 2561: 2544: 2529: 2211:

abolished slavery and prostitution in the territory under his control in the 1850s and 1860s.

2204: 2197: 2121: 1860: 1843: 1532: 1250: 1245: 1188: 1173: 1153: 975: 970: 905: 868: 701: 667: 496: 349: 238: 117: 18:

This article is about slavery in China in the pre-modern era. For modern illegal slavery, see

3602: 3486:

Materials for a Genealogy of the Niohuru Clan: With Introductory Remarks on Manchu Onomastics

3484: 2590: 2156:

1,565 Miao boys, which resulted in the deaths of 329 of them. They turned the survivors into

4441: 4401: 4376: 4356: 4291: 4266: 4256: 3982: 3974: 3927: 3760: 2952: 2801: 2695: 2487: 1910: 1722: 1300: 1295: 1285: 1260: 1225: 1193: 1163: 1036: 1024: 1002: 927: 763: 731: 33: 2188:(1644–1912 AD) initially oversaw an expansion in slavery and states of bondage such as the 4361: 4326: 4281: 4276: 4185: 3550:

The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture, Commerce and Human Migration

2635: 2598: 2568: 2536: 2422:

another master as a gift. According to Chinese law, a man could have only one legal wife (

2238: 2000: 1969: 1631: 1522: 1517: 1270: 1240: 1235: 958: 922: 721: 639: 344: 90: 2459:(also known as Nuosu) of China terrorized Sichuan to rob and enslave non-Nuosu including 2277: 4026: 3322:. Vol. 2 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 95. 2193: 2173: 2169: 2134: 2012: 1953: 1856: 1715: 1609: 501: 179: 142: 100: 3708:

Stapleton, Kristin (17 August 2016). "1. Mingfeng: The Life of a Chinese Slave Girl".

2926: 4565: 4540: 3947: 3782: 2953: 2901: 2755: 2715: 2100: 2020: 1884: 1839: 1794: 1653: 1582: 1029: 1012: 787: 617: 607: 391: 41: 3196: 2989: 2296: 2264: 2260: 2234: 2229: 2216: 2208: 2185: 2138: 2127: 2104: 2078: 2054: 1991: 1973: 1827: 1819: 1810: 1806: 1798: 1658: 1495: 1471: 1377: 1370: 1101: 629: 602: 565: 543: 430: 147: 127: 105: 95: 85: 80: 70: 3916:"Brides, Bruises and the Border: The Trafficking of North Korean Women into China" 910: 2865: 2840: 2164:

Governor who ordered the castration of the Miao was reprimanded and condemned by

4550: 2409: 2268: 2038: 2024: 2015:

period (220–280 AD), a social status intermediate between freedom and slavery——

1963: 1933: 1925: 1917: 1898: 1802: 1789:

In Chinese society, slaves were grouped under a category of people known as the

1500: 1488: 841: 644: 634: 592: 406: 2805: 3962: 3764: 2699: 2460: 2338: 2153: 1852: 1648: 945: 649: 516: 3996: 3978: 3939: 3727: 2707: 2591:

Code, Custom, and Legal Practice in China: the Qing and the Republic Compared

2066: 2016: 3915: 2456: 2373: 2313: 2094: 2090: 2082: 2058: 2049: 2043: 1980: 1958: 1948: 1847: 1846:

to limit the amount of land and slaves whom people could own. In 9 AD,

893: 558: 420: 3931: 3689: 3533:

Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library)

575: 3236:

The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan, Volume 1

2672: 2543:, Vol. 1, p. 154 – 156. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. 2449: 2396: 2242: 2189: 2070: 1972:(In most cases, lords were free to kill their slaves) in terms of slaves 1944: 1483: 1041: 985: 937: 597: 442: 297: 203: 3889:"North Korean women fleeing to China forced into marriages, sex slavery" 2252:

sent a message to Korea via Tsushima offering help to Korea against the

2388: 2161: 2074: 1831: 1823: 1815: 1466: 548: 228: 45: 3987: 4098:

Continuity and Change in Cultural Adaptation to Mountain Environments

2249: 2157: 2086: 2004: 1168: 990: 570: 553: 415: 250: 218: 23: 3759:. University of California Press. 31 December 2019. pp. 51–78. 3334: 3001: 3088: 2473:. Many have been subjected to forced marriages and sexual slavery. 4154: 3220:

Yongwei, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0188-2740-032, QL 43.3.30 (26 April 1778).

2471:

North Korean women have been subject to human trafficking in China

2392: 2369: 1990: 1906: 1777: 425: 411: 386: 3295:. Sook Pyo Lee, Suzanne Lee. Homa & Sekey Books. p. 75. 3604:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420

3577:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420

3346:

Adolphson, Mikael S.; Kamens, Edward; Matsumoto, Stacie (2007).

2145: 292: 122: 4158: 3293:

The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism

1943:

As can be seen from the some historical records as “Duansheng,

3452:(Dissertation). The Ohio State University. pp. 163, 164. 3403:

Embree, Ainslie Thomas (1988). Embree, Ainslie Thomas (ed.).

2792:(2002). "Slavery in Early China: a socio-cultural approach". 2093:) were eroticized in a poem by tang dynasty literary person 2061:, she was publicly executed for murdering her own slave. 4125:

The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics

2085:

were sought after by the wealthy. The female slaves from

3185:

Asia Research Institute National University of Singapore

3047: 3045: 2048:: “Slaves and inferior people are legally equivalent to 3239:(reprint ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 134. 3266:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 102, 101, 100. 2571:, p. 158. Stanford University Press (Stanford), 1986. 2283:

Mongols brought Muslims as slaves with them to China.

