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262:, Italy. Borexino is an actively used detector, and experiments are on-going at the site. The goal of the Borexino experiment is measuring low energy, typically below 1 MeV, solar neutrinos in real-time. The detector is a complex structure consisting of photomultipliers, electrons, and calibration systems making it equipped to take proper measurements of the low energy solar neutrinos. Photomultipliers are used as the detection device in this system as they are able to detect light for extremely weak signals.
156:, an Italo-Russian astrophysicist, suggested a new idea that maybe we do not quite understand neutrinos like we think we do, and that neutrinos could change in some way, meaning the neutrinos that are released by the sun changed form and were no longer neutrinos the way neutrinos were thought of by the time they reached Earth where the experiment was conducted. This theory Pontecorvo had would make sense in accounting for the discrepancy between the experimental and theoretical results that persisted.
118:), aimed to count the solar neutrinos arriving at Earth. Bahcall, using a solar model he developed, came to the conclusion that the most effective way to study solar neutrinos would be via the chlorine-argon reaction. Using his model, Bahcall was able to calculate the number of neutrinos expected to arrive at Earth from the Sun. Once the theoretical value was determined, the astrophysicists began pursuing experimental confirmation. Davis developed the idea of taking hundreds of thousands of liters of
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making the results more precise, the difference still remained. Davis even repeated his experiment changing the sensitivity and other factors to make sure nothing was overlooked, but he found nothing and the results still showed "missing" neutrinos. By the end of the 1970s, the widely expected result was the experimental data yielded about 39% of the calculated number of neutrinos. In 1969,
209:
in addition to neutrino observation is cosmic ray observation as well as searching for proton decay. In 1998, the Super-Kamiokande was the site of the Super-Kamiokande experiment which led to the discovery of neutrino oscillation, the process by neutrinos change their flavor, either to electron, muon
130:, and searching for neutrinos using a chlorine-argon detector. The process was conducted very far underground, hence the decision to conduct the experiment in Homestake as the town was home to the Homestake Gold Mine. By conducting the experiment deep underground, Bahcall and Davis were able to avoid
1206:
The critical issue of the solar neutrino problem, that many astrophysicists interested in solar neutrinos studied and attempted to solve in late 1900s and early 2000s, is solved. In the 21st century, even without a main problem to solve, there is still unique and novel research ongoing in this field
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Theoretical curves of survival probability of solar neutrinos that arrive on day (orange, continuous) or on night (purple, dashed), as a function of the energy of the neutrinos. Also shown the four values of the energy of the neutrinos at which measurements have been performed, corresponding to four
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The Super-Kamiokande experiment began in 1996 and is still active. In the experiment, the detector works by being able to spot neutrinos by analyzing water molecules and detecting electrons being removed from them which then produces a blue
Cherenkov light, which is produced by neutrinos. Therefore,
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Solar models additionally predict the location within the Sun's core where solar neutrinos should originate, depending on the nuclear fusion reaction which leads to their production. Future neutrino detectors will be able to detect the incoming direction of these neutrinos with enough precision to
265:
Solar neutrinos are able to provide direct insight into the core of the Sun because that is where the solar neutrinos originate. Solar neutrinos leaving the Sun's core reach Earth before light does due to the fact solar neutrinos do not interact with any other particle or subatomic particle during
138:
conversions each day, and the first results were not yielded by the team until 1968. To their surprise, the experimental value of the solar neutrinos present was less than 20% of the theoretical value
Bahcall calculated. At the time, it was unknown if there was an error with the experiment or with
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at a rate of 144±33/day, consistent with the predicted rate of 131±2/day that was expected based on the standard solar model prediction that the pp-reaction generates 99% of the Sun's luminosity and their analysis of the detector's efficiency. And in 2020, Borexino reported the first detection of
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are most sensitive to the solar neutrinos produced by the proton–proton chain reaction process, however they were not able to observe this contribution separately. The observation of the neutrinos from the basic reaction of this chain, proton–proton fusion in deuterium, was achieved for the first
956:
This alternative boron-yielding reaction produces about 0.02% of the solar neutrinos; although so few that they would conventionally be neglected, these rare solar neutrinos stand out because of their higher average energies. The asterisk (*) on the beryllium-8 nucleus indicates that it is in an
151:
Davis and
Bahcall continued their work to understand where they may have gone wrong or what they were missing, along with other astrophysicists who also did their own research on the subject. Many reviewed and redid Bahcall's calculations in the 1970s and 1980s, and although there was more data
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The highest flux of solar neutrinos come directly from the proton–proton interaction, and have a low energy, up to 400 keV. There are also several other significant production mechanisms, with energies up to 18 MeV. From the Earth, the amount of neutrino flux at Earth is around
1250:. The search was completed using data from exposure from the Borexino experiment's second phase which consisted of data over 1291.5 days (3.54 years). The results yielded that the electron recoil spectrum shape was as expected with no major changes or deviations from it.
