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pigment particles are suspended along with the oil vapor. Early smoke screen experiments attempted the use of colored pigment, but found that titanium dioxide was the most light scattering particle known and therefore best for use in obscuring troops and naval vessels. Colored smoke became primarily used for signaling rather than obscuring. In today's military, smoke grenades are found to be non-cancer causing, unlike the 1950s AN-M8 model.
1431:
891:
43:
762:
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383:
352:. This produces a very effective obscuration per weight of material used. This screen can then be sustained as long as the generator is supplied with oil, and—especially if a number of generators are used—the screen can build up to a considerable size. One 50 gallon drum of fog oil can obscure 60 miles (97 km) of land in 15 minutes.
792:
Colored smoke screen is also possible by adding a colored dye into the fog oil mixture. Typical white smoke screen uses titanium dioxide (or other white pigment), but other colors are possible by replacing titanium dioxide with another pigment. When the hot fog oil condenses on contact with air, the
632:
The prognosis for the casualties depends on the degree of the pulmonary damage. All exposed individuals should be kept under observation for 8 hours. Most affected individuals recover within several days, with some symptoms persisting for up to 1–2 weeks. Severe cases can suffer of reduced pulmonary
955:
in 1944, US Chemical Corps troops maintained a 25 km (16 mi) "light haze" smokescreen around the harbour throughout daylight hours, for two months. The density of this screen was adjusted to be sufficient to prevent observation by German forward observers in the surrounding hills, yet not
394:
Warships have sometimes used a simple variation of the smoke generator, by injecting fuel oil directly into the funnel, where it evaporates into a white cloud. An even simpler method that was used in the days of steam-propelled warships was to restrict the supply of air to the boiler. This resulted
355:
Whilst producing very large amounts of smoke relatively cheaply, these generators have a number of disadvantages. They are much slower to respond than pyrotechnic sources, and require a valuable piece of equipment to be sited at the point of emission of the smoke. They are also relatively heavy and
343:
Very large or sustained smoke screens are produced by a smoke generator. This machine heats a volatile material (typically oil or an oil based mixture) to evaporate it, then mixes the vapor with cool external air at a controlled rate so it condenses to a mist with a controlled droplet size. Cruder
304:
can also fire smoke generating munitions, and are the main means of generating tactical smokescreens on land. As with grenades, artillery shells are available as both emission type smoke shell, and bursting smoke shell. Mortars nearly always use bursting smoke rounds because of the smaller size of
746:
systems. However, this effect is short-lived. After the phosphorus particles fully burn, the smoke reverts from emission to absorption. While very effective in the visible spectrum, cool phosphorus smoke has only low absorption and scattering in infrared wavelengths. Additives in the smoke that
344:
designs simply boiled waste oil over a heater, while more sophisticated ones sprayed a specially formulated oily composition ("fog oil") through nozzles onto a heated plate. Choice of a suitable oil, and careful control of cooling rate, can produce droplet sizes close to the ideal size for
418:
part of electromagnetic spectrum. This kind of obscurant smoke is sometimes referred to as "Visual and
Infrared Screening Smoke" (VIRSS). To achieve this, the particle size and composition of the smokes has to be adjusted. One of the approaches is using an aerosol of burning
738:
White phosphorus smoke is typically very hot and may cause burns on contact. Red phosphorus is less reactive, does not ignite spontaneously, and its smoke does not cause thermal burns - for this reason it is safer to handle, but cannot be used so easily as an incendiary.