2196:

freed all the Manchus' hereditary slaves in 1685. The

1913:. Slave labor was quite extensive during this period. 2601:, p. 17. Stanford University Press (Stanford), 2001. 2562:

Man and Land in Chinese History: an Economic Analysis

1936:

were also used as slave labor. Deriving from earlier

3864:"Another Slavery Scandal Uncovered in Central China" 2736: 2734: 2728:

The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, p. 145

1423:

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

4490: 4450: 4192: 4107:

Chinese eunuchs: the structure of intimate politics

3287:Kang, Chae-ŏn; Kang, Jae-eun; Lee, Suzanne (2006). 3263:

Gateway to Japan: Hakata in War and Peace, 500–1300

2395:each, less than fifteen dollars. One I released in 4071:Women and Gender in Contemporary Chinese Societies 3409:(2, illustrated ed.). Scribner. p. 371. 3350:; Adolphson, Mikael S.; Matsumoto, Stacie (eds.). 2754: 2740:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, p. 5 4062:Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty 3710:Fact in fiction: 1920s China and Ba Jin's Family 2669:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery:A-K 1538:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution 4091:, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 3117:. Princeton University Press. pp. 269–271. 2985:Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion 2387:I have bought three different girls; two from 2320:Living conditions of slaves in premodern China 1951:confiscated because he killed a female slave”( 4170: 4134:Materials for a Genealogy of the Niohuru Clan 3178:"Ryukyu in the Ming Reign Annals 1380s–1580s" 1744: 8: 3674:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 3356:. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 376. 2959:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2011. p. 2888: 2757:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery 2640:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery 1543:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom 3631:Slavery and Bonded Labor in Asia, 1250–1900 3580:. Cambridge University Press. p. 289. 3382:. Vol. 2. Kodansha. 1983. p. 79. 3151: 2842:Journal of East Asian archaeology, Volume 3 2812:Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (eds.). 2748: 2746: 4177: 4163: 4155: 3963:"North Korean Refugees in Northeast China" 3740:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3607:. Cambridge University Press. p. 87. 3489:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 35–. 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2021:without the right to manage their farmland 1751: 1737: 28: 3986: 3457: 2955:Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition 2541:Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition 2524: 2522: 1928:agricultural workers enslaved during the 3163: 2667:Junius P. Rodriguez. "China, medieval". 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2291:Conditions of slavery in premodern China 1548:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf 1413:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery 1393:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 3757:Women in China's Long Twentieth Century 3406:Encyclopedia of Asian History, Volume 1 3063: 3051: 2839:Society for East Asian Studies (2001). 2623: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2498: 40: 4089:The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han 3825: 3733: 3115:Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey 2444:The report of slavery in China to the 2426:), but could have as many concubines ( 1879:Society and culture of the Han dynasty 4051:Barbieri-Low, Anthony Jerome (2007), 3849: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3651: 2826: 1435:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention 1112:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea 22:. For modern legal penal labour, see 7: 3920:SAIS Review of International Affairs 3672:Asian and African systems of slavery 3353:Heian Japan, Centers and Peripheries 3260:Batten, Bruce L. (31 January 2006). 3139: 3127: 3075: 2870:. Saint Catherine Press. p. 144 1920:(206 BC – 220 AD), one of 1627:Slave marriages in the United States 1231:Human trafficking in the Middle East 4080:Journal of Asian History, Volume 25 2864:History of Science Society (1952). 2814:Critical Readings on Global Slavery 2455:Throughout the 1930s and 1940s the 1979:In the year 9 AD, the Emperor 966:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia 4046:, University of Pennsylvania Press 3862:Ramzy, Austin (8 September 2011). 3837: 3525:Memoirs of the Research Department 3503:from the original on 24 April 2017 2642:, Vol. 1, p. 146. ABC-CLIO, 1997. 2071:Management and Strategy Ambassador 1868:History of slavery in China by era 1620:last survivors of American slavery 14: 3187:. Working Paper Series (93): 75. 2794:Journal of East Asian Archaeology 2448:(TSC) of 1924-1926 described the 581:Field slaves in the United States 448:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate 4545: 4536: 4535: 4127:, University of California Press 4055:, University of Washington Press 4053:Artisans in early imperial China 3961:Lankov, Andrei (November 2004). 