459:. Terzaghi had an engineering approach to the problem of soil consolidation and provided simplified models that are still widely used in engineering practice today, whereas, on the other hand, Fillunger had a rigorous approach to the above problems and provided rigorous mathematical models that paid particular attention to the methods of local averaging of the involved variables. Fillunger’s model was very abstract and involved variables that were difficult to detect experimentally, and, therefore, it was not applicable to the study of real cases by engineers and/or designers. Nevertheless, this provided the basis for advanced theoretical studies of particularly complex problems. Due to the different approach to the problem of consolidation by the two scientists, a bitter scientific dispute arose between them, and this unfortunately led to a tragic ending in 1937. After Fillunger’s suicide, his theoretical results were forgotten for decades, whereas the methods proposed by Terzaghi found widespread diffusion among scientists and professionals. In the following decades
505:
1860:. The compressibility of saturated specimens of clay minerals increases in the order kaolinite <illite<smectite. The compression index Cc, which is defined as the change in void ratio per 10-fold increase in consolidation pressure, is in the range of 0.19 to 0.28 for kaolinite, 0.50 to 1.10 for illite, and 1.0 to 2.6 for montmorillonite, for different ionic forms. The more compressible the clay, the more pronounced the influences of cation type and electrolyte concentration on compressibility.
1312:
2564:
2417:
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2364:
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2526:
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497:
2499:
66:
2552:
2540:
2576:
25:
2487:
1038:(the recompression index) for use in overconsolidated soils where the final effective stress is less than the preconsolidation stress. When the final effective stress is greater than the preconsolidation stress, the two equations must be used in combination to model both the recompression portion and the virgin compression portion of the consolidation processes, as follows,
2600:
2516:
2439:
2340:
1286:". The "over-consolidation ratio" (OCR) is defined as the highest stress experienced divided by the current stress. A soil that is currently experiencing its highest stress is said to be "normally consolidated" and has an OCR of one. A soil could be considered "underconsolidated" or "unconsolidated" immediately after a new load is applied but before the excess
1244:
2588:
2388:
168:
236:
325:, whereby the soil changes volume slowly at constant effective stress over a longer time-scale than consolidation due to the diffusion of water. To distinguish between the two mechanisms, "primary consolidation" refers to consolidation due to dissipation of excess water pressure, while "secondary consolidation" refers to the creep process.
979:
When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining some of the volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will consolidate again along a recompression curve, defined by the recompression index. The gradient of the swelling and
754:
is applied to a soil, it causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil. The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different methods. In the classical method developed by
Terzaghi,
1653:
This process of creep is sometimes known as "secondary consolidation" or "secondary compression" because it also involves gradual change of soil volume in response to an application of load; the designation "secondary" distinguishes it from "primary consolidation", which refers to volume change due
304:
In the narrow sense, "consolidation" refers strictly to this delayed volumetric response to pressure change due to gradual movement of water. Some publications also use "consolidation" in the broad sense, to refer to any process by which soil changes volume due to a change in applied pressure. This
759:
to determine their compressibility. In most theoretical formulations, a logarithmic relationship is assumed between the volume of the soil sample and the effective stress carried by the soil particles. The constant of proportionality (change in void ratio per order of magnitude change in effective
370:
to quantify the effects of consolidation. In an oedometer test, a series of known pressures are applied to a thin disc of soil sample, and the change of sample thickness with time is recorded. This allows the consolidation characteristics of the soil to be quantified in terms of the coefficient of
928:
1043:
1966:
741:
1654:
to dissipation of excess pore water pressure. Creep typically takes place over a longer time-scale than (primary) consolidation, such that even after the restoration of hydrostatic pressure some compression of soil takes place at slow rate.
1637:
The theoretical formulation above assumes that time-dependent volume change of a soil unit only depends on changes in effective stress due to the gradual restoration of steady-state pore water pressure. This is the case for most types of
1763:
1290:
has dissipated. Occasionally, soil strata form by natural deposition in rivers and seas may exist in an exceptionally low density that is impossible to achieve in an oedometer; this process is known as "intrinsic consolidation".