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The greatest number of solar neutrinos are direct products of the proton–proton reaction (tall, dark blue curve on the left). They have a low energy – only reaching up to 400 keV. There are several other significant production mechanisms, with energies up to
773:
This lithium-yielding reaction produces approximately 7% of the solar neutrinos. The resulting lithium-7 later combines with a proton to produce two nuclei of helium-4. The alternative reaction is proton capture, that produces boron-8, which then beta decays into
1194:, a Canadian physicist, was a key contributor in building the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in the mid 1980s and later became the director of the SNO and leader of the team that solved the solar neutrino problem. McDonald, along with Japanese physicist
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was the first to suggest the idea of a particle such as the neutrino existing in our universe in 1930. He believed such a particle to be completely massless. This was the belief amongst the astrophysics community until the solar neutrino problem was solved.
20:
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of various ages that have been exposed to solar neutrinos over geologic time, it may be possible to interrogate the luminosity of the Sun over time, which, according to the standard solar model, has changed over the eons as the (presently) inert byproduct
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Note that
Borexino measured neutrinos of several energies; in this manner they have demonstrated experimentally, for the first time, the pattern of solar neutrino oscillations predicted by the theory. Neutrinos can trigger nuclear reactions. By looking at
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The SNO is also a heavy-water
Cherenkov detector and designed to work the same way as the Super-Kamiokande. The Neutrinos when reacted with heavy water produce the blue Cherenkov light, signaling the detection of neutrinos to researchers and observers.
232:, Canada, is the other site where neutrino oscillation research was taking place in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The results from experiments at this observatory along with those at Super-Kamiokande are what helped solve the solar neutrino problem.
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The energy spectrum of solar neutrinos is also predicted by solar models. It is essential to know this energy spectrum because different neutrino detection experiments are sensitive to different neutrino energy ranges. The
Homestake experiment used
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Of all Solar neutrinos, approximately 91% are produced from this reaction. As shown in the figure titled "Solar neutrinos (proton–proton chain) in the standard solar model", the deuteron will fuse with another proton to create a
483:
1040:
1238:. The results from this research yielded significantly different findings compared to past research in terms of the overall flux spectrum. Currently technology does not yet exist to put these findings to the test.
83:
270:) bounces around from particle to particle. The Borexino experiment used this phenomenon to discover that the Sun releases the same amount of energy currently as it did a 100,000 years ago.
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Pontecorvo, known as the first astrophysicist to suggest the idea neutrinos have some mass and can oscillate, never received a Nobel Prize for his contributions due to his passing in 1993.
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proved and supported
Pontecorvo's theory and discovered that neutrinos released from the Sun can in fact change form or flavor because they are not completely massless. This discovery of
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Vinyoles, Núria; Serenelli, Aldo M.; Villante, Francesco L.; Basu, Sarbani; Bergström, Johannes; Gonzalez-Garcia, M. C.; Maltoni, Michele; Peña-Garay, Carlos; Song, Ningqiang (2017).
2349:
The
Borexino collaboration; Agostini, M.; AltenmĂĽller, K.; Appel, S.; Atroshchenko, V.; Bagdasarian, Z.; Basilico, D.; Bellini, G.; Benziger, J.; Bick, D.; Bonfini, G. (2017-11-29).
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reactions, each of which occurs at a particular rate and leads to its own spectrum of neutrino energies. Details of the more prominent of these reactions are described below.
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Agostini, M.; AltenmĂĽller, K.; Appel, S.; Atroshchenko, V.; Bagdasarian, Z.; Basilico, D.; Bellini, G.; Benziger, J.; Biondi, R.; Bravo, D.; Caccianiga, B. (November 2020).
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Pontecorvo was never able to prove his theory, but he was on to something with his thinking. In 2002, results from an experiment conducted 2100 meters underground at the
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Alimonti, G.; Arpesella, C.; Back, H.; Balata, M.; Bartolomei, D.; de
Bellefon, A.; Bellini, G.; Benziger, J.; Bevilacqua, A.; Bondi, D.; Bonetti, S. (March 2009).