356:
not readily portable, which is a significant problem if the wind shifts. To overcome this latter problem, they may be used in fixed posts widely dispersed over the battlefield, or else mounted on specially adapted vehicles. An example of the latter is the
822:
584:
of the upper airways. Damage of the lower airways can manifest itself later as well, due to fine particles of zinc chloride and traces of phosgene. In high concentrations the smoke can be very dangerous when inhaled. Symptoms include
395:
in incomplete combustion of the coal or oil, which produced a thick black smoke. Because the smoke was black, it absorbed heat from the sun and tended to rise above the water. Therefore, navies turned to various chemicals, such as
279:(WP), which is spread by explosive action. The phosphorus catches fire in the presence of air, and burns with a brilliant yellow flame, while producing copious amounts of white smoke (phosphorus pentoxide). WP grenades double as
665:
Low concentrations cause prickling sensations on the skin, but high concentrations or prolonged exposure to field concentrations can cause severe irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, and mild cough and moderate
1015:
in 1812, although
Cochrane's proposal was as much an asphyxiant as an obscurant. It is not until the early twentieth century that there is clear evidence of deliberate use of large scale naval smokescreens as a major tactic.
859:
who fought during the French
Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, devised a smoke screen created through the burning of sulphur which would be used in warfare after learning about the same methods used at Delium and Plataea.
841:, who described that the smoke created by the burning of sulphur, wood and pitch was carried by the wind into Plataea (428 B.C.) and later at Delium (423 B.C.) and that at Delium, defenders were driven from the city walls.
695:(FM) is a colorless, non-flammable, corrosive liquid. In contact with damp air it hydrolyzes readily, resulting in a dense white smoke consisting of droplets of hydrochloric acid and particles of titanium oxychloride.
959:
In the
Vietnam War, "Smoke Ships" were introduced as part of a new Air Mobile Concept to protect crew and man on the ground from small arms fire. In 1964 and 1965, the "Smoke Ship" was first employed by the
704:
Goggles and a respirator should be worn when in contact with the smoke, full protective clothing should be worn when handling liquid FM. In direct contact with skin or eyes, liquid FM causes acid burns.
275:). In those that produce screening smoke, the filler usually consists of HC smoke mixture (hexachloroethane/zinc) or TA smoke mixture (terephthalic acid). Another type of smoke grenade is filled with
328:
251:
used as a ground-to-ground or ground-to-air signalling device. The body consists of a steel sheet metal cylinder with a few emission holes on the top and/or bottom to allow smoke release when the
1303:
520:
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Its toxicity is caused mainly by the content of strongly acidic hydrochloric acid, but also due to thermal effects of reaction of zinc chloride with water. These effects cause
874:(who once galloped for him when he had a brigade at manœuvres in England) of the importance of using smoke-screens on the battleground, it would in turn be used in both
834:
The first documented use of a smoke screen was circa 2000 B.C. in the wars of ancient India, where incendiary devices and toxic fumes caused people to fall asleep.
427:-coated glass fibers; the infrared emissions of such smoke curtains hides the weaker emissions of colder objects behind it, but the effect is only short-lived.
208:
of light to prevent detection by infrared sensors or viewers, and they are also available for vehicles in a super-dense form used to block laser beams of enemy
478:
with controlled particle size. Most contemporary vehicle-mounted systems use this approach. However, the aerosol stays airborne only for a short time.
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It is dispensed from aircraft to create vertical smoke curtains, and during World War II it was a favorite smoke generation agent on warships.
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solution. The burns are then treated like thermal burns. The skin burns heal readily, while cornea burns can result in residual scarring.
443:
sprayed around the vehicle; the presence of large droplets absorbs in infrared band and additionally serves as a countermeasure against
1316:
Lord
Cochrane, Naval Commander, Radical, Inventor (1775-1860), A Study of His Earlier Career, 1775-1818 by John Sugden, July 1981. -
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Respirators are required for any concentrations sufficient to cause any coughing, irritation of the eyes or prickling of the skin.
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777:. The smoke created is a fine mist of dye particles, generated by burning a mixture of one or more dyes with a low-temperature
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107:
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647:(CSA) is a heavy, strongly acidic liquid. When dispensed in air, it readily absorbs moisture and forms dense white fog of
60:
79:
848:
by the Dutch. A barrel of damp gunpowder was fired into the wind so that the Dutch could land under the cover of smoke.