2110:Huichang Persecution of Buddhism 458:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 453:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 282:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 52: 4143:The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty 3536:. Toyo Bunko. 1928. p. 63. 3437:. No. 198–201. 朝鮮學會. 2006. 1954:Han dynasty records of DongGuan 1408:Committee of Experts on Slavery 959:East, Southeast, and South Asia 4503:British Indian Ocean Territory 4141:Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996), 3379:Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan 3319:The Cambridge History of Japan 2777:chinese slaves mongols manchu. 2089:(ancient tribe in the area of 1107:Slave raiding in Easter Island 1: 4044:Ethnic Identity in Tang China 3089:""越婢脂肉滑"的意思及全诗出处和翻译赏析 - 古诗句网" 2753:Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997). 2254:1627 Manchu invasion of Korea 4118:, Princeton University Press 4032:Resources in other libraries 3553:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 2446:Temporary Slavery Commission 2414:Traditional Chinese marriage 1398:Temporary Slavery Commission 1059:Slavery in the Mongol Empire 4123:Schafer, Edward H. (1963), 4087:Lewis, Mark Edward (2007), 3176:Wade, Geoff (1 July 2007). 2045:The commentary of Tang Code 1418:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery 463:Volga Bulgarian slave trade 4593: 4114:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), 4105:Mitamura, Taisuke (1970), 4096:Lozny, Ludomir R. (2013), 4042:Abramson, Marc S. (2008), 3796:Mesny's Chinese Miscellany 2806:10.1163/156852301100402723 2483:History of slavery in Asia 2437: 2407: 2224:Slavery by non-Han Chinese 2172:expressed horror when the 2119: 1876: 1782:Slave contract written in 1603:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 1440:Anti-Slavery International 1205:North Africa and West Asia 20:Human trafficking in China 17: 4531: 4027:Resources in your library 3765:10.1525/9780520916128-003 3448:Mizuno, Norihito (2004). 2700:10.1080/01440390308559161 2228:In 1019, Jurchen pirates 2203:Among his other reforms, 1699:Emancipation Proclamation 1371:Opposition and resistance 1129:Sex trafficking in Europe 1117:Blackbirding in Polynesia 680:Trans-Saharan slave trade 4252:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 4132:Toh, Hoong Teik (2005), 4078:Harrasowitz, O. (1991), 3979:10.1525/as.2004.44.6.856 3914:Davis, Kathleen (2006). 3798:, Vol. IV, 1905, p. 399. 3712:. Stanford, California. 3434: 2927:"漢書/卷099上 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆" 2440:Sex trafficking in China 2166:Emperor Yingzong of Ming 1966:: Biography of Wang Mang 1479:Compensated emancipation 690:Indian Ocean slave trade 4513:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 3547:Liu, Yingsheng (2008). 3483:Hoong Teik Toh (2005). 3113:Ch'en, Kenneth (1964). 3024:"北夢瑣言/卷九 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆" 2688:Slavery & Abolition 1403:1926 Slavery Convention 1159:Germany in World War II 776:North and South America 298:Contract of manumission 4116:The Languages of China 4060:Benn, Charles (2002), 3932:10.1353/sais.2006.0004 3634:. BRILL. p. 121. 3628:Wyatt, Don J. (2021). 3601:Biran, Michal (2021). 3574:Wyatt, Don J. (2021). 2597:17 August 2014 at the 2401: 2031:the period of division 2008: 1947:of Shouxiang, had his 1786: 884:British Virgin Islands 436:Circassian slave trade 402:Safavid imperial harem 397:Ottoman Imperial Harem 4136:, Harrassowitz Verlag 4069:Du, Shanshan (2013), 2810:p. 301. reprinted in 2567:12 April 2016 at the 2530:China and Antislavery 2366: 2120:Further information: 1994: 1930:Warring States period 1924:'s first acts was to 1892:Warring States period 1877:Further information: 1781: 1123:Europe and North Asia 1083:Australia and Oceania 783:Pre-Columbian America 355:Slave raid of Suðuroy 287:Slavery in al-Andalus 209:Black Sea slave trade 138:21st-century jihadism 4427:United Arab Emirates 3522:Tōyō Bunko (Japan). 3004:(in Chinese (China)) 2845:. Brill. p. 299 2761:. ABC-CLIO. p. 2629:China, Late Imperial 2627:Rodriguez, Junius. " 2419:Concubinage in China 2256:. Korea refused it. 1578:Indentured servitude 1506:Underground Railroad 1306:United Arab Emirates 695:Zanzibar slave trade 662:By country or region 475:Atlantic slave trade 377:Ma malakat aymanukum 261:Venetian slave trade 4454:limited recognition 3231:Takekoshi, Yosaburō 3202:on 5 September 2009 1916:Beginning with the 1664:Slave Route Project 795:Americas indigenous 685:Red Sea slave trade 675:Contemporary Africa 538:Topics and practice 308:Crimean slave trade 303:Bukhara slave trade 256:Genoese slave trade 133:Contemporary Africa 113:Forced prostitution 4082:, O. Harrassowitz. 