1106:) that produces 1 in 400 deuterium nuclei in the Sun. The detector contained 100 metric tons of liquid and saw on average 3 events each day (due to
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interactions which could affect the process and results. The entire experiment lasted several years as it was able to detect only a few chlorine to
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1064:, but the number of neutrinos detected on Earth versus the number of neutrinos predicted are different by a factor of a third, which is the
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for extremely low energies (keV range). Processes at these low energies consisted vital information that told researchers about the solar
1185:
won the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 2002 after the solar neutrino problem was solved for their contributions in helping solve the problem.
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the calculations, or if Bahcall and Davis did not account for all variables, but this discrepancy gave birth to what became known as the
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259:
1659:"Molecular Expressions Microscopy Primer: Digital Imaging in Optical Microscopy - Concepts in Digital Imaging - Photomultiplier Tubes"
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1115:
1103:
239:
1615:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
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1978:
Witze, Alexandra (10 March 2012). "Elusive solar neutrinos spotted, detection reveals more about reaction that powers sun".
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Davis, Jonathan H. (2016). "Projections for measuring the size of the solar core with neutrino-electron scattering".
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nucleus and an electron neutrino, or alternatively, it could capture one of the abundant protons, which would create
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102:
The timeline of solar neutrinos and their discovery dates back to the 1960s, beginning with the two astrophysicists
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1102:
in 2014. In 2012 the same collaboration reported detecting low-energy neutrinos for the proton–electron–proton (
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Be. The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is most sensitive to solar neutrinos produced by B. The detectors that use
2001:
Borexino Collaboration (27 August 2014). "Neutrinos from the primary proton–proton fusion process in the Sun".
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Diagram showing the Sun's components. The core is where nuclear fusion takes place, creating solar neutrinos.
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Bellini, G.; et al. (2012). "First evidence of p-e-p solar neutrinos by direct detection in Borexino".
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940:{\displaystyle {^{8}}{\text{B}}\to {^{8}}{\text{Be}}{^{*}}+{\text{e}}^{+}+\operatorname {\nu } _{\text{e}}}
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solved the solar neutrino problem, nearly 40 years after Davis and Bahcall began studying solar neutrinos.
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can follow two different paths from this stage: It could capture an electron and produce the more stable
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763:{\displaystyle {^{7}}{\text{Be}}+{\text{e}}^{-}\to {^{7}}{\text{Li}}+\operatorname {\nu } _{\text{e}}}
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Raymond Davis and John Bahcall are the pioneers of solar neutrino studies. While Bahcall never won a
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when this detection of blue light happens it can be inferred that a neutrino is present and counted.
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52:
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368:{\displaystyle {\text{p}}+{\text{p}}\to {\text{d}}+{\text{e}}^{+}+\operatorname {\nu } _{\text{e}}}
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The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO), a 2,100 m (6,900 ft) underground observatory in
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7·10 particles·cm·s . The number of neutrinos can be predicted with great confidence by the
664:{\displaystyle {^{3}}{\text{He}}+{^{4}}{\text{He}}\to {^{7}}{\text{Be}}+\operatorname {\gamma } }
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excited, unstable state. The excited beryllium-8 nucleus then splits into two helium-4 nuclei:
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1226:. Solar metallicity is the measure of elements present in the particle that are heavier than
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both received a Nobel Prize for their work discovering the oscillation of neutrinos in 2015.
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The isotope He can be produced by using the He in the previous reaction which is seen below.
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now in the environment, one of each weight of helium nucleus can fuse to produce beryllium:
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reaction. In 2014, Borexino reported a successful direct detection of neutrinos from the
842:{\displaystyle {^{7}}{\text{Be}}+{\text{p}}\to {^{8}}{\text{B}}+\operatorname {\gamma } }
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567:{\displaystyle {^{3}}{\text{He}}+{^{3}}{\text{He}}\to {^{4}}{\text{He}}+2\,{\text{p}}}
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This research, published in 2017, aimed to search for the solar neutrino effective
1216:
478:{\displaystyle {\text{d}}+{\text{p}}\to {^{3}}{\text{He}}+\operatorname {\gamma } }
285:
115:
1075:
75:. Much is now known about solar neutrinos, but research in this field is ongoing.