1308:, a container with a hole in its cover, and water. In this system, the spring represents the compressibility or the structure of the soil itself, and the water which fills the container represents the pore water in the soil.
1858:
463:
fully developed the three-dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously proposed by
Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic equations of
455:, whereas the latter considered the local Newton’s law for both liquid and solid phases, in which main variables, such as partial pressure, porosity, local velocity etc., were involved by means of the
1606:
1528:
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also occurs, whereby the soil changes volume gradually at constant effective stress. Soil creep is typically caused by viscous behavior of the clay-water system and compression of organic matter.
1239:{\displaystyle \delta _{c}={\frac {C_{r}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zc}'}{\sigma _{z0}'}}\right)+{\frac {C_{c}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zf}'}{\sigma _{zc}'}}\right)\ }
480:, consolidation is "any process which involves a decrease in water content of saturated soil without replacement of water by air". More generally, consolidation refers to the process by which
431:
Coarse-grained soils do not undergo consolidation settlement due to relatively high hydraulic conductivity compared to clays. Instead, Coarse-grained soils undergo the immediate settlement.
508:
Construction of compression and recompression curve. The curve, generally referred to as the virgin compression curve, approximately intersects the laboratory curve at a void ratio of 0.42
452:
815:
623:
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After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the applied load. (Full dissipation of excess pore water pressure. End of consolidation)
980:
recompression lines on a plot of void ratio against the logarithm of effective stress often idealised to take the same value, known as the "swelling index" (given the symbol
186:
1271:. The plot's slope is the compression index or recompression index. The equation for consolidation settlement of a normally consolidated soil can then be determined to be:
2288:
468:. Today, the Terzaghis’ one dimensional model is still the most utilized by engineers for its conceptual simplicity and because it is based on experimental data, such as
281:, the soil matrix gradually takes up the pressure change and shrinks in volume. The theoretical framework of consolidation is therefore closely related to the concept of
1866:
1323:
A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the water resists the applied load. (Development of excess pore water pressure)
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628:
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3253:
2016:"1923–2023: One Century since Formulation of the Effective Stress Principle, the Consolidation Theory and Fluid–Porous-Solid Interaction Models"
1338:
The time for consolidation to occur can be predicted. Sometimes consolidation can take years. This is especially true in saturated clays because their
472:, which are relatively simple, reliable and inexpensive and for which theoretical solutions in closed form are well known. According to the "father of
747:
Consolidation is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by the gradual expulsion or absorption of water under long-term static loads.
2129:"Preconsolidation stress in the Vega Baja and Media areas of the River Segura (SE Spain): Causes and relationship with piezometric level changes"
500:
The experimentally determined consolidation curve (blue dots) for a saturated clay showing a procedure for computing the preconsolidation stress.
273:
of water compared to the soil matrix means that the water initially absorbs all the change in pressure without changing volume, creating excess
2281:
1326:
As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring shortens. (Drainage of excess pore water pressure)
1342:
is extremely low, and this causes the water to take an exceptionally long time to drain out of the soil. While drainage is occurring, the
83:
38:
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149:
52:
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The soil which had its load removed is considered to be "overconsolidated". This is the case for soils that have previously had
504:
102:
1537:
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87:
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Analytically, the rate of creep is assumed to decay exponentially with time since application of load, giving the formula:
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109:
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Clays also undergo settlement when dewatered (groundwater pumping) because the effective stress on the clay increases.
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116:
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76:
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and clay with low amounts of organic material. However, in soils with a high amount of organic material such as
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This method assumes consolidation occurs in only one-dimension. Laboratory data is used to construct a plot of
923:{\displaystyle \delta _{c}={\frac {C_{c}}{1+e_{0}}}H\log \left({\frac {\sigma _{zf}'}{\sigma _{z0}'}}\right)\ }
289:. The early theoretical modern models were proposed one century ago, according to two different approaches, by
98:
810:
This can be expressed in the following equation, which is used to estimate the volume change of a soil layer:
2367:
1346:
is greater than normal because it is carrying part of the applied stress (as opposed to the soil particles).