3002:"三国人口辨析 _ 中国经济史论坛" 2790:Yates, Robin D. S. 2634:2014-08-17 at the 2535:2014-08-17 at the 2337:Due to the strict 2247:Tokugawa Shogunate 2009: 1787: 1445:Blockade of Africa 752:Somali slave trade 668:Sub-Saharan Africa 360:Turkish Abductions 318:Khivan slave trade 313:Khazar slave trade 266:Balkan slave trade 224:Prague slave trade 4559: 4558: 4496:other territories 4109:, C.E. Tuttle Co. 4073:, Lexington Books 4064:, Greenwood Press 4013:Library resources 3774:978-0-520-91612-8 3719:978-0-8047-9973-7 3496:978-3-447-05196-5 3028:zh.wikisource.org 2970:978-0-313-33143-5 2931:zh.wikisource.org 2906:open.cnkgraph.com 2902:"书库东观汉记卷19 传十四" 2889:Barbieri-Low 2007 2867:Osiris, Volume 10 2588:Huang, Philip C. 2528:Hallet, Nicole. " 2205:Taiping Rebellion 2198:Yongzheng Emperor 2122:Jingkang Incident 1909:construction and 1861:Yongzheng Emperor 1844:Emperor Wu of Han 1784:Old Uyghur script 1761: 1760: 1711:Freedmen's Bureau 1533:Third Servile War 1528:International law 1095:Human trafficking 857:Human trafficking 532:Thirteen colonies 350:Sack of Baltimore 118:Human trafficking 4584: 4572:Slavery in China 4549: 4539: 4538: 4508:Christmas Island 4194:Sovereign states 4186:Slavery in Asia 4179: 4172: 4165: 4156: 4146: 4137: 4128: 4119: 4110: 4101: 4092: 4083: 4074: 4065: 4056: 4047: 4018:Slavery in China 4001: 4000: 3990: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3876: 3874: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3841: 3835: 3829: 3823: 3817: 3814: 3808: 3805: 3799: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3739: 3731: 3705: 3694: 3693: 3667: 3646: 3645: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3571: 3565: 3564: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3529: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3510: 3508: 3480: 3474: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3461: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3427: 3421: 3420: 3400: 3394: 3393: 3374: 3368: 3367: 3343: 3337: 3333: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3227: 3221: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3201: 3195:. Archived from 3182: 3173: 3167: 3161: 3155: 3152:Harrasowitz 1991 3149: 3143: 3137: 3131: 3125: 3119: 3118: 3110: 3104: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3085: 3079: 3073: 3067: 3061: 3055: 3049: 3040: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3009: 2998: 2992: 2981: 2975: 2974: 2958: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2923: 2917: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2898: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2861: 2855: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2836: 2830: 2824: 2818: 2817: 2809: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2760: 2750: 2741: 2738: 2729: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2683: 2677: 2676: 2664: 2651: 2625: 2610: 2586: 2580: 2558: 2552: 2526: 2488:Slavery in Japan 1911:land reclamation 1764:Slavery in China 1753: 1746: 1739: 1723:Emancipation Day 1556: 1523:Slave Trade Acts 214:Byzantine Empire 56: 29: 4592: 4591: 4587: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4582: 4581: 4562: 4561: 4560: 4555: 4527: 4495: 4486: 4467:Northern Cyprus 4453: 4446: 4188: 4183: 4153: 4140: 4131: 4122: 4113: 4104: 4095: 4086: 4077: 4068: 4059: 4050: 4041: 4038: 4037: 4036: 4021: 4020: 4016: 4009: 4004: 3960: 3959: 3955: 3913: 3912: 3908: 3898: 3896: 3895:. 27 March 2023 3893:humanevents.com 3887: 3886: 3882: 3872: 3870: 3861: 3860: 3856: 3848: 3844: 3836: 3832: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3794: 3790: 3775: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3732: 3720: 3707: 3706: 3697: 3682: 3669: 3668: 3649: 3642: 3627: 3626: 3622: 3615: 3600: 3599: 3595: 3588: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3561: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3530: 3521: 3520: 3516: 3506: 3504: 3497: 3482: 3481: 3477: 3471: 3467: 3459:10.1.1.839.4807 3447: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3429: 3428: 3424: 3417: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3390: 3376: 3375: 3371: 3364: 3345: 3344: 3340: 3330: 3315: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3286: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3259: 3258: 3254: 3247: 3229: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3215: 3205: 3203: 3199: 3180: 3175: 3174: 3170: 3162: 3158: 3150: 3146: 3138: 3134: 3126: 3122: 3112: 3111: 3107: 3097: 3095: 3093:www.gushiju.net 3087: 3086: 3082: 3074: 3070: 3062: 3058: 3050: 3043: 3033: 3031: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3007: 3005: 3000: 2999: 2995: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2936: 2934: 2925: 2924: 2920: 2910: 2908: 2900: 2899: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2873: 2871: 2863: 2862: 2858: 2848: 2846: 2838: 2837: 2833: 2825: 2821: 2811: 2788: 2787: 2783: 2773: 2752: 2751: 2744: 2739: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2671:. Vol. 1. 