19:
2320:
47:, and is the most common type of neutrino passing through any source observed on
2826:
2773:
2768:
2755:
2740:
2725:
2698:
2608:
2562:
2410:; Serenelli, Aldo M. (18 August 2013). "Solar Neutrinos: Status and Prospects".
2403:
2256:
2080:"Experimental evidence of neutrinos produced in the CNO fusion cycle in the Sun"
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1223:
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2,700 meters (8,900 ft) underground. The primary uses for this detector in
2385:
2351:"Limiting neutrino magnetic moments with Borexino Phase-II solar neutrino data"
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2900:
2730:
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1803:
1035:{\displaystyle {^{8}}{\text{Be}}{^{*}}\to {^{4}}{\text{He}}+{^{4}}{\text{He}}}
131:
44:
2298:
2151:
Haxton, W.C. (1990). "Proposed neutrino monitor of long-term solar burning".
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1447:
Walter, Christopher W.; for the Super-Kamiokande collaboration (March 2008),
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Limiting neutrino magnetic moments with Borexino Phase-II solar neutrino data
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1987:
1521:
Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences
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1955:
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71:, making their detection very difficult. This has led to the now-resolved
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32:
2022:
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This research, published in 2017, aimed to solve the solar neutrino and
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were the first astrophysicists to detect neutrinos in 1956. They won a
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and was most sensitive to solar neutrinos produced by the decay of the
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68:
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Solar neutrinos are produced in the core of the Sun through various
2367:
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2255:
Vitagliano, Edoardo; Redondo, Javier; Raffelt, Georg (2017-12-06).
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1851:
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1930:
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1611:"The Borexino detector at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso"
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135:
48:
2920:
1235:
1219:
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2499:
1772:
Bellerive, A. (2004). "Review of solar neutrino experiments".
1517:"Atmospheric neutrinos and discovery of neutrino oscillations"
1169:
Raymond Davis Jr receives the Medal of Science from President
40:
114:, named after the town in which it was conducted (Homestake,
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nucleus and a gamma ray. This reaction can be seen as:
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1154:, from the University of California at Irvine, and
1234:, typically in this field this element is usually
1034:
939:
841:
762:
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566:
477:
397:
367:
2053:"Borexino measures the Sun's energy in real time"
1767:
1765:
2261:Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
1774:International Journal of Modern Physics A
1371:"Solving the mystery of the missing neutrinos"
1080:different branches of the proton–proton chain.
2484:
8:
16:Extremely light particle produced by the Sun
2413:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
1687:"A New Generation of Standard Solar Models"
1123:neutrinos from deep within the solar core.
2558:
2491:
2477:
2469:
87:Diagram of the Homestake experiment set-up
2443:
2425:
2384:
2366:
2272:
2200:"Arthur B. McDonald | Canadian physicist"
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1982:. Vol. 181, no. 5. p. 14.
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2321:"Astronomy & Astrophysics (A&A)"
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258:The Borexino detector is located at the
166:Solar neutrino problem § Resolution
82:
51:at any particular moment. Neutrinos are
18:
1316:"Solar neutrinos | All Things Neutrino"
1296:
685:. The first reaction via lithium-7 is:
1824:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2257:"Solar neutrino flux at keV energies"
2250:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2194:
2192:
2190:
1344:Vignaud, AuthorDaniel (4 June 2018).
1285:Diffuse supernova neutrino background
300:The main contribution comes from the
63:. They only interact with matter via
7:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1455:, WORLD SCIENTIFIC, pp. 19–43,
1395:"Solar neutrino problem | cosmology"
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1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
2454:10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125539
1419:"Super-Kamiokande Official Website"
1211:Solar neutrino flux at keV energies
260:Laboratori Nazionali de Gran Sasso
160:Solution to solar neutrino problem
14:
1968:. 6 pages; preprint on arXiv
1449:"The Super-Kamiokande Experiment"
122:, a chemical compound made up of
2979:
2978:
1140:Key contributing astrophysicists
1110:) from this relatively uncommon
218:The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
110:. The experiment, known as the
1948:10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.051302
1869:10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.211101
1515:Kajita, Takaaki (April 2010).
994:
877:
812:
726:
634:
533:
448:
392:
327:
1:
2961:List of heliophysics missions
2291:10.1088/1475-7516/2017/12/010
1202:Current research and findings
1136:has accumulated in its core.