31:
902:
Smoke screens are usually used by infantry to conceal their movement in areas of enemy fire. They can also be used by
724:
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reaction scatters the corrosive mixture in all directions. CSA is highly corrosive, so careful handling is required.
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1011:, which also had the effect of creating smoke. The naval smoke screen is often said to have been proposed by Sir
903:
714:
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411:
259:, the filler consists of 250 to 350 grams of colored (red, green, yellow or violet) smoke mixture (mostly
93:
731:- can be handled safely when under water, but in contact with air it spontaneously ignites. It is used as an
778:
735:. Both types of phosphorus are used for smoke generation, mostly in artillery shells, bombs, and grenades.
497:. They are shaped as irregular flakes with a diameter of about 1.7 μm and thickness of 80–320 nm.
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systems on the battlefields necessitates the use of obscurant smokes that are effectively opaque in the
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function for some months, the worst cases developing marked dyspnoea and cyanosis leading to death.
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on 23 April 1918, the
British Royal Navy's attempt to neutralize the key Belgian port of Bruges-
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Whereas smoke screens were originally used to hide movement from enemies' line of sight, modern
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band. Other materials used as visible/infrared obscurants are micro-pulverized flakes of
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Respirators are required for people coming into contact with the zinc chloride smoke.
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involve this part of the spectrum may be visible to thermal imagers or IR viewers.
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1391:"Rookpotten in de omgeving van batterij 'Pommern' (Lange Max) - Koekelare - Moere"
1373:"Rookpotten in de omgeving van batterij 'Pommern' (Lange Max) - Koekelare - Moere"
1121:
Treatment of
Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemical Injuries
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Yellow smoke screens deployed to mark soldiers completing an objective during
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655:. In moderate concentrations it is highly irritating to eyes, nose, and skin.
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in the air. The smoke also contains traces of organic chlorinated compounds,
17:
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means that they are now also available in new forms; they can screen in the
178:
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The titanium tetrachloride smoke is an irritant and unpleasant to breathe.
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Aerosol of burning phosphorus particles is an effective obscurant against
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particles, metal microwires, particles of iron and of suitable polymers.
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435:) particles present in the smokes can also serve to absorb the beams of
1254:
A History of
Chemical warfare by Kim Coleman (2005) (978-1-4039-3459-8)
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471:
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deploying a smoke screen using a smoke generator installed in its rear
1408:
727:(WP) are red or waxy yellow or white substances. White phosphorus is
577:
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470:
Older systems for production of infrared smoke work as generators of
448:
917:
During the First World War the
Germans used a lot of smoke screens (
533:
Zinc chloride smoke is grey-white and consists of tiny particles of
158:
released to mask the movement or location of military units such as
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can create smoke screens in a similar way, generally by injecting
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may develop. The smoke and the spent canisters contain suspected
907:
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910:, to conceal a withdrawal. They have regularly been used since
658:
When chlorosulfuric acid comes in contact with water, a strong
879:
875:
677:
Affected body parts should be washed with water and then with
553:. The smoke consists of zinc chloride, zinc oxychlorides, and
440:
272:
143:
Soldiers advancing under the cover of a smoke screen during a
36:
243:
moving through a smoke screen generated using a smoke grenade
1043:
The use of smoke screens was common in the naval battles of
951:
laid a smoke screen 30 kilometres (19 mi) long. At the
674:
of skin and exposure of eyes can lead to severe eye damage.
305:
mortar bombs and the greater efficiency of bursting rounds.