2666: 2665: 2654: 2636:Wayback Machine 2626: 2613: 2599:Wayback Machine 2587: 2583: 2569:Wayback Machine 2559: 2555: 2537:Wayback Machine 2527: 2500: 2496: 2479: 2442: 2436: 2416: 2406: 2353: 2335: 2322: 2306: 2304:Slave contracts 2293: 2239:Tokugawa Ieyasu 2226: 2150:Miao Rebellions 2124: 2118: 2001:Astana Cemetery 1999:. Found in the 1989: 1881: 1875: 1870: 1776: 1774:General history 1757: 1728: 1727: 1632:Slave narrative 1588:Fugitive slaves 1568: 1560: 1559: 1550: 1518:Slave rebellion 1373: 1363: 1362: 1321: 1311: 1310: 1133:United Kingdom 1069:Yankee princess 663: 655: 654: 382:Avret Pazarları 328:Avret Pazarları 197:Medieval Europe 163: 153: 152: 91:Forced marriage 66: 27: 12: 11: 5: 4590: 4588: 4580: 4579: 4574: 4564: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4543: 4532: 4529: 4528: 4526: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4499: 4497: 4488: 4487: 4485: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4458: 4456: 4448: 4447: 4445: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4198: 4196: 4190: 4189: 4184: 4182: 4181: 4174: 4167: 4159: 4152: 4151:External links 4149: 4148: 4147: 4138: 4129: 4120: 4111: 4102: 4093: 4084: 4075: 4066: 4057: 4048: 4035: 4034: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4002: 3973:(6): 856–873. 3953: 3926:(1): 131–141. 3906: 3880: 3854: 3852:, p. 346. 3842: 3840:, p. 150. 3830: 3828:, p. 252. 3818: 3809: 3800: 3788: 3773: 3747: 3718: 3695: 3680: 3647: 3641:978-9004469655 3640: 3620: 3614:978-1009158985 3613: 3593: 3587:978-1009158985 3586: 3566: 3560:978-3447058094 3559: 3539: 3514: 3495: 3475: 3465: 3440: 3422: 3415: 3395: 3388: 3369: 3362: 3348:Kamens, Edward 3338: 3328: 3308: 3301: 3279: 3272: 3252: 3245: 3222: 3213: 3168: 3156: 3154:, p. 130. 3144: 3132: 3130:, p. 152. 3120: 3105: 3080: 3068: 3056: 3041: 3015: 2993: 2976: 2969: 2944: 2918: 2893: 2891:, p. 146. 2881: 2856: 2831: 2829:, p. 252. 2819: 2800:(1): 283–331. 2781: 2771: 2742: 2730: 2721: 2694:(2): 143–154. 2678: 2652: 2611: 2581: 2553: 2497: 2495: 2492: 2491: 2490: 2485: 2478: 2475: 2435: 2432: 2405: 2402: 2352: 2349: 2334: 2331: 2321: 2318: 2305: 2302: 2292: 2289: 2225: 2222: 2194:Kangxi Emperor 2170:Yongle Emperor 2152:in 1460, they 2135:Hongwu Emperor 2117: 2114: 2013:Three Kingdoms 1988: 1985: 1874: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1857:Hongwu Emperor 1775: 1772: 1759: 1758: 1756: 1755: 1748: 1741: 1733: 1730: 1729: 1726: 1725: 1720: 1719: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1702: 1701: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1661: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1629: 1624: 1623: 1622: 1617: 1610:List of slaves 1607: 1606: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1558: 1557: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1481: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1459: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1374: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1328: 1322: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1202: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1154:Dutch Republic 1151: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1131: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1086: 1085: 1079: 1078: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1045: 1044: 1034: 1033: 1032: 1022: 1017: 1016: 1015: 1010: 1000: 999: 998: 993: 988: 978: 973: 968: 962: 961: 955: 954: 949: 942: 941: 940: 935: 925: 920: 915: 914: 913: 903: 898: 897: 896: 891: 886: 881: 871: 866: 861: 860: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 804: 803: 802: 792: 791: 790: 779: 778: 772: 771: 766: 761: 756: 755: 754: 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 698: 697: 687: 682: 677: 671: 670: 664: 661: 660: 657: 656: 653: 652: 647: 642: 637: 632: 626: 625: 621: 620: 615: 613:Child soldiers 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 589: 588: 578: 573: 568: 563: 562: 561: 556: 551: 540: 539: 535: 534: 529: 524: 522:Spanish Empire 519: 514: 509: 504: 502:Middle Passage 499: 494: 489: 484: 478: 477: 471: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 439: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 364: 363: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 332: 331: 330: 323:Ottoman Empire 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 284: 278: 277: 271: 270: 269: 268: 258: 253: 248: 247: 246: 241: 236: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 200: 199: 193: 192: 187: 182: 177: 171: 170: 164: 159: 158: 155: 154: 151: 150: 145: 143:Sexual slavery 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 109: 108: 103: 101:Child marriage 98: 88: 83: 78: 76:Child soldiers 73: 67: 62: 61: 58: 57: 49: 48: 38: 37: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4589: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4542: 4534: 4533: 4530: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4500: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4477:South Ossetia 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4175: 4173: 4168: 4166: 4161: 4160: 4157: 4150: 4144: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4112: 4108: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4085: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4049: 4045: 4040: 4039: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4006: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3910: 3907: 3894: 3890: 3884: 3881: 3869: 3865: 3858: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3843: 3839: 3834: 3831: 3827: 3822: 3819: 3813: 3810: 3804: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3751: 3748: 3743: 3737: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3715: 3711: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3681:0-520-04031-7 3677: 3673: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3643: 3637: 3633: 3632: 3624: 3621: 3616: 3610: 3606: 3605: 3597: 3594: 3589: 3583: 3579: 3578: 3570: 3567: 3562: 3556: 3552: 3551: 3543: 3540: 3535: 3534: 3528:. p. 63. 