2966:Category:Missions to the Sun
1265:Neutral particle oscillation
224:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
172:Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
1899:"Solar neutrino viewgraphs"
1722:10.3847/1538-4357/835/2/202
3031:
2386:10.1103/PhysRevD.96.091103
2224:"Neutrino mass discovered"
2173:10.1103/physrevlett.65.809
1637:10.1016/j.nima.2008.11.076
1479:10.1142/9789812771971_0002
251:
243:Borexino detector exterior
221:
190:
163:
95:
2974:
2942:G-type main-sequence star
2506:
2114:10.1038/s41586-020-2934-0
1804:10.1142/S0217751X04019093
1691:The Astrophysical Journal
1423:www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp
581:Solar Neutrino Generation
266:their path, while light (
2805:In mythology and culture
1162:for their work in 1995.
2436:2013ARA&A..51...21H
2204:Encyclopedia Britannica
2153:Physical Review Letters
1988:10.1002/scin.5591810516
1918:Physical Review Letters
1839:Physical Review Letters
1399:Encyclopedia Britannica
1275:Stellar nucleosynthesis
585:With both helium-3 and
147:Further experimentation
2672:Supra-arcade downflows
2408:Hamish Robertson, R.G.
1744:Grupen, Claus (2005).
1174:
1160:Nobel Prize in Physics
1081:
1066:solar neutrino problem
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1036:
941:
843:
764:
665:
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568:
479:
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369:
297:
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201:is a 50,000 ton water
182:Neutrino observatories
141:solar neutrino problem
88:
79:History and background
73:solar neutrino problem
24:
2652:Coronal mass ejection
1746:Astroparticle Physics
1453:Neutrino Oscillations
1168:
1078:
1072:measure this effect.
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1037:
942:
844:
765:
666:
580:
569:
480:
400:
370:
288:
242:
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55:with extremely small
22:
2916:Standard solar model
2886:Solar radio emission
2704:List of solar cycles
1663:micro.magnet.fsu.edu
1062:standard solar model
964:
858:
785:
692:
596:
495:
432:
398:{\displaystyle \to }
389:
311:
295:standard solar model
176:neutrino oscillation
112:Homestake experiment
98:Homestake experiment
92:Homestake experiment
53:elementary particles
2736:Magnetic switchback
2377:2017PhRvD..96i1103A
2283:2017JCAP...12..010V
2165:1990PhRvL..65..809H
2106:2020Natur.587..577B
2059:. 23 September 2014
2023:10.1038/nature13702
2015:2014Natur.512..383B
1940:2012PhRvL.108e1302B
1861:2016PhRvL.117u1101D
1796:2004IJMPA..19.1167B
1713:2017ApJ...835..202V
1541:10.2183/pjab.86.303
1533:2010PJAB...86..303K
1471:2008nops.book...19W
1280:Supernova neutrinos
1270:Solar neutrino unit
1181:, Davis along with
304:. The reaction is:
302:proton–proton chain
291:proton–proton chain
3015:Neutrino astronomy
2926:Sunlight radiation
2521:Internal structure
1585:sno.phy.queensu.ca
1581:"The SNO Homepage"
1192:Arthur B. McDonald
1175:
1082:
1057:
1032:
937:
839:
760:
661:
583:
564:
475:
395:
365:
298:
245:
203:Cherenkov detector
89:
25:
2992:
2991:
2956:Solar observatory
2871:Solar observation
2769:Termination shock
2685:
2684:
2637:Transition region
2355:Physical Review D
2090:(7835): 577–582.
2009:(7515): 383–386.
1755:978-3-540-25312-9
1488:978-981-277-196-4
1346:"Solar Neutrinos"
1260:Neutrino detector
1207:of astrophysics.
1183:Masatoshi Koshiba
1091:beryllium isotope
1030:
1011:
981:
934:
914:
894:
875:
829:
810:
802:
757:
743:
718:
709:
651:
632:
613:
562:
550:
531:
512:
465:
446:
438:
414:electron neutrino
362:
342:
333:
325:
317:
289:Solar neutrinos (
274:Formation process
120:perchloroethylene
35:originating from
3022:
2982:
2981:
2571:Supergranulation
2559:
2493:
2486:
2479:
2470:
2465:
2447:
2429:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2370:
2346:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2331:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2276:
2252:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2196:
2185:
2184:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2099:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2049:
2043:
2042:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1975:
1969:
1967:
1933:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1854:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1789:
1780:(8): 1167–1179.