3419:
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3003:
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2624:
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1981:
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44:
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1339:
286:
3038:
2847:
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363:
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2128:
344:
over many years. Types of construction project where consolidation often poses technical risk include
261:. This happens because soil is a three-phase material, comprising soil grains and pore fluid, usually
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3018:
2555:
2401:
1991:
1976:
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loads (surcharge loads) but also under its own weight or weight of soils that exist above the clay.
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322:
274:
2442:
1961:{\displaystyle m_{v}={\frac {\Delta V/V}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}={\frac {a_{v}}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}}
297:. The Terzaghi’s model is currently the most utilized in engineering practice and is based on the
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448:
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2037:
1268:
763:
477:
440:
290:
1320:
The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated soil)
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3265:
3152:
3043:
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2179:
2140:
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751:
736:{\displaystyle C_{C}={\frac {e_{1}-e_{2}}{log({\frac {\sigma _{2}^{'}}{\sigma _{1}^{'}}})}}}
345:
282:
3298:
2563:
2416:
1003:
783:
625:
you can easily construct the virgin curve and calculate its compression index by using Eq.
565:
538:
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3381:
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3058:
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2543:
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1758:{\displaystyle S_{s}={\frac {H_{0}}{1+e_{0}}}C_{a}\log \left({\frac {t}{t_{95}}}\right)\ }
1305:
1279:
306:
266:
439:
The first modern theoretical models for soil consolidation were proposed in the 1920s by
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2579:
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1986:
1304:
The process of consolidation is often explained with an idealized system composed of a
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2032:
2015:
1454:
is defined as the coefficient of consolidation found using the log method with
447:, according to two substantially different approaches. The former was based on
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Tomás, R.; Domenech, C.; Mira, A.; Cuenca, A.; Delgado, J. (2007-05-22).
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1282:. The highest stress that it has been subjected to is termed the "
562:
is the void ratio of the clay in the field. Knowing the values of
349:
234:
421:
Clays undergo consolidation settlement not only by the action of
3258:
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481:
254:
2270:
277:. As water diffuses away from regions of high pressure due to
161:
59:
18:
2168:"On the compressibility and shear strength of natural clays"
1853:{\displaystyle a_{v}={\frac {\Delta e}{\Delta \sigma _{'}}}}
760:
stress) is known as the compression index, given the symbol
328:
The effects of consolidation are most conspicuous where a
1601:{\displaystyle C_{v}={\frac {T_{95}H_{dr}^{2}}{t_{95}}}}
1523:{\displaystyle C_{v}={\frac {T_{50}H_{dr}^{2}}{t_{50}}}}
1444:
is the average longest drain path during consolidation.
1424:{\displaystyle T_{v}={\frac {c_{v}*t}{(H_{dr})^{2}}}\ }
182:
1791:
is the length of time for achieving 95% consolidation
1785:
t is the length of time after consolidation considered
305:
broader definition encompasses the overall concept of
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818:
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257:
changes volume gradually in response to a change in
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177:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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269:is subjected to an increase in pressure, the high
2085:Lambe, T. William; Whitman, Robert V. (1969).
2282:
2055:Schofield, Andrew Noel; Wroth, Peter (1968).
1614:time to 50% deformation (consolidation) and t
488:, encompassing both compaction and swelling.
8:
1795:Deformation characteristics of consolidation
1334:Analytical formulation of consolidation rate
1252:is the preconsolidation stress of the soil.
2009:
2007:
317:. Some types of soil, mainly those rich in
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3142:
2875:
2731:
2323:
2289:
2275:
2267:
2114:Base slab heave in over-consolidated clay
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1945:
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1804:
1771:is the height of the consolidating medium
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1127:
1111:
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1083:
1066:
1060:
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1005:
1000:when calculated in natural logarithm and
985:
961:H is the height of the compressible soil.