3527: 3526: 3518: 3515: 3502: 3498: 3492: 3488: 3487: 3479: 3476: 3469: 3466: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3444: 3441: 3432: 3426: 3423: 3418: 3412: 3408: 3407: 3399: 3396: 3391: 3385: 3381: 3380: 3373: 3370: 3365: 3363:9780824830137 3359: 3355: 3354: 3349: 3342: 3339: 3336: 3331: 3325: 3321: 3320: 3312: 3309: 3304: 3302:9781931907309 3298: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3280: 3275: 3273:9780824842925 3269: 3265: 3264: 3256: 3253: 3248: 3242: 3238: 3237: 3232: 3226: 3223: 3217: 3214: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3179: 3172: 3169: 3166:, p. 54. 3165: 3164:Mitamura 1970 3160: 3157: 3153: 3148: 3145: 3142:, p. 16. 3141: 3136: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3121: 3116: 3109: 3106: 3094: 3090: 3084: 3081: 3078:, p. 39. 3077: 3072: 3069: 3066:, p. 45. 3065: 3060: 3057: 3054:, p. 44. 3053: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3029: 3025: 3019: 3016: 3003: 2997: 2994: 2991: 2988:, p. 420, at 2987: 2986: 2980: 2977: 2972: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2956: 2948: 2945: 2932: 2928: 2922: 2919: 2907: 2903: 2897: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2882: 2869: 2868: 2860: 2857: 2844: 2843: 2835: 2832: 2828: 2823: 2820: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2785: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2772:9780874368857 2768: 2764: 2759: 2758: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2737: 2735: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2682: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2648:0-87436-885-5 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2630: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2607:0-8047-4110-7 2604: 2600: 2596: 2593: 2592: 2585: 2582: 2578: 2577:0-8047-1271-9 2574: 2570: 2566: 2563: 2557: 2554: 2550: 2549:0-313-33143-X 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2531: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2493: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2462: 2458: 2453: 2451: 2447: 2441: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2403: 2400: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2381: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2351:Female slaves 2350: 2348: 2345: 2340: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2303: 2301: 2298: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2273: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2257: 2255: 2251: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2223: 2221: 2218: 2212: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2178: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2129: 2123: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2046: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1997:Chinese coins 1993: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1977: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1965: 1960: 1956: 1955: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1903:road building 1900: 1895: 1893: 1888: 1886: 1885:Shang dynasty 1880: 1872: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1840:Dong Zhongshu 1836: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1795:Shang dynasty 1792: 1785: 1780: 1773: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1754: 1749: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1735: 1734: 1732: 1731: 1724: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1700: 1697: 1696: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1654:Slave catcher 1652: 1650: 1647: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1634: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1613: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1583:Forced labour 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1554: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1463: 1460: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1428:Abolitionists 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1372: 1367: 1366: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1315: 1314: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1143: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1070: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1043: 1040: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1031: 1030:comfort women 1028: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1013:Chukri System 1011: 1009: 1006: 1005: 1004: 1001: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 983: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 963: 960: 957: 956: 953: 950: 947: 943: 939: 936: 934: 931: 930: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 912: 909: 908: 907: 904: 902: 901:Latin America 899: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 876: 