1769:
1760:
1759:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1724:
1706:
1682:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1630:
1606:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1560:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1503:
1464:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1434:
1425:. Archived from
1415:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1405:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1367:
1356:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1341:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1312:
1152:Frederick Reines
1041:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1006:
1005:
993:
992:
991:
982:
979:
977:
976:
975:
946:
944:
943:
938:
936:
935:
932:
930:
921:
920:
915:
912:
906:
905:
904:
895:
892:
890:
889:
888:
876:
873:
871:
870:
869:
848:
846:
845:
840:
838:
830:
827:
825:
824:
823:
811:
808:
803:
800:
798:
797:
796:
778:as shown below:
769:
767:
766:
761:
759:
758:
755:
753:
744:
741:
739:
738:
737:
725:
724:
719:
716:
710:
707:
705:
704:
703:
670:
668:
667:
662:
660:
652:
649:
647:
646:
645:
633:
630:
628:
627:
626:
614:
611:
609:
608:
607:
573:
571:
570:
565:
563:
560:
551:
548:
546:
545:
544:
532:
529:
527:
526:
525:
513:
510:
508:
507:
506:
484:
482:
481:
476:
474:
466:
463:
461:
460:
459:
447:
444:
439:
436:
404:
402:
401:
396:
374:
372:
371:
366:
364:
363:
360:
358:
349:
348:
343:
340:
334:
331:
326:
323:
318:
315:
199:Super-Kamiokande
193:Super-Kamiokande
187:Super-Kamiokande
154:Bruno Pontecorvo
108:Raymond Davis Jr
65:weak interaction
3030:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3020:
3019:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2970:
2944:
2930:
2896:Solar telescope
2876:Solar phenomena
2851:Solar astronomy
2788:
2750:
2746:Helioseismology
2681:
2667:Helmet streamer
2623:
2595:
2548:
2544:Convection zone
2515:
2502:
2497:
2445:10.1.1.755.6940
2402:
2399:
2397:Further reading
2394:
2348:
2347:
2338:
2329:
2327:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2254:
2253:
2242:
2233:
2231:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2208:
2206:
2198:
2197:
2188:
2150:
2149:
2145:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2062:
2060:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1903:www.sns.ias.edu
1897:
1896:
1892:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1823:
1819:
1771:
1770:
1763:
1756:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1684:
1683:
1676:
1667:
1665:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1608:
1607:
1598:
1589:
1587:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1501:
1499:
1489:
1446:
1445:
1441:
1432:
1430:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1403:
1401:
1393:
1392:
1388:
1379:
1377:
1369:
1368:
1359:
1350:
1348:
1343:
1342:
1329:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1313:
1298:
1294:
1256:
1248:magnetic moment
1244:
1213:
1204:
1142:
1048:
1017:
998:
984:
968:
962:
961:
925:
910:
897:
881:
862:
856:
855:
816:
789:
783:
782:
748:
730:
714:
696:
690:
689:
638:
619:
600:
594:
593:
537:
518:
499:
493:
492:
452:
430:
429:
387:
386:
353:
338:
309:
308:
276:
256:
250:
226:
220:
195:
189:
184:
168:
162:
149:
104:John N. Bahcall
100:
94:
81:
61:electric charge
17:
12:
11:
5:
3028:
3026:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3005:Nuclear fusion
2997:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2952:
2950:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2938:
2936:Spectral class
2932:
2931:
2929:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2866:Solar neutrino
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2846:Solar activity
2843:
2841:Sun in fiction
2838:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2807:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2760:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2695:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2679:
2677:Alfvén surface
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2633:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2605:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2567:
2565:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2534:Radiation zone
2531:
2525:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2488:
2481:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2336:
2312:
2240:
2215:
2186:
2159:(7): 809–812.
2143:
2070:
2044:
1993:
1970:
1908:
1890:
1845:(21): 211101.
1829:
1817:
1787:hep-ex/0312045
1761:
1754:
1736:
1674:
1650:
1621:(3): 568–593.
1596:
1572:
1527:(4): 303–321.