899:
883:
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838:
832:
823:
817:
791:
785:
780:when calculated in natural logarithm and
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484:change volume in response to a change in
403:
382:
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223:Learn how and when to remove this message
205:Learn how and when to remove this message
189:, without removing the technical details.
150:Learn how and when to remove this message
16:Process by which soils decrease in volume
2262:, John Wiley&Sons, Inc., p. 265
1267:where the effective stress axis is on a
503:
495:
2116:(MRes thesis). University of Cambridge.
2003:
1027:when calculated in base-10 logarithm).
940:is the settlement due to consolidation.
1863:Coefficient of volume compressibility
1278:on them or that have been affected by
807:when calculated in base-10 logarithm.
2014:Guerriero, Vincenzo (December 2022).
535:(Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). Note that
187:make it understandable to non-experts
7:
2080:
2078:
88:adding citations to reliable sources
1315:Schematic diagram of spring analogy
332:sits over a layer of soil with low
1938:
1902:
1886:
1830:
1822:
1783:is the secondary compression index
14:
2307:Offshore geotechnical engineering
34:This article has multiple issues.
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2524:
2514:
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2461:
2449:
2437:
2415:
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2374:
2362:
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2338:
166:
64:
23:
1799:Coefficient of compressibility
975:is the initial vertical stress.
618:{\displaystyle \sigma _{c}^{'}}
75:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
1406:
1389:
727:
682:
398:) and hydraulic conductivity (
336:and low permeability, such as
1:
2957:Mechanically stabilized earth
2166:Burland, J. B. (1990-09-01).
2058:Critical State Soil Mechanics
1447:t is the time at measurement
968:is the final vertical stress.
2709:Hydraulic conductivity tests
2145:10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.01.006
3270:Stress distribution in soil
3441:
2420:Pore pressure measurement
2260:Theoretical soil mechanics
2240:(in Korean) (4 ed.),
2184:10.1680/geot.1990.40.3.329
2112:Chan, Deryck Y.K. (2016).
2033:10.3390/geotechnics2040045
492:Magnitude of volume change
3173:Preconsolidation pressure
2568:Standard penetration test
2304:
1777:is the initial void ratio
947:is the compression index.
755:soils are tested with an
2669:California bearing ratio
2467:Rotary-pressure sounding
2298:Geotechnical engineering
2204:Cornell University, 1950
1532:or the root method with
773:{\displaystyle \lambda }
3089:Geosynthetic clay liner
3064:Expanded clay aggregate
2684:Proctor compaction test
2625:Crosshole sonic logging
2611:Nuclear densometer test
2368:Geo-electrical sounding
2258:Terzaghi, Karl (1943),
2218:Coduto, Donald (2001),
1982:Settlement (structural)
1284:preconsolidation stress
993:{\displaystyle \kappa }
435:History and terminology
241:University of Cambridge
3352:Earthquake engineering
3163:Lateral earth pressure
2788:Hydraulic conductivity
2639:Wave equation analysis
2618:Exploration geophysics
2510:Deformation monitoring
2479:Rotary weight sounding
2236:Kim, Myung-mo (2000),
1962:
1854:
1759:
1602:
1524:
1425:
1340:hydraulic conductivity
1316:
1240:
1021:
994:
924:
801:
774:
744:
737:
619:
583:
556:
529:
501:
412:
392:
364:Geotechnical engineers
348:, the construction of
287:hydraulic conductivity
243:
239:Two oedometers at the
2530:Settlement recordings
2455:Rock control drilling
2356:Cone penetration test
1963:
1855:
1760:
1603:
1525:
1426:
1314:
1241:
1022:
1020:{\displaystyle C_{S}}
995:
925:
802:
800:{\displaystyle C_{C}}
775:
738:
620:
584:
582:{\displaystyle e_{0}}
557:
555:{\displaystyle e_{0}}
530:
528:{\displaystyle e_{0}}
507:
499:
413:
393:
391:{\displaystyle C_{v}}
238:
3392:Agricultural science
3094:Cellular confinement
1992:Vacuum consolidation
1977:Compaction (geology)
1867:
1803:
1663:
1646:, the phenomenon of
1538:
1460:
1437:is the time factor.