875: 872: 870: 867: 865: 862: 858: 855: 853: 852:interregional 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 837:prison labour 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 809: 808: 807:United States 805: 801: 798: 797: 796: 793: 789: 786: 785: 784: 781: 780: 777: 774: 773: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 753: 750: 749: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 696: 693: 692: 691: 688: 686: 683: 681: 678: 676: 673: 672: 669: 666: 665: 659: 658: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 628: 627: 623: 622: 619: 618:White slavery 616: 614: 611: 609: 608:Slave raiding 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 587: 584: 583: 582: 579: 577: 576:Corvée labour 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 546: 545: 542: 541: 537: 536: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 479: 476: 473: 472: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 392:Abbasid harem 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 369: 368: 365: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 337: 336: 335:Barbary Coast 333: 329: 326: 325: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 288: 285: 283: 280: 279: 276: 273: 272: 267: 264: 263: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 231: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 201: 198: 195: 194: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 172: 169: 166: 165: 162: 157: 156: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 93: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 72: 69: 68: 65: 60: 59: 55: 51: 50: 47: 43: 42:Forced labour 39: 35: 31: 30: 25: 21: 16: 4577:Qing dynasty 4492:Dependencies 4422:Turkmenistan 4387:Saudi Arabia 4241: 4145:, SUNY Press 4142: 4133: 4124: 4115: 4106: 4097: 4088: 4079: 4070: 4061: 4052: 4043: 4017: 4007:Bibliography 3970: 3967:Asian Survey 3966: 3956: 3923: 3919: 3909: 3897:. Retrieved 3892: 3883: 3871:. Retrieved 3867: 3857: 3845: 3833: 3821: 3812: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3756: 3755:"2. Labor". 3750: 3709: 3671: 3630: 3623: 3603: 3596: 3576: 3569: 3549: 3542: 3532: 3524: 3517: 3505:. Retrieved 3485: 3478: 3468: 3449: 3443: 3425: 3405: 3398: 3378: 3372: 3352: 3341: 3318: 3311: 3292: 3282: 3262: 3255: 3235: 3225: 3216: 3204:. Retrieved 3197:the original 3184: 3171: 3159: 3147: 3135: 3123: 3114: 3108: 3096:. Retrieved 3092: 3083: 3071: 3064:Schafer 1963 3059: 3052:Schafer 1963 3032:. Retrieved 3030:(in Chinese) 3027: 3018: 3006:. Retrieved 2996: 2990:Google Books 2983: 2979: 2954: 2947: 2935:. Retrieved 2933:(in Chinese) 2930: 2921: 2909:. Retrieved 2905: 2896: 2884: 2872:. Retrieved 2866: 2859: 2847:. Retrieved 2841: 2834: 2822: 2813: 2797: 2793: 2784: 2776: 2756: 2724: 2691: 2687: 2681: 2668: 2639: 2589: 2584: 2556: 2540: 2469: 2465: 2454: 2443: 2427: 2423: 2417: 2386: 2382: 2377: 2372:, living in 2367: 2361: 2357: 2354: 2343: 2336: 2325: 2323: 2309: 2307: 2297:slave market 2294: 2285: 2282: 2278:Toghon Temür 2274: 2265:China proper 2261:Yuan dynasty 2258: 2235:Toi invasion 2230:raided Japan 2227: 2217:China proper 2213: 2209:Hong Xiuquan 2202: 2186:Qing dynasty 2183: 2179: 2160:slaves. The 2143: 2139:Ming dynasty 2132: 2128:Song dynasty 2125: 2116:Early modern 2105:Zen Buddhist 2099: 2083:Western Asia 2079:Central Asia 2063: 2057:female poet 2055:Tang dynasty 2044: 2029: 2010: 1978: 1974:human rights 1962: 1952: 1942: 1915: 1896: 1889: 1882: 1837: 1828:Qing dynasty 1820:Yuan dynasty 1811:Song dynasty 1807:Tang dynasty 1799:Zhou dynasty 1790: 1788: 1767: 1763: 1762: 1659:Slave patrol 1496:Freedom suit 1472:Sierra Leone 1462:Colonization 1378:Abolitionism 1358:Baháʼí Faith 1331:Christianity 1281:Saudi Arabia 1137:Penal Labour 1102:Blackbirding 1008:Debt bondage 996:penal system 980: 822:Contemporary 812:Field slaves 800:U.S. Natives 759:South Africa 630:Galley slave 603:Slave market 593:House slaves 566:Blackbirding 544:Conscription 468:21st century 431:Umm al-walad 275:Muslim world 244:Emancipation 148:Wage slavery 128:Penal labour 106:Wife selling 96:Bride buying 81:Conscription 71:Child Labour 64:Contemporary 15: 4551:Asia portal 4452:States with 4372:Philippines 4312:South Korea 4307:North Korea 4202:Afghanistan 3826:Ramsey 1987 2560:Gang Zhou. 2410:Concubinage 2404:Concubinage 2339:patriarchal 2333:Male slaves 2269:Han Chinese 2025:Eastern Han 2011:During the 1970:same period 1964:Book of Han 1934:Han dynasty 1922:Emperor Gao 1918:Han dynasty 1899:Qin dynasty 1803:Qin dynasty 1674:court cases 1551: [ 1501:Slave Power 1489:Manumission 1336:Catholicism 1211:Afghanistan 952:Puerto Rico 864:The Bahamas 842:Slave codes 645:Shanghaiing 635:Impressment 527:Slave Coast 407:Qajar harem 367:Concubinage 340:slave trade 4566:Categories 4432:Uzbekistan 4407:Tajikistan 4322:Kyrgyzstan 4302:Kazakhstan 4222:Bangladesh 4212:Azerbaijan 4100:, Springer 3988:1885/82846 3899:3 December 3850:Lozny 2013 3507:16 October 3416:0684188988 3389:0870116223 3329:0521223539 3246:0415323797 2874:11 January 2849:11 January 2827:Lewis 2007 2494:References 2461:Han people 2438:See also: 2434:Modern era 2408:See also: 2391:for a few 1853:Ma Duanlin 1689:J.Q. Adams 