1507:
1487:
1439:
1410:
1386:
1375:NobelPrize.org
1357:
1327:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1255:
1252:
1243:
1240:
1212:
1209:
1203:
1200:
1196:Kajita Takaaki
1171:George W. Bush
1145:Wolfgang Pauli
1141:
1138:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1004:
1000:
996:
990:
986:
974:
970:
954:
953:
952:
951:
950:
949:
948:
947:
929:
924:
919:
909:
903:
899:
887:
883:
879:
868:
864:
837:
833:
822:
818:
814:
806:
795:
791:
771:
770:
752:
747:
736:
732:
728:
723:
713:
702:
698:
672:
671:
659:
655:
644:
640:
636:
625:
621:
617:
606:
602:
575:
574:
557:
554:
543:
539:
535:
524:
520:
516:
505:
501:
486:
485:
473:
469:
458:
454:
450:
442:
418:
417:
394:
376:
375:
357:
352:
347:
337:
329:
321:
280:nuclear fusion
275:
272:
252:Main article:
249:
246:
222:Main article:
219:
216:
191:Main article:
188:
185:
183:
180:
161:
158:
148:
145:
96:Main article:
93:
90:
80:
77:
59:and a neutral
37:nuclear fusion
29:solar neutrino
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3027:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2985:
2977:
2976:
2973:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2911:Space weather
2909:
2907:
2906:Space climate
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2881:Solar physics
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2811:
2810:Lunar eclipse
2808:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2764:Current sheet
2762:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2721:Solar minimum
2719:
2717:
2716:Solar maximum
2714:
2712:
2711:Active region
2709:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2592:
2591:Ellerman bomb
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2505:
2501:
2494:
2489:
2487:
2482:
2480:
2475:
2474:
2471:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2387:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2361:(9): 091103.
2360:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2326:
2325:www.aanda.org
2322:
2316:
2313:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2229:
2228:Physics World
2225:
2219:
2216:
2205:
2201:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2071:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1971:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1924:(5): 051302.
1923:
1919:
1912:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1751:
1747:
1740:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1511:
1508:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1440:
1429:on 2021-03-18
1428:
1424:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1400:
1396:
1390:
1387:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1347:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1328:
1317:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1291:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1210:
1208:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1130:
1124:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1112:thermonuclear
1109:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1052:
1046:Observed data
1045:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1002:
999:
988:
985:
972:
969:
960:
959:
958:
927:
922:
917:
907:
901:
898:
885:
882:
866:
863:
854:
853:
852:
851:
850:
849:
835:
831:
820:
817:
804:
793:
790:
781:
780:
779:
777:
750:
745:
734:
731:
721:
711:
700:
697:
688:
687:
686:
684:
680:
676:
657:
653:
642:
639:
623:
620:
615:
604:
601:
592:
591:
590:
588:
579:
555:
552:
541:
538:
522:
519:
514:
503:
500:
491:
490:
489:
471:
467:
456:
453:
440:
428:
427:
426:
424:
415:
411:
407:
385:
381:
380:
379:
378:or in words:
355:
350:
345:
335:
319:
307:
306:
305:
303:
296:
292:
287:
283:
281:
273:
271:
269:
263:
261:
255:
247:
241:
237:
233:
231:
225:
217:
215:
211:
208:
204:
200:
194:
186:
181:
179:
177:
173:
167:
159:
157:
155:
146:
144:
142:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
99:
91:
85:
78:
76:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
21:
2891:Solar System
2865:
2861:Solar energy
2856:Solar dynamo
2817:Heliophysics
2647:Coronal loop
2642:Coronal hole
2619:Moreton wave
2601:Chromosphere
2420:(1): 21–61.
2417:
2411:
2404:Haxton, W.C.
2358:
2354:
2328:. Retrieved
2324:
2315:
2264:
2260:
2232:. Retrieved
2230:. 1998-07-01
2227:
2218:
2207:. Retrieved
2203:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2087:
2083:
2073:
2061:. Retrieved
2057:CERN COURIER
2056:
2047:
2006:
2002:
1996:
1980:Science News
1979:
1973:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1902:
1893:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1827:, p. 95
1820:
1777:
1773:
1748:. Springer.
1745:
1739:
1694:
1690:
1666:. Retrieved
1662:
1653:
1618:
1614:
1588:. Retrieved
1584:
1575:
1524:
1520:
1510:
1500:, retrieved
1452:
1442:
1431:. Retrieved
1427:the original
1422:
1413:
1402:. Retrieved
1398:
1389:
1378:. Retrieved
1374:
1349:. Retrieved
1319:. Retrieved
1245:
1217:antineutrino
1214:
1205:
1190:
1187:
1176:
1150:
1143:
1129:ancient ores
1125:
1108:C production
1104:pep reaction
1083:
1070:
1058:
1055:18 MeV.