1352:
1044:
1034:can be replaced by C
1004:
984:
816:
784:
764:
629:
593:
566:
539:
512:
402:
375:
360:excavation in clay.
271:volumetric stiffness
267:saturated with water
99:"Soil consolidation"
84:improve this article
3284:Numerical analysis
3168:Overburden pressure
3158:Pore water pressure
2938:Shoring structures
2813:Reynolds' dilatancy
2714:Water content tests
2699:Triaxial shear test
2659:Soil classification
2632:Pile integrity test
2133:Engineering Geology
1584:
1506:
1344:pore water pressure
1288:pore water pressure
1226:
1210:
1138:
1122:
910:
894:
724:
705:
614:
449:diffusion equations
340:, leading to large
321:, show significant
275:pore water pressure
3259:Slab stabilisation
3239:Stability analysis
1958:
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299:diffusion equation
251:mechanical process
247:Soil consolidation
244:
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3254:Sliding criterion
3216:Response spectrum
3132:
3131:
2962:Pressure grouting
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2860:
2721:
2720:
2674:Direct shear test
2380:Permeability test
2222:, Prentice-Hall,
2220:Foundation Design
1956:
1920:
1848:
1754:
1746:
1709:
1596:
1518:
1420:
1416:
1269:logarithmic scale
1235:
1227:
1178:
1139:
1090:
919:
911:
862:
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478:Karl von Terzaghi
453:eulerian notation
411:{\displaystyle K}
233:
232:
225:
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207:
160:
159:
152:
134:
57:
3432:
3266:Bearing capacity
3153:Effective stress
3143:
3044:Land reclamation
2984:Land development
2879:Natural features
2876:
2843:Specific storage
2732:
2664:Atterberg limits
2602:
2590:
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2503:Screw plate test
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2046:
2045:
2035:
2011:
1967:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1936:
1935:
1926:
1921:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1900:
1896:
1884:
1879:
1878:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1828:
1820:
1815:
1814:
1764:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1745:
1744:
1732:
1720:
1719:
1710:
1708:
1707:
1706:
1690:
1689:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1585:
1583:
1578:
1566:
1565:
1555:
1550:
1549:
1529:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1507:
1505:
1500:
1488:
1487:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1430:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1404:
1403:
1387:
1380:
1379:
1369:
1364:
1363:
1265:effective stress
1245:
1243:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1206:
1194:
1179:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1159:
1158:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1118:
1106:
1091:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1071:
1070:
1061:
1056:
1055:
1026:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1015:
999:
997:
996:
991:
929:
927:
926:
921:
917:
916:
912:
906:
890:
878:
863:
861:
860:
859:
843:
842:
833:
828:
827:
806:
804:
803:
798:
796:
795:
779:
777:
776:
771:
742:
740:
739:
734:
732:
730:
726:
723:
722:
714:
704:
703:
695:
686:
671:
670:
669:
657:
656:
646:
641:
640:
624:
622:
621:
616:
613:
612:
604:
588:
586:
585:
580:
578:
577:
561:
559:
558:
553:
551:
550:
534:
532:
531:
526:
524:
523:
417:
415:
414:
409:
397:
395:
394:
389:
387:
386:
346:land reclamation
283:effective stress
228:
221:
210:
203:
199:
196:
190:
170:
169:
162:
155:
148:
144:
141:
135:
133:
92:
68:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
3440:
3439:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3403:
3382:Earth materials
3323:
3285:
3274:
3183:
3177:
3128:
3105:
3059:Earth structure
3054:Erosion control
2952:Ground freezing
2942:Retaining walls
2925:
2867:
2857:
2818:Angle of repose
2776:
2717:
2651:
2644:
2643:
2604:Visible bedrock
2556:Simple sounding
2544:Shear vane test
2320:instrumentation
2319:
2317:
2309:
2300:
2295:
2257:
2252:
2235:
2230:
2217:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2099:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2069:
2061:. McGraw-Hill.