1679:Washington 1649:Slave name 1598:convention 1573:Common law 946:Encomienda 742:Seychelles 727:Mauritania 650:Slave ship 517:Panyarring 512:New France 161:Historical 4518:Hong Kong 4472:Palestine 4397:Sri Lanka 4392:Singapore 4272:Indonesia 3997:0004-4687 3948:154490879 3940:1945-4724 3873:4 January 3783:242183076 3736:cite book 3728:945121444 3454:CiteSeerX 3140:Tsai 1996 3128:Tsai 1996 3076:Benn 2002 2716:143643161 2708:0144-039X 2457:Yi people 2389:Szű-chuan 2374:Kuei-chou 2314:guarantor 2310:ren fanzi 2174:Ryukyuans 2154:castrated 2095:yuan zhen 2091:Guangdong 2059:Yu Xuanji 2050:livestock 2033:from the 1981:Wang Mang 1959:Wang Mang 1949:territory 1848:Wang Mang 1684:Jefferson 1341:Mormonism 1276:Palestine 1090:Australia 1020:Indonesia 911:Lei Áurea 894:Code Noir 874:Caribbean 847:Treatment 586:Treatment 559:Devshirme 421:Odalisque 239:In Russia 180:Babylonia 168:Antiquity 4541:Category 4462:Abkhazia 4412:Thailand 4367:Pakistan 4347:Mongolia 4342:Maldives 4337:Malaysia 4237:Cambodia 3501:Archived 3473:2014(04) 3233:(2004). 2673:ABC-CLIO 2632:Archived 2595:Archived 2565:Archived 2533:Archived 2477:See also 2450:Mui Tsai 2397:Tientsin 2344:sai man) 2243:Hokkaido 2190:booi aha 2067:Kong Kui 1987:Medieval 1938:Legalist 1842:advised 1716:Iron bit 1706:40 acres 1669:breeding 1484:Freedman 1319:Religion 1179:Portugal 1064:Thailand 1054:Maldives 1049:Malaysia 1042:Kwalliso 986:Booi Aha 938:Restavek 918:Colombia 889:Trinidad 879:Barbados 769:Zanzibar 717:Ethiopia 598:Saqaliba 492:Database 443:Saqaliba 204:Ancillae 34:a series 32:Part of 4437:Vietnam 4352:Myanmar 4332:Lebanon 4262:Georgia 4217:Bahrain 4207:Armenia 3838:Du 2013 3690:5310324 3335:Alt URL 3193:1317152 3098:16 June 3034:17 June 3008:16 June 2937:17 June 2911:17 June 2267:, many 2207:leader 2162:Guizhou 2137:of the 2075:Lingnan 2037:to the 1945:Marquis 1926:manumit 1873:Ancient 1832:coolies 1791:jianmin 1694:Lincoln 1567:Related 1467:Liberia 1353:Judaism 1291:Tunisia 1266:Morocco 1256:Lebanon 1221:Bahrain 1216:Algeria 1184:Romania 1149:Denmark 1142:Slavery 1076:Vietnam 747:Somalia 737:Nigeria 712:Comoros 640:Pirates 549:Ghilman 482:Bristol 372:history 345:pirates 234:History 123:Peonage 46:slavery 4482:Taiwan 4417:Turkey 4382:Russia 4317:Kuwait 4297:Jordan 4287:Israel 4247:Cyprus 4232:Brunei 4227:Bhutan 4015:about 3995: 3946: 3938: 3781: 3771: 3726: 3716: 3688: 3678: 3638: 3611: 3584: 3557: 3493: 3456: 3431:"朝鮮學報" 3413: 3386: 3360: 3326: 3299: 3270: 3243: 3206:6 July 3191: 2967: 2769: 2714: 2706: 2646: 2605: 2575: 2547: 2378:Nu-p'u 2326:uk jai 2250:bakufu 2158:eunuch 2146:Javans 2069:, the 2005:Turfan 1824:Manchu 1816:Mongol 1615:owners 1251:Kuwait 1246:Jordan 1199:Sweden 1189:Russia 1174:Poland 1169:Norway 991:Laogai 976:Brunei 971:Bhutan 933:revolt 906:Brazil 869:Canada 832:partus 817:female 702:Angola 571:Coolie 554:Mamluk 507:Nantes 487:Brazil 416:Cariye 251:Thrall 219:Kholop 185:Greece 24:Laogai 4523:Macau 4442:Yemen 4402:Syria 4377:Qatar 4357:Nepal 4292:Japan 4267:India 4257:Egypt 4242:China 3944:S2CID 3779:S2CID 3200:(PDF) 3181:(PDF) 2712:S2CID 2393:taels 2370:Kansu 2362:yatou 1907:canal 1826:-led 1818:-led 1642:songs 1637:films 1555:] 1511:songs 1348:Islam 1326:Bible 1301:Yemen 1296:Qatar 1286:Syria 1261:Libya 1226:Egypt 1194:Spain 1164:Malta 1037:Korea 1025:Japan 1003:India 981:China 928:Haiti 788:Aztec 764:Sudan 732:Niger 624:Naval 497:Dutch 426:Qiyan 412:Jarya 387:Harem 229:Serfs 175:Egypt 4362:Oman 4327:Laos 4282:Iraq 4277:Iran 3993:ISSN 3936:ISSN 3901:2023 3875:2021 3868:Time 3769:ISBN 3742:link 3724:OCLC 3714:ISBN 3686:OCLC 3676:ISBN 3636:ISBN 3609:ISBN 3582:ISBN 3555:ISBN 3509:2016 3491:ISBN 3435:朝鮮學報 3411:ISBN 3384:ISBN 3358:ISBN 3324:ISBN 3297:ISBN 3268:ISBN 3241:ISBN 3208:2014 3189:SSRN 3100:2024 3036:2024 3010:2024 2965:ISBN 2939:2024 2913:2024 2876:2011 2851:2011 2767:ISBN 2704:ISSN 2644:ISBN 2603:ISBN 2573:ISBN 2545:ISBN 2412:and 2358:binü 2259:The 2184:The 2144:The 2133:The 2126:The 2103:and 2101:Chan 2081:and 2017:Buqu 1957:), “ 1897:The 1890:The 1883:The 1822:and 1797:and 1768:nuli 1593:laws 1455:U.S. 1450:U.K. 1388:U.S. 1383:U.K. 1271:Oman 1241:Iraq 1236:Iran 923:Cuba 827:maps 722:Mali 707:Chad 293:Baqt 190:Rome 86:Debt 44:and 4494:and 3983:hdl 3975:doi 3928:doi 3761:doi 3433:. 3289:"5" 2961:155 2802:doi 2763:146 2696:doi 2638:". 2539:". 2428:qie 2360:or 2087:Yue 2073:of 2065:as 2039:Sui 2035:Jin 2003:in 1976:. 1805:to 4568:: 3991:. 3981:. 3971:44 3969:. 3965:. 3942:. 3934:. 3924:26 3922:. 3918:. 3891:. 3866:. 3777:. 3767:. 3738:}} 3734:{{ 3722:. 3698:^ 3684:. 3650:^ 3499:. 3291:. 3183:. 3091:. 3044:^ 3026:. 2963:. 2929:. 2904:. 2796:. 2775:. 2765:. 2745:^ 2733:^ 2710:. 2702:. 2692:24 2690:. 2655:^ 2614:^ 2501:^ 2424:qi 2097:. 1905:, 1553:fa 36:on 4178:e 4171:t 4164:v 3999:. 3985:: 3977:: 3950:. 3930:: 3903:. 3877:. 3785:. 3763:: 3744:) 3730:. 3692:. 3644:. 3617:. 3590:. 3563:. 3511:. 3462:. 3419:. 3392:. 3366:. 3332:. 3305:. 3276:. 3249:. 3210:. 3102:. 3038:. 3012:. 2973:. 2941:. 2915:. 2878:. 2853:. 2816:. 2808:. 2804:: 2798:3 2718:. 2698:: 2675:. 2650:. 2609:. 2579:. 2551:. 2007:. 1752:e 1745:t 1738:v 948:) 944:( 414:/ 289:‎ 26:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index