955:
772:
673:
584:
487:
419:
377:
299:
277:
264:
257:
234:
227:
212:
196:
169:
150:
116:South Dakota
101:
28:
26:
2949:Exploration
2827:Solar deity
2774:Heliosheath
2756:Heliosphere
2726:Wolf number
2699:Solar cycle
2563:Photosphere
2267:(12): 010.
1825:Grupen 2005
1224:metallicity
1179:Nobel Prize
1156:Clyde Cowan
1116:pp-reaction
776:beryllium-8
675:Beryllium-7
2999:Categories
2901:Solar time
2822:In culture
2779:Heliopause
2731:Solar wind
2662:Prominence
2554:Atmosphere
2539:Tachocline
2368:1707.09355
2330:2021-05-08
2274:1708.02248
2234:2021-05-07
2209:2021-05-07
2097:2006.15115
2063:20 October
1852:1606.02558
1704:1611.09867
1697:(2): 202.
1668:2021-05-07
1590:2021-05-07
1502:2021-05-07
1433:2021-05-07
1404:2021-05-07
1380:2021-05-07
1351:2021-05-07
1321:2021-05-07
1292:References
164:See also:
132:cosmic ray
2784:Bow shock
2691:Variation
2657:Nanoflare
2462:119255372
2440:CiteSeerX
2427:1208.5723
2307:118965350
2299:1475-7516
2138:227174644
2122:1476-4687
2039:205240340
1966:. 051302.
1964:118444784
1931:1110.3230
1731:119098686
1628:0806.2400
1549:0386-2208
1497:118617515
1462:0802.1041
1121:CNO cycle
995:→
989:∗
928:ν
902:∗
878:→
836:γ
813:→
751:ν
727:→
722:−
679:lithium-7
658:γ
635:→
534:→
472:γ
449:→
393:→
356:ν
328:→
293:) in the
57:rest mass
2984:Category
2181:10043028
2130:33239797
2031:25164748
1956:22400925
1885:22640563
1877:27911522
1812:16980300
1645:18786899
1567:20431258
1254:See also
1228:hydrogen
1100:Borexino
1098:time by
1087:chlorine
587:helium-4
410:positron
406:deuteron
254:Borexino
248:Borexino
210:or tau.
128:chlorine
33:neutrino
2800:Eclipse
2793:Related
2614:Spicule
2586:Sunspot
2581:Faculae
2576:Granule
2500:The Sun
2432:Bibcode
2373:Bibcode
2279:Bibcode
2161:Bibcode
2102:Bibcode
2011:Bibcode
1936:Bibcode
1857:Bibcode
1792:Bibcode
1709:Bibcode
1558:3417797
1529:Bibcode
1467:Bibcode
1095:gallium
683:boron-8
384:protons
268:photons
230:Sudbury
69:gravity
39:in the
2629:Corona
2460:
2442:
2305:
2297:
2179:
2136:
2128:
2120:
2084:Nature
2037:
2029:
2003:Nature
1962:
1954:
1883:
1875:
1810:
1752:
1729:
1643:
1565:
1555:
1547:
1495:
1485:
1287:(DSNB)
1232:helium
1134:helium
124:carbon
2741:Flare
2609:Plage
2458:S2CID
2422:arXiv
2363:arXiv
2303:S2CID
2269:arXiv
2134:S2CID
2092:arXiv
2035:S2CID
1960:S2CID
1926:arXiv
1881:S2CID
1847:arXiv
1808:S2CID
1782:arXiv
1727:S2CID
1699:arXiv
1641:S2CID
1623:arXiv
1493:S2CID
1457:arXiv
207:Japan
136:argon
49:Earth
31:is a
2921:Star
2832:List
2529:Core
2511:List
2295:ISSN
2265:2017
2177:PMID
2126:PMID
2118:ISSN
2065:2014
2027:PMID
1952:PMID
1873:PMID
1750:ISBN
1563:PMID
1545:ISSN
1483:ISBN
1236:iron
1230:and
1220:flux
382:two
197:The
126:and
106:and
67:and
45:core
3010:Sun
2450:doi
2381:doi
2287:doi
2169:doi
2110:doi
2088:587
2019:doi
2007:512
1984:doi
1944:doi
1922:108
1865:doi
1843:117
1800:doi
1717:doi
1695:835
1633:doi
1619:600
1553:PMC
1537:doi
1475:doi
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