2054:
2053:
2049:
2013:
2012:
2005:
2000:
1973:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1927:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1885:
1870:
1865:
1864:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1821:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1790:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1770:
1736:
1727:
1711:
1698:
1691:
1681:
1666:
1661:
1660:
1635:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1613:
1586:
1557:
1556:
1541:
1536:
1535:
1508:
1479:
1478:
1463:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1443:
1436:
1405:
1392:
1388:
1371:
1370:
1355:
1350:
1349:
1336:
1302:
1297:
1295:Time dependency
1280:land subsidence
1251:
1189:
1167:
1160:
1150:
1101:
1079:
1072:
1062:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1007:
1002:
1001:
982:
981:
974:
967:
954:is the initial
953:
946:
939:
873:
851:
844:
834:
819:
814:
813:
787:
782:
781:
762:
761:
716:
697:
672:
661:
648:
647:
632:
627:
626:
606:
591:
590:
569:
564:
563:
542:
537:
536:
515:
510:
509:
494:
470:oedometer tests
437:
400:
399:
378:
373:
372:
371:consolidation (
307:soil compaction
229:
218:
217:
216:
211:
200:
194:
191:
183:help improve it
180:
171:
167:
156:
145:
139:
136:
93:
91:
81:
69:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3438:
3436:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3420:Soil mechanics
3412:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3333:
3331:
3329:Related fields
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3290:
3288:
3280:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3249:Classification
3246:
3241:
3230:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3221:Seismic hazard
3218:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3187:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3149:
3147:
3140:
3134:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3115:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2935:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2882:
2880:
2873:
2863:
2862:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2848:Shear strength
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2823:Friction angle
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2784:
2782:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2738:
2736:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2704:Oedometer test
2701:
2696:
2694:Sieve analysis
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2654:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2595:
2594:
2583:
2582:
2580:Total sounding
2571:
2570:
2559:
2558:
2547:
2546:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2522:
2506:
2505:
2494:
2493:
2482:
2481:
2470:
2469:
2458:
2457:
2446:
2445:
2434:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2383:
2382:
2371:
2370:
2359:
2358:
2347:
2346:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2321:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2286:
2279:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2255:
2250:
2238:Soil Mechanics
2233:
2228:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2197:
2178:(3): 329–378.
2158:
2139:(2): 135–151.
2119:
2104:
2097:
2088:Soil mechanics
2074:
2067:
2047:
2026:(4): 961–988.
2002:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1987:Soil mechanics
1984:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1824:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1750:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1688:
1684:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1634:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1611:
1593:
1589:
1582:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1564:
1560:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1470:
1466:
1451:
1441:
1434:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1301:
1300:Spring analogy
1298:
1296:
1293:
1249:
1231:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1202:
1198:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1143:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1035:
1031:
1014:
1010:
989:
977:
976:
972:
969:
965:
962:
959:
951:
948:
944:
941:
937:
915:
909:
905:
902:
898:
893:
889:
886:
882:
876:
872:
869:
866:
858:
854:
850:
847:
841:
837:
831:
826:
822:
794:
790:
769:
757:oedometer test
729:
721:
718:
713:
709:
702:
699:
694:
690:
684:
681:
678:
675:
668:
664:
660:
655:
651:
644:
639:
635:
611:
608:
603:
599:
576:
572:
549:
545:
522:
518:
493:
490:
474:soil mechanics
466:poroelasticity
457:mixture theory
436:
433:
407:
385:
381:
319:organic matter
295:Paul Fillunger