1304:"OHIO researchers working on obscurants for the modern era"
928:
A toxic variant of the smokescreen was used and devised by
855:(1775–1860), a Scottish Naval commander and officer in the
1123:. Department of Defense, Washington DC. 22 December 1995
339:
with a smoke generator installed in its rear compartment
500:
Some experimental obscurants work in both infrared and
894:
A smoke screen obstructing the view of the parachute
255:
inside the grenade is ignited. In those that produce
537:. The most common mixture for generating these is a
1270:
Journal of the
Society for Army Historical Research
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1355:"Batterij Pommern (Lange Max) - Koekelare - Moere"
826:British and Scottish soldiers disembarking from a
1318:https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/3466/1/290354.pdf
870:, described in his autobiography how he spoke to
1145:The Armed Forces of the United Kingdom 2014-2015
177:Smoke screens are commonly deployed either by a
773:Various signalling purposes require the use of
1328:The Kalgoorlie Miner, Thu 11 Sep 1930 (Page 6)
1232:The Vickers Tanks From landships to Challenger
991:There are a number of early examples of using
1230:Foss, Christopher F; McKenzie, Peter (1988).
27:Airborne obscurant using gas and particulates
8:
837:It was later recorded by a Greek historian,
524:Amphibious vehicles deploying smoke grenades
1023:, the first smoke screen was used by the
399:, that produce a white, low-lying cloud.
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
1234:. Patrick Stephens Limited. p. 30.
868:Douglas Cochrane, 12th Earl of Dundonald
844:In 1622, a smoke screen was used at the
1087:
864:Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald
853:Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald
185:) or generated by a vehicle (such as a
390:deploying smoke to cover their landing
914:to disorient or drive off attackers.
439:. Yet another possibility is a water
7:
1343:. Edward Arnold & Company. 1926.
1142:Hayman, Charles (10 February 2014).
65:adding citations to reliable sources
1007:, and incendiaries on the decks of
25:
1443:
1429:
987:obscured by a smoke screen, 1929
485:particles used in some infrared
41:
962:145th Combat Aviation Battalion
293:Shell (projectile) § Smoke
52:needs additional citations for
1148:. Pen and Sword. p. 119.
851:Later, between 1790 and 1810,
670:can result. Liquid CSA causes
489:are typically composed of 70%
1:
1434:The dictionary definition of
1213:"Infrared smoke (Arno Hahma)"
789:(also known as milk sugar).
32:Smokescreen (disambiguation)
801:The smoke generator on the
539:zinc chloride smoke mixture
388:Assault Amphibious Vehicles
1497:
1264:ffoulkes, Charles (1940).
904:armoured fighting vehicles
830:under a smoke screen, 1941
754:
712:
365:armoured fighting vehicles
290:
228:
29:
1165:– via Google Books.
956:inhibit port operations.
715:White phosphorus (weapon)
508:, metal coated fibers or
943:For the crossing of the
247:These are canister-type
1466:Weapons countermeasures
932:who used it during the
779:pyrotechnic composition
1476:Sniper warfare tactics
988:
899:
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767:Exercise Northern Edge
693:Titanium tetrachloride
688:Titanium tetrachloride
525:
397:titanium tetrachloride
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340:
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244:
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1266:"Fire, Smoke and Gas"
1096:The Royal Navy at War
1061:Early thermal weapons
979:
947:in October 1943, the
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589:, retrosternal pain,
523:
504:region. They include
407:The proliferation of
386:
331:
316:
238:
142:
1481:Diversionary tactics
1452:at Wikimedia Commons
1306:. 28 September 2020.
1031:running the blockade
609:, and in some cases
541:(HC), consisting of
61:improve this article
30:For other uses, see
1100:Imperial War Museum
1066:Military camouflage
781:, usually based on
645:Chlorosulfuric acid
640:Chlorosulfuric acid
557:, which absorb the
337:Toyota Mega Cruiser
281:incendiary grenades
1397:. 31 January 2016.
1361:. 18 January 2015.