249:refers to the
231:
230:
213:
212:
174:
172:
165:
158:
157:
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3437:
3426:
3425:Sedimentology
3423:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3398:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3357:Geomorphology
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3281:
3271:
3267:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3201:Consolidation
3199:
3197:
3196:Frost heaving
3194:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3180:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3135:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3099:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3074:Geosynthetics
3072:
3070:
3069:Crushed stone
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3024:Cut-and-cover
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2928:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2874:
2871:
2864:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2793:Water content
2791:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2724:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2653:
2647:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2623:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2596:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2491:Sample series
2488:
2484:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2325:
2322:
2316:
2315:Investigation
2312:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2287:
2285:
2280:
2278:
2273:
2272:
2269:
2261:
2256:
2253:
2251:89-7393-053-2
2247:
2244:: Munundang,
2243:
2239:
2234:
2231:
2229:0-13-589706-8
2225:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2201:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2123:
2120:
2115:
2108:
2105:
2100:
2098:9780471511922
2094:
2090:
2089:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2068:9780641940484
2064:
2060:
2059:
2051:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1968:
1949:
1947:
1942:
1932:
1928:
1922:
1913:
1911:
1906:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1841:
1839:
1834:
1825:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1794:
1792:
1765:
1748:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1686:
1682:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1632:
1630:
1619:
1608:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1562:
1558:
1551:
1546:
1542:
1533:
1530:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1455:
1448:
1445:
1438:
1431:
1410:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1384:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1333:
1328:
1325:
1322:
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291:Karl Terzaghi
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101: –
100:
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95:Find sources:
89:
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79:
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73:This article
71:
67:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
3377:Biogeography
3372:Hydrogeology
3362:Soil science
3342:Geochemistry
3101:Infiltration
3029:Cut and fill
2972:Soil nailing
2838:Permeability
2803:Bulk density
2529:
2520:Inclinometer
2443:Ram sounding
2328:
2259:
2237:
2219:
2212:Bibliography
2200:
2175:
2172:Géotechnique
2171:
2161:
2136:
2132:
2122:
2113:
2107:
2087:
2057:
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2019:
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978:
931:
812:
809:
749:
746:
438:
430:
427:
422:
420:
362:
327:
303:
265:. When soil
246:
245:
219:
201:
192:
176:
146:
137:
127:
120:
113:
106:
94:
82:Please help
77:verification
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
3387:Archaeology
3111:Foundations
3084:Geomembrane
2967:Slurry wall
2906:Water table
2870:Interaction
2866:Structures
2853:Sensitivity
2650:Laboratory
2020:Geotechnics
350:embankments
338:marine clay
263:groundwater
3414:Categories
3244:Mitigation
3226:Shear wave
3211:Earthquake
3206:Compaction
3191:Permafrost
3182:Phenomena/
3079:Geotextile
3004:Embankment
2994:Excavation
2931:Earthworks
2891:Vegetation
2886:Topography
2808:Thixotropy
2798:Void ratio
2781:Properties
2679:Hydrometer
2424:Piezometer
2344:Core drill
1998:References
1261:void ratio
956:void ratio
368:oedometers
342:settlement
311:subsidence
195:March 2017
140:March 2017
110:newspapers
39:improve it
3367:Hydrology
3347:Petrology
3235:analysis
3233:Landslide
3138:Mechanics
3049:Track bed
3034:Fill dirt
3019:Terracing
2592:Trial pit
2407:Statnamic
2392:Load test
2192:0016-8505
2153:0013-7952
2091:. Wiley.
2042:2673-7094
1943:σ
1939:Δ
1907:σ
1903:Δ
1887:Δ
1835:σ
1831:Δ
1823:Δ
1725:
1382:∗
1213:σ
1197:σ
1187:
1125:σ
1109:σ
1099:
1049:δ
988:κ
897:σ
881:σ
871:
821:δ
768:λ
708:σ
689:σ
659:−
598:σ
445:Fillunger
334:stiffness
253:by which
45:talk page
3397:Agrology
3286:software
3184:problems
3014:Causeway
2989:Landfill
2916:Subgrade
2833:Porosity
2828:Cohesion
1971:See also
1950:′
1914:′
1842:′
1625:=1.129 T
1276:glaciers
1224:′
1208:′
1136:′
1120:′
908:′
892:′
720:′
701:′
610:′
486:pressure
441:Terzaghi
423:external
358:basement
330:building
259:pressure
3337:Geology
3309:SVSlope
3119:Shallow
3039:Grading
2977:Tieback
2921:Subsoil
2911:Bedrock
2901:Topsoil
2896:Terrain
2689:R-value
2652:testing
2402:Dynamic
2329:in situ
2327:Field (
1767:Where H
1629:=0.197
1621:Where T
1618:is 95%
1433:Where T
1263:versus
1248:where σ
279:seepage
181:Please
124:scholar
3319:Plaxis
3314:UTEXAS
3304:SVFlux
3294:SEEP2D
3146:Forces
2999:Trench
2947:Gabion
2757:Gravel
2397:Static
2248:
2226:
2190:
2151:
2095:
2065:
2040:
1753:
1419:
1306:spring
1257:strain
1234:
932:where
918:
752:stress
354:tunnel
352:, and
313:, and
285:, and
126:
119:
112:
105:
97:
3299:STABL
2772:Loess
2735:Types
2242:Seoul
1648:creep
1633:Creep
750:When
482:soils
323:creep
315:heave
131:JSTOR
117:books
3124:Deep
2767:Loam
2762:Peat
2752:Sand
2747:Silt
2742:Clay
2727:Soil
2429:Well
2246:ISBN
2224:ISBN
2188:ISSN
2149:ISSN
2093:ISBN
2063:ISBN
2038:ISSN
1644:peat
1640:sand
589:and
461:Biot
443:and
366:use
356:and
293:and
255:soil
103:news
3009:Cut
2318:and
2180:doi
2141:doi
2028:doi
1722:log
1259:or
1184:log
1096:log
868:log
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451:in
418:).
185:to
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3268:*
2186:.
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2174:.
2170:.
2147:.
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2135:.
2131:.
2077:^
2036:.
2022:.
2018:.
2006:^
1789:95
1742:95
1627:50
1623:95
1616:95
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1514:50
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1442:dr
1250:zc
973:z0
966:zf
309:,
301:.
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2872:)
2868:(
2331:)
2290:e
2283:t
2276:v
2194:.
2182::
2155:.
2143::
2101:.
2071:.
2044:.
2030::
2024:2
1933:v
1929:a
1923:=
1898:V
1894:/
1890:V
1881:=
1876:v
1872:m
1826:e
1817:=
1812:v
1808:a
1787:t
1781:a
1779:C
1775:0
1773:e
1769:0
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1738:t
1734:t
1729:(
1717:a
1713:C
1704:0
1700:e
1696:+
1693:1
1687:0
1683:H
1677:=
1672:s
1668:S
1610:t
1588:t
1581:2
1576:r
1573:d
1569:H
1559:T
1552:=
1547:v
1543:C
1510:t
1503:2
1498:r
1495:d
1491:H
1481:T
1474:=
1469:v
1465:C
1452:v
1450:C
1440:H
1435:v
1411:2
1407:)
1401:r
1398:d
1394:H
1390:(
1385:t
1377:v
1373:c
1366:=
1361:v
1357:T
1230:)
1220:c
1217:z
1204:f
1201:z
1191:(
1181:H
1173:0
1169:e
1165:+
1162:1
1156:c
1152:C
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1142:)
1132:0
1129:z
1116:c
1113:z
1103:(
1093:H
1085:0
1081:e
1077:+
1074:1
1068:r
1064:C
1058:=
1053:c
1036:r
1032:c
1030:C
1013:S
1009:C
971:σ
964:σ
958:.
952:0
950:e
945:c
943:C
938:c
936:δ
914:)
904:0
901:z
888:f
885:z
875:(
865:H
857:0
853:e
849:+
846:1
840:c
836:C
830:=
825:c
793:C
789:C
743:.
728:)
712:1
693:2
683:(
680:g
677:o
674:l
667:2
663:e
654:1
650:e
643:=
638:C
634:C
602:c
575:0
571:e
548:0
544:e
521:0
517:e
406:K
384:v
380:C
226:)
220:(
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202:(
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193:(
179:.
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142:)
138:(
128:·
121:·
114:·
107:·
80:.
55:)
51:(
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