1181:2007-02-25 at the
1021:American Civil War
993:incendiary weapons
989:
930:Frank Arthur Brock
900:
832:
783:potassium chlorate
771:
679:sodium bicarbonate
668:contact dermatitis
526:
392:
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326:
265:sodium bicarbonate
261:potassium chlorate
245:
241:French Legionnaire
148:
1448:Media related to
1195:"sew-lexicon.com"
1033:and escaping the
896:landing at Nadzab
872:Winston Churchill
649:hydrochloric acid
555:hydrochloric acid
465:terephthalic acid
437:laser designators
253:smoke composition
210:laser designators
145:training exercise
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725:white phosphorus
623:bronchopneumonia
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543:hexachloroethane
461:titanium dioxide
309:Smoke generators
277:white phosphorus
206:visible spectrum
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775:colored smoke
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757:Colored smoke
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607:expectoration
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535:zinc chloride
529:Zinc chloride
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506:carbon fibers
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379:Naval methods
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371:onto the hot
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350:visible light
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257:colored smoke
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231:Smoke grenade
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78: –
77:
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72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
18:Smoke screens
1436:
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1340:My Army Life
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1217:yarchive.net
1216:
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1199:the original
1189:
1171:
1159:. Retrieved
1144:
1137:
1125:. Retrieved
1120:
1108:
1095:
1090:
1049:World War II
1042:
1036:
1024:
1018:
1009:turtle ships
990:
985: (CV-2)
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886:Land warfare
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599:lachrymation
575:
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431:(most often
406:
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342:
322:Challenger 2
319:British Army
296:
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214:rangefinders
195:
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152:smoke screen
151:
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123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
1437:smokescreen
1045:World War I
1019:During the
627:carcinogens
611:haemoptysis
369:diesel fuel
360:generator.
287:Smoke shell
204:as well as
181:(such as a
117:August 2009
1460:Categories
1409:"118thAHC"
1082:References
1076:Smoke bomb
1005:fire ships
997:Greek fire
964:using the
921:) to hide
906:, such as
857:Royal Navy
839:Thucydides
805:tank used
733:incendiary
729:pyrophoric
721:phosphorus
709:Phosphorus
672:acid burns
660:exothermic
613:. Delayed
591:hoarseness
551:zinc oxide
545:, grained
358:M56 Coyote
291:See also:
220:Technology
198:technology
87:newspapers
1282:0037-9700
1035:USS
1001:stinkpots
983:Lexington
981:USS
938:Zeebrugge
547:aluminium
425:aluminium
298:Artillery
1290:44219889
1179:Archived
1161:14 April
1055:See also
1037:Iroquois
1026:R.E. Lee
949:Red Army
619:cyanosis
571:chlorine
563:phosgene
559:moisture
493:and 30%
457:graphite
433:graphite
416:infrared
249:grenades
202:infrared
179:canister
168:aircraft
160:infantry
1114:"Smoke"
1102:. 2005.
1071:PT boat
818:History
813:Tactics
787:lactose
595:stridor
587:dyspnea
580:of the
578:lesions
472:aerosol
373:exhaust
302:mortars
269:lactose
191:warship
183:grenade
101:scholar
1288:
1280:
1238:
1152:
1127:27 May
898:, 1943
878:&
569:, and
491:copper
449:94 GHz
445:radars
429:Carbon
271:and a
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
1471:Smoke
1286:JSTOR
1117:(PDF)
966:UH-1B
919:Nebel
908:tanks
603:cough
510:glass
483:brass
463:, or
453:brass
363:Many
334:JGSDF
189:or a
172:ships
170:, or
164:tanks
156:smoke
108:JSTOR
94:books
1278:ISSN
1236:ISBN
1163:2018
1150:ISBN
1129:2011
1047:and
785:and
769:2017
751:Dyes
723:and
719:Red
651:and
549:and
495:zinc
481:The
476:dust
412:FLIR
300:and
187:tank
80:news
880:WW2
876:WWI
621:or
474:of
455:or
447:in
441:fog
348:of
273:dye
212:or
193:).
154:is
63:by
1462::
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332:A
317:A
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124:(
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115:(
105:·
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34:.
20:)
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